https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/History_of_aviation
History of Aviation
The history of aviation extends for more than two thousand years, from the earliest forms
of aviation such as kites and attempts at tower jumping to supersonic and hypersonic flight by
powered, heavier-than-air jets.
Kite flying in China dates back to several hundred years BC and slowly spread around the
world. It is thought to be the earliest example of man-made flight. Leonardo da Vinci's 15th-
century dream of flight found expression in several rational designs, but which relied on poor
science.
The discovery of hydrogen gas in the 18th century led to the invention of the hydrogen
balloon, at almost exactly the same time that the Montgolfier brothers rediscovered the hot-
air balloon and began manned flights. [1] Various theories in mechanics by physicists during
the same period of time, notably fluid dynamics and Newton's laws of motion, led to the
foundation of modern aerodynamics, most notably by Sir George Cayley. Balloons, both
free-flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th
century, with the French government establishing Balloon Companies during the Revolution.
[2]

Experiments with gliders provided the groundwork for heavier-than-air craft, and by the early
20th century, advances in engine technology and aerodynamics made controlled, powered
flight possible for the first time. The modern aeroplane with its characteristic tail was
established by 1909 and from then on the history of the aeroplane became tied to the
development of more and more powerful engines.
The first great ships of the air were the rigid dirigible balloons pioneered by Ferdinand von
Zeppelin, which soon became synonymous with airships and dominated long-distance flight
until the 1930s, when large flying boats became popular. After World War II, the flying boats
were in their turn replaced by land planes, and the new and immensely powerful jet
engine revolutionised both air travel and military aviation.
In the latter part of the 20th century, the advent of digital electronics produced great advances
in flight instrumentation and "fly-by-wire" systems. The 21st century saw the large-scale use
of pilotless drones for military, civilian and leisure use. With digital controls, inherently
unstable aircraft such as flying wings became possible.

Etymology
The term aviation, noun of action from stem of Latin avis "bird" with suffix -ation meaning
action or progress, was coined in 1863 by French pioneer Guillaume Joseph Gabriel de La
Landelle (1812–1886) in "Aviation ou Navigation aérienne sans ballons"

Primitive beginnings
Since antiquity, there have been stories of men strapping birdlike wings, stiffened cloaks or
other devices to themselves and attempting to fly, typically by jumping off a tower. The
Greek legend of Daedalus and Icarus is one of the earliest known;[5] others originated from
ancient Asia[6] and the European Middle Age. During this early period, the issues of lift,
stability and control were not understood, and most attempts ended in serious injury or death.
The Andalusian scientist Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887 AD) is claimed to have made a jump
in Córdoba, Spain, covering his body with vulture feathers and attaching two wings to his
arms.[7][8] The 17th-century Algerian historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari, quoting a
poem by Muhammad I of Córdoba's 9th-century court poet Mu'min ibn Said, recounts that
Firnas flew some distance before landing with some injuries, attributed to his lacking a tail
(as birds use to land).[7][9] Writing in the 12th century, William of Malmesbury stated that the
11th-century Benedictine monk Eilmer of Malmesbury attached wings to his hands and feet
and flew a short distance,[7] but broke both legs while landing, also having neglected to make
himself a tail.[9]
Many others made well-documented jumps in the following centuries. As late as
1811, Albrecht Berblinger constructed an ornithopter and jumped into the Danube at Ulm.
The kite may have been the first form of man-made aircraft. [1] It was invented in China
possibly as far back as the 5th century BC by Mozi (Mo Di) and Lu Ban (Gongshu Ban).
[11]
 Later designs often emulated flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical.
Some were fitted with strings and whistles to make musical sounds while flying. [12][13]
[14]
 Ancient and medieval Chinese sources describe kites being used to measure distances, test
the wind, lift men, signal, and communicate and send messages.[15]
Kites spread from China around the world. After its introduction into India, the kite further
evolved into the fighter kite, where an abrasive line is used to cut down other kites.
Man-carrying kites[edit]
Man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient China, for both civil
and military purposes and sometimes enforced as a punishment. An early recorded flight was
that of the prisoner Yuan Huangtou, a Chinese prince, in the 6th century AD. [16] Stories of
man-carrying kites also occur in Japan, following the introduction of the kite from China
around the seventh century AD. It is said that at one time there was a Japanese law against
man-carrying kites.[17]
Rotor wings[edit]
Main article: Bamboo-copter
The use of a rotor for vertical flight has existed since 400 BC in the form of the bamboo-
copter, an ancient Chinese toy.[18][19] The similar "moulinet à noix" (rotor on a nut) appeared
in Europe in the 14th century AD.[20]
Hot air balloons[edit]

A sky lantern.
From ancient times the Chinese have understood that hot air rises and have applied the
principle to a type of small hot air balloon called a sky lantern. A sky lantern consists of a
paper balloon under or just inside which a small lamp is placed. Sky lanterns are traditionally
launched for pleasure and during festivals. According to Joseph Needham, such lanterns were
known in China from the 3rd century BC. Their military use is attributed to the
general Zhuge Liang (180–234 AD, honorific title Kongming), who is said to have used them
to scare the enemy troops.[21]
Renaissance[edit]
See also: Early flying machines §  The Renaissance

One of Leonardo's sketches

Eventually, after Ibn Firnas's construction, some investigators began to discover and define
some of the basics of rational aircraft design. Most notable of these was Leonardo da Vinci,
although his work remained unknown until 1797, and so had no influence on developments
over the next three hundred years. While his designs are rational, they are not scientific. [22] He
particularly underestimated the amount of power that would be needed to propel a flying
object,[23] basing his designs on the flapping wings of a bird rather than an engine-powered
propeller.[24]
Leonardo studied bird and bat flight,[23] claiming the superiority of the latter owing to its
unperforated wing.[25] He analyzed these and anticipating many principles of aerodynamics.
He understood that "An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the
object."[26] Isaac Newton would not publish his third law of motion until 1687.
From the last years of the 15th century until 1505, [23] Leonardo wrote about and sketched
many designs for flying machines and mechanisms, including ornithopters, fixed-wing
gliders, rotorcraft (perhaps inspired by whirligig toys), parachutes (in the form of a wooden-
framed pyramidal tent) and a wind speed gauge.[23] His early designs were man-powered and
included ornithopters and rotorcraft; however he came to realise the impracticality of this and
later turned to controlled gliding flight, also sketching some designs powered by a spring.[27]
In an essay titled Sul volo (On flight), Leonardo describes a flying machine called "the bird"
which he built from starched linen, leather joints, and raw silk thongs. In the Codex
Atlanticus, he wrote, "Tomorrow morning, on the second day of January, 1496, I will make
the thong and the attempt."[24] According to one commonly repeated, albeit presumably
fictional story, in 1505 Leonardo or one of his pupils attempted to fly from the summit
of Monte Ceceri.[23]

Lighter than air[edit]

Beginnings of modern theories[edit]
In 1670, Francesco Lana de Terzi published a work that suggested lighter than air flight
would be possible by using copper foil spheres that, containing a vacuum, would be lighter
than the displaced air to lift an airship. While theoretically sound, his design was not feasible:
the pressure of the surrounding air would crush the spheres. The idea of using a vacuum to
produce lift is now known as vacuum airship but remains unfeasible with any
current materials.
In 1709, Bartolomeu de Gusmão presented a petition to King John V of Portugal, begging for
support for his invention of an airship, in which he expressed the greatest confidence. The
public test of the machine, which was set for 24 June 1709, did not take place. According to
contemporary reports, however, Gusmão appears to have made several less ambitious
experiments with this machine, descending from eminences. It is certain that Gusmão was
working on this principle at the public exhibition he gave before the Court on 8 August 1709,
in the hall of the Casa da Índia in Lisbon, when he propelled a ball to the roof by combustion.
[clarification needed]

Balloons[edit]
Main article: History of ballooning

Lithographic depiction of pioneering events (1783 to 1846).

1783 was a watershed year for ballooning and aviation. Between 4 June and 1 December, five
aviation firsts were achieved in France:

 On 4 June, the Montgolfier brothers demonstrated their unmanned hot air

balloon at Annonay, France.
 On 27 August, Jacques Charles and the Robert brothers (Les Freres Robert)
launched the world's first unmanned hydrogen-filled balloon, from the Champ de
Mars, Paris.
 On 19 October, the Montgolfiers launched the first manned flight, a tethered
balloon with humans on board, at the Folie Titon in Paris. The aviators were the
 scientist Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, the manufacture manager Jean-Baptiste
Réveillon, and Giroud de Villette.
 On 21 November, the Montgolfiers launched the first free flight with human
passengers. King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals
would be the first pilots, but Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, along with
the Marquis François d'Arlandes, successfully petitioned for the honor. They
drifted 8 km (5.0 mi) in a balloon-powered by a wood fire.
 On 1 December, Jacques Charles and the Nicolas-Louis Robert launched their
manned hydrogen balloon from the Jardin des Tuileries in Paris, as a crowd of
400,000 witnessed. They ascended to a height of about 1,800 feet (550 m)[15] and
landed at sunset in Nesles-la-Vallée after a flight of 2 hours and 5 minutes,
covering 36 km. After Robert alighted Charles decided to ascend alone. This time
he ascended rapidly to an altitude of about 9,800 feet (3,000 m), where he saw the
sun again, suffered extreme pain in his ears, and never flew again.
Ballooning became a major "rage" in Europe in the late 18th century, providing the first
detailed understanding of the relationship between altitude and the atmosphere.
Non-steerable balloons were employed during the American Civil War by the Union Army
Balloon Corps. The young Ferdinand von Zeppelin first flew as a balloon passenger with the
Union Army of the Potomac in 1863.
In the early 1900s, ballooning was a popular sport in Britain. These privately owned balloons
usually used coal gas as the lifting gas. This has half the lifting power of hydrogen so the
balloons had to be larger, however, coal gas was far more readily available and the local gas
works sometimes provided a special lightweight formula for ballooning events.[28]
Airships[edit]
Main articles: Airship and Zeppelin

The 1884 Krebs & Renard first fully controllable free-flights with the LA FRANCE electric
dirigible near Paris (Krebs arch.)

Santos-Dumont's "Number 6" rounding the Eiffel Tower in the process of winning the
Deutsch de la Meurthe Prize, October 1901.
Airships were originally called "dirigible balloons" and are still sometimes called dirigibles
today.
Work on developing a steerable (or dirigible) balloon continued sporadically throughout the
19th century. The first powered, controlled, sustained lighter-than-air flight is believed to
have taken place in 1852 when Henri Giffard flew 15 miles (24 km) in France, with a steam
engine driven craft.
Another advance was made in 1884, when the first fully controllable free-flight was made in
a French Army electric-powered airship, La France, by Charles Renard and Arthur Krebs.
The 170-foot (52 m) long, 66,000-cubic-foot (1,900 m3) airship covered 8 km (5.0 mi) in 23
minutes with the aid of an 8½ horsepower electric motor.
However, these aircraft were generally short-lived and extremely frail. Routine, controlled
flights would not occur until the advent of the internal combustion engine (see below.)
The first aircraft to make routine controlled flights were non-rigid airships (sometimes called
"blimps".) The most successful early pioneering pilot of this type of aircraft was the
Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont who effectively combined a balloon with an internal
combustion engine. On 19 October 1901, he flew his airship Number 6 over Paris from
the Parc de Saint Cloud around the Eiffel Tower and back in under 30 minutes to win
the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize. Santos-Dumont went on to design and build several aircraft.
The subsequent controversy surrounding his and others' competing claims with regard to
aircraft overshadowed his great contribution to the development of airships.
At the same time that non-rigid airships were starting to have some success, the first
successful rigid airships were also being developed. These would be far more capable than
fixed-wing aircraft in terms of pure cargo carrying capacity for decades. Rigid airship design
and advancement was pioneered by the German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin.
Construction of the first Zeppelin airship began in 1899 in a floating assembly hall on Lake
Constance in the Bay of Manzell, Friedrichshafen. This was intended to ease the starting
procedure, as the hall could easily be aligned with the wind. The prototype airship LZ 1 (LZ
for "Luftschiff Zeppelin") had a length of 128 m (420 ft) was driven by two 10.6 kW
(14.2 hp) Daimler engines and balanced by moving a weight between its two nacelles.
Its first flight, on 2 July 1900, lasted for only 18 minutes, as LZ 1 was forced to land on the
lake after the winding mechanism for the balancing weight had broken. Upon repair, the
technology proved its potential in subsequent flights, bettering the 6 m/s speed attained by the
French airship La France by 3 m/s, but could not yet convince possible investors. It would be
several years before the Count was able to raise enough funds for another try.
German airship passenger service known as DELAG (Deutsche-Luftschiffahrts AG) was
established in 1910.
Although airships were used in both World War I and II, and continue on a limited basis to
this day, their development has been largely overshadowed by heavier-than-air craft.

Heavier than air

17th and 18th centuries[edit]
Italian inventor Tito Livio Burattini, invited by the Polish King Władysław IV to his court
in Warsaw, built a model aircraft with four fixed glider wings in 1647.[29] Described as "four
pairs of wings attached to an elaborate 'dragon'", it was said to have successfully lifted a cat
in 1648 but not Burattini himself. [30] He promised that "only the most minor injuries" would
result from landing the craft.[31] His "Dragon Volant" is considered "the most elaborate and
sophisticated aeroplane to be built before the 19th Century".[32]
The first published paper on aviation was "Sketch of a Machine for Flying in the
Air" by Emanuel Swedenborg published in 1716. This flying machine consisted of a light
frame covered with strong canvas and provided with two large oars or wings moving on a
horizontal axis, arranged so that the upstroke met with no resistance while the downstroke
provided lifting power. Swedenborg knew that the machine would not fly, but suggested it as
a start and was confident that the problem would be solved. He wrote: "It seems easier to talk
of such a machine than to put it into actuality, for it requires greater force and less weight
than exists in a human body. The science of mechanics might perhaps suggest a means,
namely, a strong spiral spring. If these advantages and requisites are observed, perhaps in
time to come someone might know how better to utilize our sketch and cause some addition
to be made so as to accomplish that which we can only suggest. Yet there are sufficient
proofs and examples from nature that such flights can take place without danger, although
when the first trials are made you may have to pay for the experience, and not mind an arm or
leg". Swedenborg would prove prescient in his observation that a method of powering of an
aircraft was one of the critical problems to be overcome.
On 16 May 1793, the Spanish inventor Diego Marín Aguilera managed to cross the river
Arandilla in Coruña del Conde, Castile, flying 300 – 400 m, with a flying machine.[33]
19th century[edit]
Balloon jumping replaced tower jumping, also demonstrating with typically fatal results that
man-power and flapping wings were useless in achieving flight. At the same time scientific
study of heavier-than-air flight began in earnest. In 1801, the French officer André Guillaume
Resnier de Goué managed a 300-metre glide by starting from the top of the city walls
of Angoulême and broke only one leg on arrival.[34] In 1837 French mathematician and
brigadier general Isidore Didion stated, "Aviation will be successful only if one finds an
engine whose ratio with the weight of the device to be supported will be larger than current
steam machines or the strength developed by humans or most of the animals".[35]
Sir George Cayley and the first modern aircraft[edit]
Sir George Cayley was first called the "father of the aeroplane" in 1846. [36] During the last
years of the previous century he had begun the first rigorous study of the physics of flight and
would later design the first modern heavier-than-air craft. Among his many achievements, his
most important contributions to aeronautics include:

 Clarifying our ideas and laying down the principles of heavier-than-air flight.
 Reaching a scientific understanding of the principles of bird flight.
 Conducting scientific aerodynamic experiments demonstrating drag and
streamlining, movement of the centre of pressure, and the increase in lift from
curving the wing surface.
 Defining the modern aeroplane configuration comprising a fixed-wing, fuselage
and tail assembly.
 Demonstrations of manned, gliding flight.
 Setting out the principles of power-to-weight ratio in sustaining flight.
Cayley's first innovation was to study the basic science of lift by adopting the whirling arm
test rig for use in aircraft research and using simple aerodynamic models on the arm, rather
than attempting to fly a model of a complete design.
In 1799, he set down the concept of the modern aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine
with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control.[37][38]
In 1804, Cayley constructed a model glider which was the first modern heavier-than-air
flying machine, having the layout of a conventional modern aircraft with an inclined wing
towards the front and adjustable tail at the back with both tailplane and fin. A movable
weight allowed adjustment of the model's centre of gravity.[39]

"Governable parachute" design of 1852

In 1809, goaded by the farcical antics of his contemporaries (see above), he began the
publication of a landmark three-part treatise titled "On Aerial Navigation" (1809–1810). [40] In
it he wrote the first scientific statement of the problem, "The whole problem is confined
within these limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power
to the resistance of air". He identified the four vector forces that influence an
aircraft: thrust, lift, drag and weight and distinguished stability and control in his designs. He
also identified and described the importance of the cambered aerofoil, dihedral, diagonal
bracing and drag reduction, and contributed to the understanding and design
of ornithopters and parachutes.
In 1848, he had progressed far enough to construct a glider in the form of a triplane large and
safe enough to carry a child. A local boy was chosen but his name is not known.[41][42]
He went on to publish in 1852 the design for a full-size manned glider or "governable
parachute" to be launched from a balloon and then to construct a version capable of launching
from the top of a hill, which carried the first adult aviator across Brompton Dale in 1853.
Minor inventions included the rubber-powered motor,[citation needed] which provided a reliable
power source for research models. By 1808, he had even re-invented the wheel, devising
the tension-spoked wheel in which all compression loads are carried by the rim, allowing a
lightweight undercarriage.[43]
Age of steam[edit]
See also: Steam aircraft
Drawing directly from Cayley's work, Henson's 1842 design for an aerial steam
carriage broke new ground. Although only a design, it was the first in history for a propeller-
driven fixed-wing aircraft.
1843 artist's impression of John Stringfellow's plane "Ariel" flying over the Nile
1866 saw the founding of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain and two years later the
world's first aeronautical exhibition was held at the Crystal Palace, London,[44] where John
Stringfellow was awarded a £100 prize for the steam engine with the best power-to-weight
ratio.[45][46][47] In 1848, Stringfellow achieved the first powered flight using an unmanned 10
feet (3.0 m) wingspan steam-powered monoplane built in a disused lace factory in Chard,
Somerset. Employing two contra-rotating propellers on the first attempt, made indoors, the
machine flew ten feet before becoming destabilised, damaging the craft. The second attempt
was more successful, the machine leaving a guidewire to fly freely, achieving thirty yards of
straight and level powered flight.[48][49][50] Francis Herbert Wenham presented the first paper to
the newly formed Aeronautical Society (later the Royal Aeronautical Society), On Aerial
Locomotion. He advanced Cayley's work on cambered wings, making important findings. To
test his ideas, from 1858 he had constructed several gliders, both manned and unmanned, and
with up to five stacked wings. He realised that long, thin wings are better than bat-like ones
because they have more leading edge for their area. Today this relationship is known as
the aspect ratio of a wing.
The latter part of the 19th century became a period of intense study, characterized by the
"gentleman scientists" who represented most research efforts until the 20th century. Among
them was the British scientist-philosopher and inventor Matthew Piers Watt Boulton, who
studied lateral flight control and was the first to patent an aileron control system in 1868.[51][52]
[53][54]

In 1871, Wenham and Browning made the first wind tunnel.{{refn|Frank H. Wenham,

inventor of the wind tunnel, 1871, was a fan, driven by a steam engine, propelled air down a
12 ft (3.7 m) tube to the model.[55]

Félix du Temple's 1874 Monoplane.

Meanwhile, the British advances had galvanised French researchers. In 1857, Félix du
Temple proposed a monoplane with a tailplane and retractable undercarriage. Developing his
ideas with a model powered first by clockwork and later by steam, he eventually achieved a
short hop with a full-size manned craft in 1874. It achieved lift-off under its own power after
launching from a ramp, glided for a short time and returned safely to the ground, making it
the first successful powered glide in history.
In 1865, Louis Pierre Mouillard published an influential book The Empire Of The Air
(l'Empire de l'Air).

Jean-Marie Le Bris and his flying machine, Albatros II, 1868.

In 1856, Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Bris made the first flight higher than his point of
departure, by having his glider "L'Albatros artificiel" pulled by a horse on a beach. He
reportedly achieved a height of 100 meters, over a distance of 200 meters.

Planophore model aeroplane by Alphonse Pénaud, 1871

Alphonse Pénaud, a Frenchman, advanced the theory of wing contours and aerodynamics and
constructed successful models of aeroplanes, helicopters and ornithopters. In 1871 he flew
the first aerodynamically stable fixed-wing aeroplane, a model monoplane he called the
"Planophore", a distance of 40 m (130 ft). Pénaud's model incorporated several of Cayley's
discoveries, including the use of a tail, wing dihedral for inherent stability, and rubber power.
The planophore also had longitudinal stability, being trimmed such that the tailplane was set
at a smaller angle of incidence than the wings, an original and important contribution to the
theory of aeronautics.[56] Pénaud's later project for an amphibian aeroplane, although never
built, incorporated other modern features. A tailless monoplane with a single vertical fin and
twin tractor propellers, it also featured hinged rear elevator and rudder surfaces, retractable
undercarriage and a fully enclosed, instrumented cockpit.

The Aeroplane of Victor Tatin, 1879.

Equally authoritative as a theorist was Pénaud's fellow countryman Victor Tatin. In 1879, he
flew a model which, like Pénaud's project, was a monoplane with twin tractor propellers but
also had a separate horizontal tail. It was powered by compressed air. Flown tethered to a
pole, this was the first model to take off under its own power.
In 1884, Alexandre Goupil published his work La Locomotion Aérienne (Aerial Locomotion),
although the flying machine he later constructed failed to fly.

Clément Ader Avion III (1897 photograph).

In 1890, the French engineer Clément Ader completed the first of three steam-driven flying
machines, the Éole. On 9 October 1890, Ader made an uncontrolled hop of around 50 metres
(160 ft); this was the first manned airplane to take off under its own power. [57] His Avion
III of 1897, notable only for having twin steam engines, failed to fly: [58] Ader would later
claim success and was not debunked until 1910 when the French Army published its report
on his attempt.

Maxim's flying machine

Sir Hiram Maxim was an American engineer who had moved to England. He built his own
whirling arm rig and wind tunnel and constructed a large machine with a wingspan of 105
feet (32 m), a length of 145 feet (44 m), fore and aft horizontal surfaces and a crew of three.
Twin propellers were powered by two lightweight compound steam engines each delivering
180 hp (130 kW). The overall weight was 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg). It was intended as a test
rig to investigate aerodynamic lift: lacking flight controls it ran on rails, with a second set of
rails above the wheels to restrain it. Completed in 1894, on its third run it broke from the rail,
became airborne for about 200 yards at two to three feet of altitude [59] and was badly damaged
upon falling back to the ground. It was subsequently repaired, but Maxim abandoned his
experiments shortly afterwards.[60]
Learning to glide[edit]

The Biot-Massia glider, restored and on display in the Musee de l'Air.

In the last decade or so of the 19th century, a number of key figures were refining and
defining the modern aeroplane. Lacking a suitable engine, aircraft work focused on stability
and control in gliding flight. In 1879, Biot constructed a bird-like glider with the help of
Massia and flew in it briefly. It is preserved in the Musee de l'Air, France, and is claimed to
be the earliest man-carrying flying machine still in existence.
The Englishman Horatio Phillips made key contributions to aerodynamics. He conducted
extensive wind tunnel research on aerofoil sections, proving the principles of aerodynamic
lift foreseen by Cayley and Wenham. His findings underpin all modern aerofoil design.
Between 1883 and 1886, the American John Joseph Montgomery developed a series of three
manned gliders, before conducting his own independent investigations into aerodynamics and
circulation of lift.

Otto Lilienthal, 29 May 1895.

Otto Lilienthal became known as the "Glider King" or "Flying Man" of Germany. He
duplicated Wenham's work and greatly expanded on it in 1884, publishing his research in
1889 as Birdflight as the Basis of Aviation (Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst).
He also produced a series of hang gliders, including bat-wing, monoplane and biplane forms,
such as the Derwitzer Glider and Normal soaring apparatus. Starting in 1891, he became the
first person to make controlled untethered glides routinely, and the first to be photographed
flying a heavier-than-air machine, stimulating interest around the world. He rigorously
documented his work, including photographs, and for this reason is one of the best known of
the early pioneers. Lilienthal made over 2,000 glides until his death in 1896 from injuries
sustained in a glider crash.
Picking up where Lilienthal left off, Octave Chanute took up aircraft design after an early
retirement, and funded the development of several gliders. In the summer of 1896, his team
flew several of their designs eventually deciding that the best was a biplane design. Like
Lilienthal, he documented and photographed his work.
In Britain Percy Pilcher, who had worked for Maxim, built and successfully flew
several gliders during the mid to late 1890s.
The invention of the box kite during this period by the Australian Lawrence Hargrave would
lead to the development of the practical biplane. In 1894, Hargrave linked four of his kites
together, added a sling seat, and was the first to obtain lift with a heavier than air aircraft,
when he flew up 16 feet (4.9 m). Later pioneers of manned kite flying included Samuel
Franklin Cody in England and Captain Génie Saconney in France.
Frost[edit]
Main article: William Frost
Frost Airship Glider, Patented 1894
William Frost from Pembrokeshire, Wales started his project in 1880 and after 16 years, he
designed a flying machine and in 1894 won a patent for a "Frost Aircraft Glider". Spectators
witnessed the craft fly at Saundersfoot in 1896, traveling 500 yards before colliding with a
tree and falling in a field.[61]
Langley[edit]
Main article: Samuel Pierpont Langley

First failure of Langley's manned Aerodrome on the Potomac River, 7 October 1903

After a distinguished career in astronomy and shortly before becoming Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution, Samuel Pierpont Langley started a serious investigation into
aerodynamics at what is today the University of Pittsburgh. In 1891, he
published Experiments in Aerodynamics detailing his research, and then turned to building
his designs. He hoped to achieve automatic aerodynamic stability, so he gave little
consideration to in-flight control.[62] On 6 May 1896, Langley's Aerodrome No. 5 made the
first successful sustained flight of an unpiloted, engine-driven heavier-than-air craft of
substantial size. It was launched from a spring-actuated catapult mounted on top of a
houseboat on the Potomac River near Quantico, Virginia. Two flights were made that
afternoon, one of 1,005 metres (3,297 ft) and a second of 700 metres (2,300 ft), at a speed of
approximately 25 miles per hour (40 km/h). On both occasions, the Aerodrome No. 5 landed
in the water as planned, because, in order to save weight, it was not equipped with landing
gear. On 28 November 1896, another successful flight was made with the Aerodrome No. 6.
This flight, of 1,460 metres (4,790 ft), was witnessed and photographed by Alexander
Graham Bell. The Aerodrome No. 6 was actually Aerodrome No. 4 greatly modified. So little
remained of the original aircraft that it was given a new designation.
With the successes of the Aerodrome No. 5 and No. 6, Langley started looking for funding to
build a full-scale man-carrying version of his designs. Spurred by the Spanish–American
War, the U.S. government granted him $50,000 to develop a man-carrying flying machine for
aerial reconnaissance. Langley planned on building a scaled-up version known as
the Aerodrome A, and started with the smaller Quarter-scale Aerodrome, which flew twice
on 18 June 1901, and then again with a newer and more powerful engine in 1903.
With the basic design apparently successfully tested, he then turned to the problem of a
suitable engine. He contracted Stephen Balzer to build one, but was disappointed when it
delivered only 8 hp (6.0 kW) instead of 12 hp (8.9 kW) he expected. Langley's
assistant, Charles M. Manly, then reworked the design into a five-cylinder water-cooled
radial that delivered 52 hp (39 kW) at 950 rpm, a feat that took years to duplicate. Now with
both power and a design, Langley put the two together with great hopes.
To his dismay, the resulting aircraft proved to be too fragile. Simply scaling up the original
small models resulted in a design that was too weak to hold itself together. Two launches in
late 1903 both ended with the Aerodrome immediately crashing into the water. The pilot,
Manly, was rescued each time. Also, the aircraft's control system was inadequate to allow
quick pilot responses, and it had no method of lateral control, and the Aerodrome's aerial
stability was marginal.[62]
Langley's attempts to gain further funding failed, and his efforts ended. Nine days after his
second abortive launch on 8 December, the Wright brothers successfully flew
their Flyer. Glenn Curtiss made 93 modifications to the Aerodrome and flew this very
different aircraft in 1914.[62] Without acknowledging the modifications, the Smithsonian
Institution asserted that Langley's Aerodrome was the first machine "capable of flight".[63]
Whitehead[edit]
Main article: Gustave Whitehead

The No. 21 monoplane seen from the rear. Whitehead sits beside it with daughter Rose in his
lap; others in the photo are not identified.
Gustave Weißkopf was a German who emigrated to the U.S., where he soon changed his
name to Whitehead. From 1897 to 1915, he designed and built early flying machines and
engines. On 14 August 1901, two and a half years before the Wright Brothers' flight, he
claimed to have carried out a controlled, powered flight in his Number 21
monoplane at Fairfield, Connecticut. The flight was reported in the Bridgeport Sunday
Herald local newspaper. About 30 years later, several people questioned by a researcher
claimed to have seen that or other Whitehead flights.[citation needed]
In March 2013, Jane's All the World's Aircraft, an authoritative source for contemporary
aviation, published an editorial which accepted Whitehead's flight as the first manned,
powered, controlled flight of a heavier-than-air craft. [64] The Smithsonian
Institution (custodians of the original Wright Flyer) and many aviation historians continue to
maintain that Whitehead did not fly as suggested.[65][66]
Wright brothers[edit]
Main article: Wright brothers

The Wright Flyer: the first sustained flight with a powered, controlled aircraft.
Using a methodical approach and concentrating on the controllability of the aircraft, the
brothers built and tested a series of kite and glider designs from 1898 to 1902 before
attempting to build a powered design. The gliders worked, but not as well as the Wrights had
expected based on the experiments and writings of their predecessors. Their first full-size
glider, launched in 1900, had only about half the lift they anticipated. Their second glider,
built the following year, performed even more poorly. Rather than giving up, the Wrights
constructed their own wind tunnel and created a number of sophisticated devices to measure
lift and drag on the 200 wing designs they tested. [67] As a result, the Wrights corrected earlier
mistakes in calculations regarding drag and lift. Their testing and calculating produced a third
glider with a higher aspect ratio and true three-axis control. They flew it successfully
hundreds of times in 1902, and it performed far better than the previous models. By using a
rigorous system of experimentation, involving wind-tunnel testing of airfoils and flight
testing of full-size prototypes, the Wrights not only built a working aircraft the following
year, the Wright Flyer, but also helped advance the science of aeronautical engineering.
The Wrights appear to be the first to make serious studied attempts to simultaneously solve
the power and control problems. Both problems proved difficult, but they never lost interest.
They solved the control problem by inventing wing warping for roll control, combined with
simultaneous yaw control with a steerable rear rudder. Almost as an afterthought, they
designed and built a low-powered internal combustion engine. They also designed and carved
wooden propellers that were more efficient than any before, enabling them to gain adequate
performance from their low engine power. Although wing-warping as a means of lateral
control was used only briefly during the early history of aviation, the principle of combining
lateral control in combination with a rudder was a key advance in aircraft control. While
many aviation pioneers appeared to leave safety largely to chance, the Wrights' design was
greatly influenced by the need to teach themselves to fly without unreasonable risk to life and
limb, by surviving crashes. This emphasis, as well as low engine power, was the reason for
low flying speed and for taking off in a headwind. Performance, rather than safety, was the
reason for the rear-heavy design because the canard could not be highly
loaded; anhedral wings were less affected by crosswinds and were consistent with the low
yaw stability.

Within weeks of the first powered flight, this Ohio newspaper described "what the Wright
Brothers' invention has accomplished" — after years of glider tests, four successful flights in
a powered flier that has "no balloon attachments of any kind, but is supported in the air by a
pair of aerocurves, or wings", placing "Santos-Dumont and Lebaudys, with their dirigible
balloons... in eclipse".[68]

This 1906 article describes how the Wrights' experiments were conducted in "strict secrecy
for several years", with "not more than a dozen persons" being in on the secret. [69] One insider
stated that the brothers had "not sought for spectacular success", and instead described their
"progressive accumulation of experiences", including gradual progression from gliders to
powered flight, and from straight flights to circuits requiring turning the aeroplane. [69] The
account reported "some slight success in flying through the air at the end of the Summer of
1903".[69] The Wrights were said to have solved flight control issues to achieve controlled
turns on a one-mile circuit on 20 September 1904, followed by five-minute flights in the
ensuing weeks, and a 24-mile, 38-minute flight in summer 1905.[69]
According to the Smithsonian Institution and Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI),
[70][71]
 the Wrights made the first sustained, controlled, powered heavier-than-air manned flight
at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, four miles (8 km) south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on
17 December 1903.[72]
The first flight by Orville Wright, of 120 feet (37 m) in 12 seconds, was recorded in a famous
photograph. In the fourth flight of the same day, Wilbur Wright flew 852 feet (260 m) in 59
seconds. The flights were witnessed by three coastal lifesaving crewmen, a local
businessman, and a boy from the village, making these the first public flights and the first
well-documented ones.[72]
Orville described the final flight of the day: "The first few hundred feet were up and down, as
before, but by the time three hundred feet had been covered, the machine was under much
better control. The course for the next four or five hundred feet had but little undulation.
However, when out about eight hundred feet the machine began pitching again, and, in one of
its darts downward, struck the ground. The distance over the ground was measured to be 852
feet (260 m); the time of the flight was 59 seconds. The frame supporting the front rudder
was badly broken, but the main part of the machine was not injured at all. We estimated that
the machine could be put in condition for flight again in about a day or two". [73] They flew
only about ten feet above the ground as a safety precaution, so they had little room to
manoeuvre, and all four flights in the gusty winds ended in a bumpy and unintended
"landing". Modern analysis by Professor Fred E. C. Culick and Henry R. Rex (1985) has
demonstrated that the 1903 Wright Flyer was so unstable as to be almost unmanageable by
anyone but the Wrights, who had trained themselves in the 1902 glider.[74]
The Wrights continued flying at Huffman Prairie near Dayton, Ohio in 1904–05. In May
1904 they introduced the Flyer II, a heavier and improved version of the original Flyer. On 23
June 1905, they first flew a third machine, the Flyer III. After a severe crash on 14 July 1905,
they rebuilt the Flyer III and made important design changes. They almost doubled the size of
the elevator and rudder and moved them about twice the distance from the wings. They added
two fixed vertical vanes (called "blinkers") between the elevators and gave the wings a very
slight dihedral. They disconnected the rudder from the wing-warping control, and as in all
future aircraft, placed it on a separate control handle. When flights resumed the results were
immediate. The serious pitch instability that hampered Flyers I and II was significantly
reduced, so repeated minor crashes were eliminated. Flights with the redesigned Flyer III
started lasting over 10 minutes, then 20, then 30. Flyer III became the first practical aircraft
(though without wheels and needing a launching device), flying consistently under full
control and bringing its pilot back to the starting point safely and landing without damage. On
5 October 1905, Wilbur flew 24 miles (39 km) in 39 minutes 23 seconds."[75]
According to the April 1907 issue of the Scientific American magazine,[76] the Wright
brothers seemed to have the most advanced knowledge of heavier-than-air navigation at the
time. However, the same magazine issue also claimed that no public flight had been made in
the United States before its April 1907 issue. Hence, they devised the Scientific American
Aeronautic Trophy in order to encourage the development of a heavier-than-air flying
machine.

Pioneer Era (1903–1914)[edit]

Main article: Aviation in the pioneer era
This period saw the development of practical aeroplanes and airships and their early
application, alongside balloons and kites, for private, sport and military use.
Pioneers in Europe[edit]

The 14-bis, or Oiseau de proie.

Early Voisin biplane

Although full details of the Wright Brothers' system of flight control had been published
in l'Aerophile in January 1906, the importance of this advance was not recognised, and
European experimenters generally concentrated on attempting to produce inherently stable
machines.
Short powered flights were performed in France by Romanian engineer Traian Vuia on 18
March and 19 August 1906 when he flew 12 and 24 meters, respectively, in a self-designed,
fully self-propelled, fixed-wing aircraft, that possessed a fully wheeled undercarriage. [77]
[78]
 He was followed by Jacob Ellehammer who built a monoplane which he tested with a
tether in Denmark on 12 September 1906, flying 42 meters.[79]
On 13 September 1906, a day after Ellehammer's tethered flight and three years after the
Wright Brothers' flight, the Brazilian Alberto Santos-Dumont made a public flight in Paris
with the 14-bis, also known as Oiseau de proie (French for "bird of prey"). This was
of canard configuration with pronounced wing dihedral, and covered a distance of 60 m
(200 ft) on the grounds of the Chateau de Bagatelle in Paris' Bois de Boulogne before a large
crowd of witnesses. This well-documented event was the first flight verified by the Aéro-
Club de France of a powered heavier-than-air machine in Europe and won the Deutsch-
Archdeacon Prize for the first officially observed flight greater than 25 m (82 ft). On 12
November 1906, Santos-Dumont set the first world record recognized by the Federation
Aeronautique Internationale by flying 220 m (720 ft) in 21.5 seconds.[80][81] Only one more
brief flight was made by the 14-bis in March 1907, after which it was abandoned.[82]
In March 1907, Gabriel Voisin flew the first example of his Voisin biplane. On 13 January
1908, a second example of the type was flown by Henri Farman to win the Deutsch-
Archdeacon Grand Prix d'Aviation prize for a flight in which the aircraft flew a distance of
more than a kilometer and landed at the point where it had taken off. The flight lasted 1
minute and 28 seconds.[83]
Flight as an established technology[edit]

Alberto Santos-Dumont flying the Demoiselle over Paris

Santos-Dumont later added ailerons, between the wings in an effort to gain more lateral
stability. His final design, first flown in 1907, was the series of Demoiselle monoplanes (Nos.
19 to 22). The Demoiselle No 19 could be constructed in only 15 days and became the
world's first series production aircraft. The Demoiselle achieved 120 km/h.[84] The fuselage
consisted of three specially reinforced bamboo booms: the pilot sat in a seat between the
main wheels of a conventional landing gear whose pair of wire-spoked mainwheels were
located at the lower front of the airframe, with a tailskid half-way back beneath the rear
fuselage structure. The Demoiselle was controlled in flight by a cruciform tail unit hinged on
a form of universal joint at the aft end of the fuselage structure to function as elevator and
rudder, with roll control provided through wing warping (No. 20), with the wings only
warping "down".
In 1908, Wilbur Wright travelled to Europe, and starting in August gave a series of flight
demonstrations at Le Mans in France. The first demonstration, made on 8 August, attracted
an audience including most of the major French aviation experimenters, who were astonished
by the clear superiority of the Wright Brothers' aircraft, particularly its ability to make tight
controlled turns.[85] The importance of using roll control in making turns was recognised by
almost all the European experimenters: Henri Farman fitted ailerons to his Voisin biplane and
shortly afterwards set up his own aircraft construction business, whose first product was the
influential Farman III biplane.
The following year saw the widespread recognition of powered flight as something other than
the preserve of dreamers and eccentrics. On 25 July 1909, Louis Blériot won worldwide fame
by winning a £1,000 prize offered by the British Daily Mail newspaper for a flight across
the English Channel, and in August around half a million people, including the President of
France Armand Fallières and David Lloyd George, attended one of the first aviation
meetings, the Grande Semaine d'Aviation at Reims.
In 1914 pioneering aviator Tony Jannus captained the inaugural flight of the St. Petersburg-
Tampa Airboat Line, the world's first commercial passenger airline.
Rotorcraft[edit]
In 1877, Enrico Forlanini developed an unmanned helicopter powered by a steam engine. It
rose to a height of 13 meters, where it remained for 20 seconds, after a vertical take-off from
a park in Milan.

Paul Cornu's helicopter, built in 1907, was the first manned flying machine to have risen from
the ground using rotating wings instead of fixed wings.
The first time a manned helicopter is known to have risen off the ground was on a tethered
flight in 1907 by the Breguet-Richet Gyroplane. Later the same year the Cornu helicopter,
also French, made the first rotary-winged free flight at Lisieux, France. However, these were
not practical designs.
Military use[edit]
Main article: Early flying machines

Nieuport IV, operated by most of the world's air forces before WW1 for reconnaissance and
bombing, including during the Italian-Turkish war.
Almost as soon as they were invented, airplanes were used for military purposes. The first
country to use them for military purposes was Italy, whose aircraft made reconnaissance,
bombing and artillery correction flights in Libya during the Italian-Turkish war (September
1911 – October 1912). The first mission (a reconnaissance) occurred on 23 October 1911.
The first bombing mission was flown on 1 November 1911.[86] Then Bulgaria followed this
example. Its airplanes attacked and reconnoitered the Ottoman positions during the First
Balkan War 1912–13. The first war to see major use of airplanes in offensive, defensive and
reconnaissance capabilities was World War I. The Allies and Central Powers both used
airplanes and airships extensively.
While the concept of using the airplane as an offensive weapon was generally discounted
before World War I,[87] the idea of using it for photography was one that was not lost on any
of the major forces. All of the major forces in Europe had light aircraft, typically derived
from pre-war sporting designs, attached to
their reconnaissance departments. Radiotelephones were also being explored on airplanes,
notably the SCR-68, as communication between pilots and ground commander grew more
and more important.

World War I (1914–1918)[edit]

Main article: Aviation in World War I

German Taube monoplane, illustration from 1917

Combat schemes[edit]
See also: Flying ace,  List of World War I flying aces, and  Aerial victory standards of World
War I
It was not long before aircraft were shooting at each other, but the lack of any sort of steady
point for the gun was a problem. The French solved this problem when, in late 1914, Roland
Garros attached a fixed machine gun to the front of his plane, but while Adolphe
Pegoud would become known as the first "ace", getting credit for five victories before also
becoming the first ace to die in action, it was German Luftstreitkräfte Leutnant Kurt
Wintgens who, on 1 July 1915, scored the very first aerial victory by a purpose-built fighter
plane, with a synchronized machine gun.
Aviators were styled as modern-day knights, doing individual combat with their enemies.
Several pilots became famous for their air-to-air combat; the most well known is Manfred
von Richthofen, better known as the Red Baron, who shot down 80 planes in air-to-air
combat with several different planes, the most celebrated of which was the Fokker Dr.I. On
the Allied side, René Paul Fonck is credited with the most all-time victories at 75, even when
later wars are considered.
France, Britain, Germany and Italy were the leading manufacturers of fighter planes that saw
action during the war,[88] with German aviation technologist Hugo Junkers showing the way
to the future through his pioneering use of all-metal aircraft from late 1915.

Between the World Wars (1918–1939)[edit]

Main article: Aviation between the World Wars
The years between World War I and World War II saw great advancements in aircraft
technology. Airplanes evolved from low-powered biplanes made from wood and fabric to
sleek, high-powered monoplanes made of aluminum, based primarily on the founding work
of Hugo Junkers during the World War I period and its adoption by American
designer William Bushnell Stout and Soviet designer Andrei Tupolev. The age of the great
rigid airships came and went. The first successful rotorcraft appeared in the form of
the autogyro, invented by Spanish engineer Juan de la Cierva and first flown in 1919. In this
design, the rotor is not powered but is spun like a windmill by its passage through the air. A
separate powerplant is used to propel the aircraft forwards.

Flagg biplane from 1933.

After World War I, experienced fighter pilots were eager to show off their skills. Many
American pilots became barnstormers, flying into small towns across the country and
showing off their flying abilities, as well as taking paying passengers for rides. Eventually,
the barnstormers grouped into more organized displays. Air shows sprang up around the
country, with air races, acrobatic stunts, and feats of air superiority. The air races drove
engine and airframe development—the Schneider Trophy, for example, led to a series of ever
faster and sleeker monoplane designs culminating in the Supermarine S.6B. With pilots
competing for cash prizes, there was an incentive to go faster. Amelia Earhart was perhaps
the most famous of those on the barnstorming/air show circuit. She was also the first female
pilot to achieve records such as the crossing of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Qantas De Havilland biplane, c. 1930

Other prizes, for distance and speed records, also drove development forwards. For example,
on 14 June 1919, Captain John Alcock and Lieutenant Arthur Brown co-piloted a Vickers
Vimy non-stop from St. John's, Newfoundland to Clifden, Ireland, winning the £13,000
($65,000)[89] Northcliffe prize. The first flight across the South Atlantic and the first aerial
crossing using astronomical navigation, was made by the naval aviators Gago
Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral in 1922, from Lisbon, Portugal, to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with
only internal means of navigation, in an aircraft specifically fitted for himself with
an artificial horizon for aeronautical use, an invention that revolutionized air navigation at the
time (Gago Coutinho invented a type of sextant incorporating two spirit levels to provide an
artificial horizon).[90][91] Five years later Charles Lindbergh took the Orteig Prize of $25,000
for the first solo non-stop crossing of the Atlantic. Months after Lindbergh, Paul Redfern was
the first to solo the Caribbean Sea and was last seen flying over Venezuela.

Map of record breaking flights of the 1920s

Australian Sir Charles Kingsford Smith was the first to fly across the larger Pacific Ocean in
the Southern Cross. His crew left Oakland, California to make the first trans-Pacific flight to
Australia in three stages. The first (from Oakland to Hawaii) was 2,400 miles (3,900 km),
took 27 hours 25 minutes, and was uneventful. They then flew to Suva, Fiji 3,100 miles
(5,000 km) away, taking 34 hours 30 minutes. This was the toughest part of the journey as
they flew through a massive lightning storm near the equator. They then flew on to Brisbane
in 20 hours, where they landed on 9 June 1928 after approximately 7,400 miles (11,900 km)
total flight. On arrival, Kingsford Smith was met by a huge crowd of 25,000 at Eagle Farm
Airport in his hometown of Brisbane. Accompanying him were Australian aviator Charles
Ulm as the relief pilot, and the Americans James Warner and Captain Harry Lyon (who were
the radio operator, navigator and engineer). A week after they landed, Kingsford Smith and
Ulm recorded a disc for Columbia talking about their trip. With Ulm, Kingsford Smith later
continued his journey being the first in 1929 to circumnavigate the world, crossing the
equator twice.
The first lighter-than-air crossings of the Atlantic were made by airship in July 1919 by His
Majesty's Airship R34 and crew when they flew from East Lothian, Scotland to Long Island,
New York and then back to Pulham, England. By 1929, airship technology had advanced to
the point that the first round-the-world flight was completed by the Graf Zeppelin in
September and in October, the same aircraft inaugurated the first commercial transatlantic
service. However, the age of the rigid airship ended following the destruction by fire of the
zeppelin LZ 129 Hindenburg just before landing at Lakehurst, New Jersey on 6 May 1937,
killing 35 of the 97 people aboard. Previous spectacular airship accidents, from the Wingfoot
Express disaster (1919) to the loss of the R101 (1930), the Akron (1933) and
the Macon (1935) had already cast doubt on airship safety, but with the disasters of the U.S.
Navy's rigids showing the importance of solely using helium as the lifting medium; following
the destruction of the Hindenburg, the remaining airship making international flights,
the Graf Zeppelin was retired (June 1937). Its replacement, the rigid airship Graf Zeppelin II,
made a number of flights, primarily over Germany, from 1938 to 1939, but was grounded
when Germany began World War II. Both remaining German zeppelins were scrapped in
1940 to supply metal for the German Luftwaffe; the last American rigid airship, the Los
Angeles, which had not flown since 1932, was dismantled in late 1939.
Meanwhile, Germany, which was restricted by the Treaty of Versailles in its development of
powered aircraft, developed gliding as a sport, especially at the Wasserkuppe, during the
1920s. In its various forms, in the 21st century sailplane aviation now has over 400,000
participants.[92][93]

1928 issue of Popular Aviation, which became the largest aviation magazine with a
circulation of 100,000.[94]

First female combat pilot, Sabiha Gökçen, reviews her Breguet 19.

In 1929, Jimmy Doolittle developed instrument flight.
1929 also saw the first flight of by far the largest plane ever built until then: the Dornier Do
X with a wingspan of 48 m. On its 70th test flight on 21 October 1929, there were 169 people
on board, a record that was not broken for 20 years.
Less than a decade after the development of the first practical rotorcraft of any type with the
autogyro, in the Soviet Union, Boris N. Yuriev and Alexei M. Cheremukhin, two aeronautical
engineers working at the Tsentralniy Aerogidrodinamicheskiy Institut, constructed and flew
the TsAGI 1-EA single rotor helicopter, which used an open tubing framework, a four-blade
main rotor, and twin sets of 1.8-meter (5.9 ft) diameter anti-torque rotors; one set of two at
the nose and one set of two at the tail. Powered by two M-2 powerplants, up-rated copies of
the Gnome Monosoupape rotary radial engine of World War I, the TsAGI 1-EA made several
successful low altitude flights. By 14 August 1932, Cheremukhin managed to get the 1-EA
up to an unofficial altitude of 605 meters (1,985 feet) with what is likely to be the first
successful single-lift rotor helicopter design ever tested and flown.
Only five years after the German Dornier Do-X had flown, Tupolev designed the largest
aircraft of the 1930s era, the Maksim Gorky in the Soviet Union by 1934, as the largest
aircraft ever built using the Junkers methods of metal aircraft construction.
In the 1930s, development of the jet engine began in Germany and in Britain – both countries
would go on to develop jet aircraft by the end of World War II.
After enrolling in the Military Aviation Academy in Eskisehir in 1936 and undertaking
training at the First Aircraft Regiment, Sabiha Gökçen, flew fighter and bomber planes
becoming the first Turkish, female aviator and the world's first, female, combat pilot. During
her flying career, she achieved some 8,000 hours, 32 of which were combat missions. [95][96][97]
[98]

World War II (1939–1945)[edit]

Main article: Aviation in World War II
See also:  Air warfare of World War II, List of aircraft of World War II, List of helicopters
used in World War II, and  World War II aircraft production
World War II saw a great increase in the pace of development and production, not only of
aircraft but also the associated flight-based weapon delivery systems. Air combat tactics and
doctrines took advantage. Large-scale strategic bombing campaigns were launched, fighter
escorts introduced and the more flexible aircraft and weapons allowed precise attacks on
small targets with dive bombers, fighter-bombers, and ground-attack aircraft. New
technologies like radar also allowed more coordinated and controlled deployment of air
defense.

Me 262, world first operational jet fighter

The first jet aircraft to fly was the Heinkel He 178 (Germany), flown by Erich Warsitz in
1939, followed by the world's first operational jet aircraft, the Me 262, in July 1942 and
world's first jet-powered bomber, the Arado Ar 234, in June 1943. British developments, like
the Gloster Meteor, followed afterwards, but saw only brief use in World War II. The first
cruise missile (V-1), the first ballistic missile (V-2), the first (and to date only) operational
rocket-powered combat aircraft Me 163—with attained velocities of up to 1,130 km/h
(700 mph) in test flights—and the first vertical take-off manned point-defense interceptor,
the Bachem Ba 349 Natter, were also developed by Germany. However, jet and rocket
aircraft had only limited impact due to their late introduction, fuel shortages, the lack of
experienced pilots and the declining war industry of Germany.
Not only airplanes, but also helicopters saw rapid development in the Second World War,
with the introduction of the Focke Achgelis Fa 223, the Flettner Fl 282 synchropter in 1941
in Germany and the Sikorsky R-4 in 1942 in the USA.

Postwar era (1945–1979)[edit]

D.H. Comet, the world's first jet airliner. As in this picture, it also saw RAF service

A 1945 newsreel covering various firsts in human flight

Main article: Postwar aviation
After World War II, commercial aviation grew rapidly, using mostly ex-military aircraft to
transport people and cargo. This growth was accelerated by the glut of heavy and super-
heavy bomber airframes like the B-29 and Lancaster that could be converted into commercial
aircraft.[citation needed] The DC-3 also made for easier and longer commercial flights. The first
commercial jet airliner to fly was the British de Havilland Comet. By 1952, the British state
airline BOAC had introduced the Comet into scheduled service. While a technical
achievement, the plane suffered a series of highly public failures, as the shape of the windows
led to cracks due to metal fatigue. The fatigue was caused by cycles of pressurization and
depressurization of the cabin and eventually led to catastrophic failure of the plane's fuselage.
By the time the problems were overcome, other jet airliner designs had already taken to the
skies.
USSR's Aeroflot became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services
on 15 September 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104. The Boeing 707 and DC-8 which
established new levels of comfort, safety and passenger expectations, ushered in the age of
mass commercial air travel, dubbed the Jet Age.
In October 1947, Chuck Yeager took the rocket-powered Bell X-1 through the sound barrier.
Although anecdotal evidence exists that some fighter pilots may have done so while dive-
bombing ground targets during the war,[citation needed] this was the first controlled, level flight to
exceed the speed of sound. Further barriers of distance fell in 1948 and 1952 with the first jet
crossing of the Atlantic and the first nonstop flight to Australia.
The 1945 invention of nuclear bombs briefly increased the strategic importance of military
aircraft in the Cold War between East and West. Even a moderate fleet of long-
range bombers could deliver a deadly blow to the enemy, so great efforts were made to
develop countermeasures. At first, the supersonic interceptor aircraft were produced in
considerable numbers. By 1955, most development efforts shifted to guided surface-to-air
missiles. However, the approach diametrically changed when a new type of nuclear-carrying
platform appeared that could not be stopped in any feasible way: intercontinental ballistic
missiles. The possibility of these was demonstrated in 1957 with the launch of Sputnik 1 by
the Soviet Union. This action started the Space Race between the nations.
In 1961, the sky was no longer the limit for manned flight, as Yuri Gagarin orbited once
around the planet within 108 minutes, and then used the descent module of Vostok I to
safely reenter the atmosphere and reduce speed from Mach 25 using friction and converting
the kinetic energy of the velocity into heat. The United States responded by launching Alan
Shepard into space on a suborbital flight in a Mercury space capsule. With the launch of
the Alouette I in 1963, Canada became the third country to send a satellite into space. The
space race between the United States and the Soviet Union would ultimately lead to
the landing of men on the moon in 1969.
In 1967, the X-15 set the air speed record for an aircraft at 4,534 mph (7,297 km/h)
or Mach 6.1. Aside from vehicles designed to fly in outer space, this record was renewed
by X-43 in the 21st century.

Apollo 11 lifts off on its mission to land a man on the moon

The Harrier Jump Jet, often referred to as just "Harrier" or "the Jump Jet", is a British
designed military jet aircraft capable of Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing (V/STOL) via
thrust vectoring. It first flew in 1969, the same year that Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin set
foot on the moon, and Boeing unveiled the Boeing 747 and the Aérospatiale-
BAC Concorde supersonic passenger airliner had its maiden flight. The Boeing 747 was the
largest commercial passenger aircraft ever to fly, and still carries millions of passengers each
year, though it has been superseded by the Airbus A380, which is capable of carrying up to
853 passengers. In 1975, Aeroflot started regular service on the Tu-144—the first supersonic
passenger plane. In 1976, British Airways and Air France began supersonic service across the
Atlantic, with Concorde. A few years earlier the SR-71 Blackbird had set the record for
crossing the Atlantic in under 2 hours, and Concorde followed in its footsteps.
In 1979, the Gossamer Albatross became the first human-powered aircraft to cross the
English channel. This achievement finally saw the realization of centuries of dreams of
human flight.

Digital age (1980–present)[edit]

Main article: Aviation in the digital age

Concorde, G-BOAB, in storage at London Heathrow Airport following the end of all

Concorde flying. This aircraft flew for 22,296 hours between its first flight in 1976 and final
flight in 2000.
The last quarter of the 20th century saw a change of emphasis. No longer was revolutionary
progress made in flight speeds, distances and materials technology. This part of the century
instead saw the spreading of the digital revolution both in flight avionics and in aircraft
design and manufacturing techniques.
In 1986, Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager flew an aircraft, the Rutan Voyager, around the world
unrefuelled, and without landing. In 1999, Bertrand Piccard became the first person to circle
the earth in a balloon.
Digital fly-by-wire systems allow an aircraft to be designed with relaxed static stability.
Initially used to increase the manoeuvrability of military aircraft such as the General
Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, this is now being used to reduce drag on commercial
airliners.
The U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission was established in 1999 to encourage the broadest
national and international participation in the celebration of 100 years of powered flight. [99] It
publicized and encouraged a number of programs, projects and events intended to educate
people about the history of aviation.

21st century[edit]
21st-century aviation has seen increasing interest in fuel savings and fuel diversification, as
well as low cost airlines and facilities. Additionally, much of the developing world that did
not have good access to air transport has been steadily adding aircraft and facilities, though
severe congestion remains a problem in many up and coming nations. Around 20,000 city
pairs[100] are served by commercial aviation, up from less than 10,000 as recently as 1996.
There appears to be newfound interest[101] in returning to the supersonic era whereby waning
demand in the turn of the 20th century made flights unprofitable, as well as the final
commercial stoppage of the Concorde due to reduced demand following a fatal accident and
rising costs.
At the beginning of the 21st century, digital technology allowed subsonic military aviation to
begin eliminating the pilot in favor of remotely operated or completely
autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). In April 2001 the unmanned aircraft Global
Hawk flew from Edwards AFB in the US to Australia non-stop and unrefuelled. This is the
longest point-to-point flight ever undertaken by an unmanned aircraft and took 23 hours and
23 minutes. In October 2003, the first totally autonomous flight across the Atlantic by a
computer-controlled model aircraft occurred. UAVs are now an established feature of modern
warfare, carrying out pinpoint attacks under the control of a remote operator.
Major disruptions to air travel in the 21st century included the closing of U.S. airspace due to
the September 11 attacks, and the closing of most of European airspace after the 2010
eruption of Eyjafjallajökull.
In 2015, André Borschberg and Bertrand Piccard flew a record distance of 4,481 miles
(7,211 km) from Nagoya, Japan to Honolulu, Hawaii in a solar-powered plane, Solar Impulse
2. The flight took nearly five days; during the nights the aircraft used its batteries and the
potential energy gained during the day.[102]
On 14 July 2019, Frenchman Franky Zapata attracted worldwide attention when he
participated at the Bastille Day military parade riding his invention, a jet-powered Flyboard
Air. He subsequently succeeded in crossing the English Channel on his device on 4 August
2019, covering the 35-kilometre (22 mi) journey from Sangatte in northern France to St
Margaret's Bay in Kent, UK, in 22 minutes, with a midpoint fueling stop included.[103]
24 July 2019 was the busiest day in aviation, for Flightradar24 recorded a total of over
225,000 flights that day. It includes helicopters, private jets, gliders, sight-seeing flights, as
well as personal aircraft. The website has been tracking flights since 2006.[104]
On 10 June 2020, the Pipistrel Velis Electro became the first electric aeroplane to secure
a type certificate from EASA.[105]
In the early 21st Century, the first fifth-generation military fighters were produced, starting
with the F-22 Raptor and currently Russia, America and China have 5th gen aircraft (2019).
[citation needed]

The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on the aviation industry due to the

resulting travel restrictions as well as slump in demand among travelers, and may also affect
the future of air travel. [106] For example, the mandatory use of face masks on airplanes has
become a common feature of flying since 2020.[107]
Mars[edit]
On 19 April 2021, NASA successfully flew an unmanned helicopter on Mars, making it
humanity's first controlled powered flight on another planet. The Ingenuity helicopter rose to
a height of 3 meters, and hovered in a stable holding position for 30 seconds, after a vertical
take-off that was filmed by its accompanying rover, Perseverance.[108] On 22 April
2021, Ingenuity made a second, more complex flight, which was also observed
by Perseverance..[109] As an homage to all of its aerial predecessors, the Ingenuity helicopter
carries with it a postage sized fragment from the wing of the Wright Brothers Flyer.

Aviation in India
Aviation in India, broadly divided into military and civil aviation, is the fastest-growing
aviation market in the world according to the International Air Transport
Association (IATA). The hub of the nation's aviation manufacturing industry is
at Bangalore which has a 65% share of this economic sector. [1] The government's Ude Desh
Ka Aam Naagrik (UDAN- regional connectivity scheme) is driving the growth of civil
aviation and aviation infrastructure in India.
History[edit]
Main articles: History of Indian civil aviation and History of the Indian Air Force

Tata Sons' Airline timetable, c. 1935

The first commercial aviation flight in India took place on 18 February 1911. It was a brief
demonstration flight of about 15 minutes from the United Provinces Industrial and
Agricultural Exhibition in Allahabad, across the Jumna River to Naini, a distance of 9.7
kilometres (6 mi). The aircraft, a Humber biplane shipped from England specifically for the
event, was flown by French aviator Henri Pequet and carried 6,500 pieces of mail, making it
the first official airmail service.[2][3] Regular air mail was not established until two decades
later, notably by J. R. D. Tata, who was awarded a contract to carry mail in 1932 and founded
an airline which grew to become Air India.[4]

Civil aviation[edit]
India had the world's third-largest civil aviation market in 2017,[5][6] with the number of
passengers growing at an average annual rate of 16.3% between 2000 and 2015. [7] It recorded
an air traffic of 131 million passengers in 2016.[8] Despite this growth, much of the country's
aviation potential remains untapped.[9][10] IndiGo, Air India, SpiceJet and GoAir are the major
carriers in order of their market share.[11] These airlines connect more than 80 cities across
India, and are joined by several foreign airlines in providing international routes.
The Ministry of Civil Aviation is responsible for civilian aviation, through regulatory
oversight by the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA).[12] National Civil Aviation
Policy 2016 sets broad goals for safety and operations. [13] The UDAN (regional connectivity
scheme) is a plan to develop a sustainable air network in over 400 tier-2 cities across India,
with an estimated expenditure of ₹500 million (US$7.0 million) per airstrip.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20]
Infrastructure
The primary civilian aviation hub is Indira Gandhi International Airport in the National
Capital Region of Delhi. Since 2009, it has been the busiest airport in India in terms of
passenger traffic and international traffic, and the second-busiest in terms of cargo traffic
(after Mumbai). Since 2010, it has had the capacity to handle more than 40 million
passengers per year, with a planned expansion for 100 million passengers by 2030.
UDAN is assessing 486 existing airports for potential development. Phase I of UDAN helped
to raise the number of operational civil aviation airports to 131, a 34% increase over
20 months. In addition, the Airport Authority of India (AAI) granted in-principal approval to
19 new airports in December 2017. In September 2018, the Civil Aviation Minister said that
as many as 100 new airports would be built in the next 10 to 15 years to meet the growing
domestic demand.
In 2015, there were 22 airlines operating in India, which add a total of about 50 airliners to
their fleets each year. To support these fleets, several aviation-industrial parks are being set
up, such as in Hisar, Gujarat, and Chennai.

Military aviation[edit]

US Army Air Force personnel extracting an engine from a B-29 in India, c. 1945.

The President of India serves as the ex-officio commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed
Forces, with the Ministry of Defence responsible for policy. The air arms of the armed forces
are the Indian Air Force (IAF), commanded by the Chief of Air Staff, and the Indian Naval
Air Arm, Army Aviation Corps, and Indian Coast Guard aviation.
The IAF is the world’s fourth-largest air force. In 2015, Flightglobal estimated that it had
1,820 aircraft in service: 905 combat planes, 595 fighters and 310 attackers. [32] The defence
sector – consisting chiefly of IAF and state-owned Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) –
are developing numerous indigenous fighter aircraft and new technologies for the aviation
industry. These efforts produced the HF-24 Marut and HAL Tejas supersonic fighters.[33]

https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/air-transportation-1448704620-1
Air Transportation
Air transport is the fastest means of movement from one place to the other. It has reduced
distances by minimising the travel time. Air transport in India made a beginning in 1911
when airmail operation commenced over a little distance of 10 km between Allahabad and
Naini. But its real development took place in post-Independent period. The Airport Authority
of India is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic and aeronautical communication
services in the Indian Air Space.
Air transport is the fastest means of movement from one place to the other. It has reduced
distances by minimising the travel time. It is very essential for a vast country like India,
where distances are large and the terrain and climatic conditions are diverse. Air transport in
India made a beginning in 1911 when airmail operation commenced over a little distance of
10 km between Allahabad and Naini. But its real development took place in post-Independent
period. The Airport Authority of India is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic
and aeronautical communication services in the Indian Air Space. The authority manages 125
airports. The air transport in India is managed by two corporations, Air India and Indian
Airlines after nationalisation. Now many private companies have also started passenger
services.
Air India
Air India provides International Air Services for both passengers and cargo traffic. It
connects all the continents of the world through its services.
History of Indian Airlines
 1911 – Air transport in India was launched between Allahabad and Naini.
 1947 – Air transport was provided by four major companies namely Indian National
Airways, Tata Sons Limited, Air Services of India and Deccan Airways.
 1951 – Four more companies joined the services, Bharat Airways, Himalayan
Aviation Limited, Airways India and Kalinga Airlines.
 1953 – Air transport was nationalised and two Corporations, Air India International
and Indian Airlines were formed. Now Indian Airlines is known as ‘Indian’.
In 2010, domestic movement involved 520.21 lakh passengers and about 23 lakh metric
tonnes of cargo. Pawan Hans is the helicopter service operating in hilly areas and is widely
used by tourists in north-eastern sector. In addition, Pawan Hans Limited mainly provides
helicopter services to petroleum sector and for tourism.
Today, Indian aviation industry is dominated by private airlines and these include low cost
carriers, who have made air travel affordable.
• Registration of civil aircraft;
• Formulation of standards of airworthiness for civil aircraft registered in India and grant of
certificates of airworthiness to such aircraft
• Licensing of pilots, aircraft maintenance engineers and flight engineers, and conducting
examinations and checks for that purpose;
• Licensing of air traffic controllers
• Certification of aerodromes and CNS/ATM facilities;
• Granting of Air Operator's Certificates to Indian carriers and regulation of air transport
services operating to/from/within/over India by Indian and foreign operators, including
clearance of scheduled and non-scheduled flights of such operators;
• Conducting investigation into accidents/incidents and taking accident prevention measures
including formulation of implementation of Safety Aviation Management programmes.
• Carrying out amendments to the Aircraft Act, the Aircraft Rules and the Civil Aviation
Requirements for complying with the amendments to ICAO Annexes, and initiating
proposals for amendment to any other Act or for passing a new Act in order to give effect to
an international Convention or amendment to an existing Convention;
• Coordination at national level for flexi-use of air space by civil and military air traffic
agencies and interaction with ICAO for provision of more air routes for civil use through
Indian air space;
• Keeping a check on aircraft noise and engine emissions in accordance with ICAO Annex 16
and collaborating with the environmental authorities in this matter, if required;
• Promoting indigenous design and manufacture of aircraft and aircraft components by acting
as a catalytic agent;
• Approving training programmes of operators for carriage of dangerous goods, issuing
authorizations for carriage of dangerous goods, etc.

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/transport/air-transport-system-in-india-the-civil-aviation-
is-managed-on-the-following-pattern/14130
Air Transport System in India: The Civil Aviation Is Managed On the Following Pattern
Air Transport System in India:  The Civil Aviation Is Managed On the Following
Pattern!
Air transport is the fastest mode of transport which has reduced distances and has led to
drastic shrinking of the world.
This mode of transport is indispensable when speed and time are the main constraints. One
can easily cross and reach remote, inaccessible and hostile areas like lofty mountains, thick
forests, marshy areas and sandy deserts by air transport which is almost impossible by other
modes of transport.
Air transport plays a vital role in times of emergency as well as in the event of natural and
man-made calamities like floods, famines, epidemics and wars. Air transport is very essential
for a vast country like India where distances are so large and the terrain and climatic
conditions so diverse.
The weather conditions in India are also quite congenial to air transport. Poor visibility due to
clouds, fog and mist hinders air transport but India is lucky to have clear weather for most
part of the year except for a short duration in rainy season.
Air transportation in India made a humble beginning in 1911 when air mail operation
commenced over a little distance of 10 km between Allahabad and Naini. The British, French
and Dutch introduced air transport in 1929-30.
Indian National Airways was formed in 1933 and it introduced air service between Karachi
and Lahore. By the end of the World War II, major cities like Karachi, Mumbai, Delhi,
Kolkata, Lahore and some other places were provided with air services.
At the time of partition of the country in 1947, there were four companies namely Tata Sons
Ltd./Air India, Indian National Airways, Air Services of India and Deccan Airways. By 1951,
four more companies’ viz. Bharat Airways, Himalayan Aviation Ltd., Airways India and the
Kalinga Airlines also came up. In 1953, the air transport was nationalised and two
corporations were formed: Air India International and the Indian Airlines.
The face of Indian aviation is changing and is poised for a vibrant growth”. India can
definitely boast of a boom in air travel. Economic liberalisation has totally changed the
outlook of a perspective air passenger. Now, he thinks in terms of time and gone are the days
when he used to ponder over advantages and disadvantages of air travel.
At present, the civil aviation is managed on the following pattern.
1. Air India is responsible for international air services. It operates from international airports
at Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Thiruvananthapuram, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Panaji,
Kochi, Amritsar, Guwahati and Ahmedabad. It connects India with almost all the continents
of world through its services.
Its main services are to the USA, Canada, Europe, the Russian Confederation, the
Gulf/Middle East, East Asia, Far East, Africa and Australia. Its fleet has almost trebled from
13 air craft in 1960-61 to 35 in 2003-04. The number of passengers carried by Air India has
increased manifold from 1.25 lakh in 1960-61 to 38.35 lakh in 2003-04. Endeavour has been
made to enhance the operation of international sectors especially the Gulf routes which yield
more profits.
2. Indian Airlines handles domestic traffic and carries passengers, cargo and mail to different
places in the country. It also provides services to 12 countries, viz., Pakistan, Maldives,
Nepal, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Thailand, Singapore, U.A.E., Oman, Myanmar and
Kuwait.
Its operations cover 69 destinations including 15 abroad. Its fleet strength has shown varying
trends, falling from 88 in 1960-61 to 73 in 1970-71 and 49 in 1980-81. It rose to 59 in 1995-
96 but again fell to 52 in 2001-02. In 2003-04, its fleet stood at 56.
The current projections indicate additional aircraft requirements for replacement of ageing
aircraft as well as for growth. The number of passengers carried by Indian Airlines rose
dramatically from a modest of 7.9 lakh in 1960-61 to 78.66 lakh in 1990-91 but fell to 59
lakh in 2003-04.
3. Vayudoot was set up in 1981 to augment the air transport in the country. It provided links
with remote and inaccessible areas which were not covered by Indian Airlines. It commenced
its services in February, 1981. The Government had initially approved air services to 14
stations in the North-Eastern region. Subsequently, 23 stations outside this region were added
for linking by Vayudoot.
Its fleet rose from 1 in 1981 to 20 in 1988-89 but fell to 16 in 1992-92 after which it was
merged in Indian Airlines. Its network which linked remote, inaccessible and thickly forested
areas of the North-Eastern region has been taken over by the newly created Short Haul
Operations Deptt of Indian Airlines.
4. Pawan Hans Limited was established in 1985. It provides helicopter services to the
petroleum sector including ONGC, Oil India Ltd. and Enron Oil and Gas, Mumbai High and
connects remote and inaccessible areas.
The company has a strong presence in North-East having its helicopters deployed in the states
of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Sikkim and Tripura. Apart from this it also provides
services to certain state governments such as Punjab, M.P., Lakshadweep and public sector
undertakings like NTPC, GAIL, and BSF.
Private Sector:
Private taxis started their services in 1990 and played feeder role to Indian Airlines. Only four
parties ventured in this area at that time due to the restrictive environment. In a major policy
change, the Government repealed the Air Corporation Act 1953 on March 1, 1994, thereby
ending the monopoly of Indian Airlines and Air India on the scheduled operations.
Private operators, who were hitherto operating as air taxis, have since been granted scheduled
airlines status. At present there are five private scheduled airlines operating on domestic
network. This has given the passengers a wider choice of flights. In addition, 37 air taxi
operators have been given permit for charter non-scheduled air transport services. The new
policy on air taxi services provides for a route dispersal plan to ensure operation of a
minimum number of services in the North-Eastern Region Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Lakshadweep and Jammu and Kashmir. This policy has infused competitive environment
between Indian Airlines Ltd., a public sector enterprise, on one hand and private operators on
the other hand. The policy on domestic air transport service was approved in April 1997
according to which barriers to entry and exit from this sector have been removed.
Currently five companies are providing air services in India: Out of these, Jet Airways and
Air Sahara are operating on domestic as well as international air routes while Air Deccan,
Kingfisher and Spiciest are operating on domestic routes only. Together they have a fleet of
about 100 aircraft and undertake more than 500 flights per day. Six more airlines are waiting
in the wings. Of them Paramount, GoAir, and Indi Go are likely to start their operations in the
near future.
Airports:
There are around 449 airports/airstrips in the country in various stages of development. Of
these, 314 are considered serviceable but only 81 airports are in operation. The top six
airports account for 70 per cent of the domestic air traffic while top 25 airports account for
more than 90 per cent of air traffic.
In cargo, the top in airports account for about 87 of the total traffic. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata,
Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Thiruvananthapuram, Amritsar, Kochi, Ahmedabad, Panaji
and Guwahati have one international airport each.
International Airports Authority of India and National Airports Authority were merged on 1
April, 1995 to form Airports Authority of India (AAI). This authority is responsible for
providing safe an efficient air traffic services and aeronautical communication services for
effective control of air traffic in the Indian air space.
It controls and manages the entire Indian space even beyond the territorial limits of the
country in accordance to the norms set by International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
It comprises of International Airport Division (IAD) and National Airports Division (NAD).
The International Airports Division (IAD) of AAI operates and develops international
airports. It has undertaken construction of terminal complexes at various international airports
and improvement and upgradation of runways and terminal buildings. National Airport
Division (NAD) looks after domestic airports.
A number of projects like modernisation of air traffic services at Mumbai and Delhi airports,
installation of airport surveillance radar at Ahmedabad, Guwahati, Hyderabad and
Thiruvananthapuram, development of 12 model airports for upgradation of facilities and
improvement in the quality of services at airports have been taken up. Development works in
other remote areas like Jammu and Kashmir, Lakshadweep, Himachal Pradesh and Andaman
and Nicobar Islands are also being taken up.
The improvement of infrastructure at the airports needs heavy capital investment which the
government cannot afford of its own. Therefore, private domestic and foreign investors
including NRIs have been encouraged to participate in the process of improvement.
Improvement and modernization of Indira Gandhi International Airport at Delhi and Shivaji
Maratha International Airport at Mumbai are the latest examples of this type.
https://lotusarise.com/airways-air-transport-in-india-upsc/
Airways in India (Air transport) – for UPSC IAS (Transport, Communication and Trade).
Contents
1. Airways
o Factors for development of air transport in India
o Growth and development of aviation sector in India
o Role in regional development
o Challenges of aviation sector
o Prospects in Indian Aviation sector
o Aviation sector under make in India
o Current Schemes related to aviation sector
o Integrated National Civil Aviation Policy 2016
Airways
 Airways play a vital role as modern means of transportation. It is very
important for the growth of trade and commerce.
 Rapid speed is the most peculiar feature of Air Transport. The aircrafts can fly
at a speed of 500 km/h without any difficulty. Some planes can fly at a
supersonic speed. No other means of transport can move at such speed
 Indian holds 9th position in the world in civil aviation market.
 The supreme advantage of air transport is its high speed. It is the fastest mode
of transport and thus it is the most suitable mean where time is an important
factor.
 The significance of aviation sector also increases because of size of India
which makes aviation sector indispensible for faster communication.
 Aircrafts are capable of making their access everywhere. It has no physical
barriers as in the case of other mode of transport. No roads, no railways, no
Ships can cross the world’s great mountain ranges. The inaccessible, remote
locations can be easily accessed through airways. E.g. deserts of Rajasthan,
high altitude regions of Leh, forested regions of North East India.
 Aviation plays an important role in international travel and transport.
 The significance of airways multiplies during war time situation and disaster
management, natural calamities.
 The cargo (freight) services are based mainly on aviation sector.
 Airway is the index of modernity of a region.
 Air ways are free gift of nature and no capital is spent in their construction or
maintenance
 Aviation sector provides employment to 7 million people directly and
indirectly.
 Air services promote tourism and to cater to the needs of tourists, basic
infrastructure i.e. roads, transportation also gets the boost.
Factors for development of air transport in India
 The weather conditions in India are also quite congenial to air transport. Poor
visibility due to clouds, fog and mist hinders air transport but India is lucky to
have clear weather for most part of the year except for a short duration in rainy
season.
 The central location of India which has Europe West Asia on the western side
and South East Asia and East Asia on the Eastern side.
 India has extensive plains which provide suitable landing sites in India.
 The need of airways is high due to the larger size of India.
Growth and development of aviation sector in India
 The humble beginning of the aviation sector started in 1911 when air mail
operation started between Allahabad and Naini.
  British, French, and Dutch carried forward the aviation set up of India between
1920 and 1930.
 Indian National Airways was formed in 1933. By the end of World War II the
major cities were connected with air services.
 After independence lot of companies came into the field of aviation and
changes the face of whole aviation sector.
 In 1953 Indian Airlines Corporation was formed was domestic aviation
services. Air India International was formed in the same year for international
services.
 Vayudoot was set up in 1981 to augment the air transport in the country.
 Pawan Hans Limited was established in 1985. It provides helicopter services
to the petroleum sector including ONGC, Oil India Ltd. and Enron Oil and
Gas, Mumbai High and connects remote and inaccessible areas.
 International Airports Authority of India and National Airports Authority were
merged on 1 April, 1995 to form Airports Authority of India (AAI). This
authority is responsible for providing safe an efficient air traffic services and
aeronautical communication services for effective control of air traffic in the
Indian air space.
 Today lot of private players like Spice Jet, Indigo, Jet Airways have entered
into the aviation sector providing quality services to passengers.
 The Ministry of Civil Aviation is the nodal ministry that oversees the aviation
sector in India.
Role in regional development
 According to ICAO if we invest one dollar in the aviation sector then we will
get the return of three dollars in the regional economy.
 Aviation sector acts as a hub of various activities. Airports function as a
growth pole, which propels the growth in the region by way of spillover effect
and trickledown effect.
 The Air services promote tourism and to cater to the needs of tourists, basic
infrastructure i.e. roads, transportation also gets the boost.
 To cater to the demands of tourist’s market places, shops, restaurants, hotels,
and other amenities also get developed.
 In addition to these, the local skills get thrust, the diffusion of information by
way of exchange of views between tourists & locals, further create new
avenues.
 Local handicraft is promoted so giving economic benefit along with
preserving cultural heritage.
 There will be diffusion of local ideas and innovation with the increase in
tourism.
 Increased contact of the outsider with locals also help’s in highlighting the
local issues/problems and these issues get proper notice of national govt. thus
extreme regionalism can be prevented.
Challenges of aviation sector
 The rates and fare charged by airlines are substantially higher than that of
Railways/Roadways. It is a class transport rather than mass transport.
 There is the problem of last-mile connectivity with airways. It can only be
provided by Railways/Roadways.
 Air transport is not fit for carrying heavyweight cargo, which can only be
transported by Railways/Roadways/Shipping.
  Bad weather caused by storms, rains, fog restricts the flight of an aircraft.
 Most accidents are fatal, where chances of survival are less.
 Airports cannot be made everywhere, the geography of a place plays important
role in the construction of the airport.
 India specific challenges:
 India imports carrier aircrafts had has not the domestic base.
 The taxes related to Air Turbine Fuel are very high in India.
 The maintenance, Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) industry is not well
developed in India.
 Less people prefer air transport than other means of transport.
 Aviation sector is highly capital intensive. Expansion of Airports is
also very difficult.
 Competition: The arrivals of LCCs (Low-cost carriers) lead to
wearing down the market share of the premium airlines. To
moderate the decline in market share, the premium airlines were
forced to reduce their fares and this, in the long run, lead to a
pricing war amongst the airlines with potentially affecting the
financial viability of the carriers.
 Financial Health: Though India is among the fastest-growing
aviation markets in the world, its airlines have been gripped in
losses. The Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation predicts expects
India’s consolidated airline industry to post a loss of $1.65 billion
to
Prospects in Indian Aviation sector
 There is a need for the increase in Air Traffic Density
 Rising GDP and Per Capita Income which has led to the expansion of the
middle class is heading towards increasing the customer base in the aviation
sector
 Rising urban population is also increasing the prospects of growth of the
aviation sector.
 Government’s efforts by launching various schemes are also set to provide
Phillip to the aviation sector in India.
 Flights have become low-cost, as compared to luxury classes in railways.
 Modernization activities of airports by private companies through PPP model
(GMR for Delhi Airport) have added to the prospects of the aviation sector in
India.
 Greenfield air projects of Hyderabad, Bangalore are increasing the world-class
airport infrastructure in India.
 5/20 Requirement for International Operations: NCAP has allowed all
domestic airline operators to fly international routes provided that they deploy
20 aircrafts or 20% of their total capacity (determined in terms of the average
number of seats on all departures), whichever is higher for domestic
operations.
Aviation sector under make in India
 Aviation sector is one of the 25 sectors which has been there under the Make
in India scheme. Some of the highlights for the aviation sector under make in
India scheme is as under:
  Freight traffic on Indian airports is expected to cross 11.4 MT by
2032. India is the fastest-growing aviation market and as per IATA,
the Country is expected to cater to 520 mn passengers by 2037.
 100% FDI allowed under automatic route for both greenfields as
well as brownfield projects.
 As per Boeing, Indian Carriers plan to increase their fleet size by
2020 to around 1,200 aircraft.
 For the development of the aviation industry in the North-East
States, AAI plans to develop Guwahati as an inter-regional hub. It
also plans to develop Agartala, Imphal, and Dibrugarh as intra-
regional hubs.
 Indian airports are emulating the Special Economic Zone (SEZ)
Aerotropolis model to enhance revenues. The model focuses on
revenues from retail, advertising, vehicle parking, security
equipment, and services.
Current Schemes related to aviation sector
GPS-Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN)
 GPS-Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) is India’s first Satellite-
based Augmentation System.
 It provides additional accuracy for safety in civil aviation and has expansion
capability for seamless navigation services across geographies.
No Objection Certificate Application System (NOCAS)
 No Objection Certificate Application System (NOCAS) streamlines the online
process of timely NOC for height clearances of buildings around airports.
eGCA
 The function & process of the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)
is being moved to an online platform to provide faster delivery of services &
regulation oversight.
 The e-GCA was initiated on 14th May 2019. The first module on pilot
licensing shall be launched in November 2019.
DigiSky
 DigiSky online portal has been launched to meet the requirement laid down by
the CAR for flying Civil Drones.
 The Beta version of DigiSky is available and captures the entire gamut of
activities relating to drones viz. registration of drones and pilots, approval of
flight path, post flight analysis, etc. based on the distinctive features of No
Permission No Takeoff (NPNT).
e-sahaj
 100% of security clearances pertaining to the Ministry have been made online
on e-sahaj online portal launched by the Ministry of Civil Aviation.
 The portal is operational for granting clearances in respect of 24 categories.
Regional Connectivity Scheme – UDAN
 Under RCS plans are to connect underserved airports to key airports through
flights that will cost Rs 2,500 for per hour flight. RCS envisages providing
subsidies to airlines to offer these fares.
 The regional connectivity scheme will be applicable on route length between
200 to 800 km with no lower limit set for the hilly, remote, island, and security
sensitive regions.
 Viability gap funding (VGF) will be provided to the selected airline operators
from RCF, and state governments will be required to reimburse the applicable
share. VGF will be provided for three years from the date of commencement
of operations of such RCS flights.
 The Central government will provide concessions to the tune of 2 percent
excise on Value Added Tax (VAT) and service tax at 1/10th the rate and
liberal code sharing for regional connectivity scheme airports.
 A Regional Connectivity Fund (RCF) will be created to fund the scheme via a
levy on certain flights. States are expected to contribute 20 percent to the fund
 For balanced regional growth, allocations will be spread equitably across 5
regions – North, West, South, East, and North East with a cap of 25 percent.
 Market-based reverse bidding mechanism to determine least VGF to select the
airline operator with the right to match to the initial proposer. The government
said VGF will be reduced if the passenger load factor remains high and will be
discontinued after 3 years when the route becomes self sustainable.
Integrated National Civil Aviation Policy 2016
Vision 
 To create an ecosystem to make flying affordable for the masses and to enable
30 crore domestic ticketing by 2022 and 50 crore by 2027, and international
ticketing to increase to 20 crore by 2027.
 Similarly, cargo volumes should increase to 10 million tonnes by 2027.
Mission 
 Provide safe, secure, affordable and sustainable air travel for passengers and
air transportation of cargo with access to various parts of India and the world.
Objectives
1. Establish an integrated ecosystem which will lead to significant growth of
civil aviation sector, which in turn would promote tourism, increase
employment and lead to a balanced regional growth.
2. Ensure safety, security and sustainability of aviation sector through the use of
technology and effective monitoring.
3. Enhance regional connectivity through fiscal support and infrastructure
development.
4. Enhance ease of doing business through deregulation, simplified procedures
and e-governance.
5. Promote the entire aviation sector chain in a harmonised manner covering
cargo, MRO, general aviation, aerospace manufacturing and skill
development.
National Civil Aviation Policy Highlights
1) Bilateral traffic rights
1. According to the civil aviation policy, the Government of India will enter into
an ‘Open Sky’ ASA (Air services agreement) on a reciprocal basis with
SAARC countries and countries with territory located entirely beyond a 5000
km radius from New Delhi.
2. Unlimited flights above the existing bilateral rights will be allowed directly to
and from major international airports within the country as notified by MoCA
from time to time.
3. Under the present policy, India signs bilateral air services agreements (ASAs)
with other countries. These agreements specify where all carriers from a
particular country land in India, how many seats they can offer each week and
some other similar specifications.
2) Regional Connectivity
1. The centerpiece of the policy is regional connectivity, and the objective of the
Narendra Modi Government is to connect the unconnected- so under this new
policy, the Govt. is saying that for 1 hour flights to Tier 2, Tier 3 cities, or
from Tier 2/Tier 3 cities to Metro cities, there is a fare cap of Rs. 2500/- per
hour of flying. This is an effort to make these sectors affordable. The Govt.
also plans to develop 50 airports in the next 3 years- these airports are existing
airports that will be revived at the cost of 50-100 crores. These plans were also
announced by the Finance Minister during his budget presentation. The Govt’s
objective is to raise the domestic ticketing levels from 8 Crores in 2015 to 30
Crores, annually.
2. Now, if the airlines are plying to Tier 1 and Tier 2 cities, then they may be
suffering some losses, so to cover that the Government has made it clear that it
would provide these airlines a host of tax benefits. These benefits range from
lower VAT, lower excise duty and Viability Gap Funding (VGF).
3) Safety
The focus will be on pre-empting and preventing accidents/ incidents. Safety violations will
be treated with zero-tolerance.
Steps to be taken:
1. DGCA will be given administrative and financial autonomy for an effective
aviation safety oversight system.
2. DGCA will strive to create a single-window system for all aviation-related
transactions, queries and complaints.
3. DGCA will ensure real-time safety tracking and prompt incident reporting.
4. The Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation Bureau (AAIIB) will be
further strengthened with manpower on contract basis, if necessary, in order to
undertake speedy, independent, professional and effective investigations.
5. A consultative group of industry experts will be created at DGCA level to
meet once every quarter and identify areas of improvement in various aspects
of Civil Aviation.
4) Airports Developed by State Governments, Private sector or in PPP mode
1. Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) will continue to encourage the
development of airports by the State Governments or the private sector or in
PPP mode.
2. MoCA will also encourage the State Governments to develop new airports in
their State by forming SPV with Airport Authority of India or with other
 interested Public Sector Undertakings/ Industry in order to create stake and
ownership.
3. MoCA will endeavour that the future airport projects in India, both greenfield
and brownfield, have cost-efficient functionality with no compromise on
safety, security and efficiency.
5) Aviation Security, Immigration and Customs
1. Government will develop performance norms for these agencies in terms of
speed of passenger processing and grievance handling.
2. Global best practices in IT, passenger check-in, baggage handling, mobile
phone-based boarding passes, security checking procedures, immigration and
customs etc will be introduced.
3. The Government will encourage the use of private security agencies at airports
for non-core security functions which will be decided in consultation with
MHA.
6) Air Navigation Services (ANS)
Upgradation and modernisation of ANS in India are in line with global trends. With the
launch of GAGAN, India has become the fourth country in the world to use satellite-based
navigation system.
1. AAI will provide a fully harmonised Air Navigation System considering
ICAO’s Global Air Navigation Plan.
2. ANS’ training institute – CATC Allahabad – will be developed into a world-
class training centre for ANS professionals for the Indian and global market.
3. All aircraft being registered in India from 1st Jan 2019 will mandatorily have
to be GAGAN enabled.
7) Helicopters
Helicopters play a key role in remote area connectivity, intra-city movement, tourism, law
enforcement, disaster relief, search and rescue, emergency medical evacuation, etc. India
currently has less than 300 civilian helicopters which is very low as compared to other
developing nations. Promoting Helicopter usage will be done in the following way:
1. The government will facilitate the development of at least four heli-hubs
initially, across the country to promote regional connectivity.
2. DGCA will bring out regulations exclusively for Helicopter Emergency
Medical Services (HEMS). This will stipulate that helicopters under HEMS
operations shall not be used for any other purpose.
8) Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO)
The MRO business of Indian carriers is around Rs 5000 crore, 90% of which is currently
spent outside India – in Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, UAE etc. Given our technology and
skill base, the government is keen to develop India as an MRO hub in Asia, attracting
business from foreign airlines.
The Civil Aviation Policy 2016 aims to give this sector a much-needed fillip. Initiatives to be
taken range from
1. exempting customs duty on the tools and tool-kits used by the MRO,
2. allowing foreign aircraft brought to India for MRO work to be allowed to stay
for the entire period of maintenance or up to 6 months, whichever is lesser
(provided it takes no commercial flights during the stay period),   
3. Prompt issue of visas to foreign MRO/OEM experts, etc.
4. Provision for adequate land for MRO service providers will be made in all
future airport/heliport projects where the potential for such MRO services
exists.
 5. MoCA will persuade State Governments to make VAT zero-rated on MRO
activities.
9) Ground handling
Existing Ground Handling Policy Regulations will be replaced by a new framework which
aims at directing
1. airport operators to ensure that there will be three Ground Handling Agencies
(GHA), including Air India’s subsidiary/JV at all major airports
2. Non-major airports to be exempted from a minimum number of ground
handlers
3. All domestic scheduled airline operators including helicopter operators will be
free to carry out self-handling at all airports. Self-handling includes the ground
handling services of its own aircraft operations, using equipment owned or
taken on lease.
4. Hiring of employees through manpower suppliers will not be permitted.
10) Air Cargo
The promotion of both domestic and international Air cargo and express delivery services is a
key objective of the government, given its importance from a ‘Make in India’, e-Commerce
and exports perspective. Domestic Air cargo has a high employment potential, especially for
semi-skilled workers.
The below framework is to be taken to ensure the growth of the air cargo business:
1. Ensuring that Cargo facilities co-located at an airport are covered under the
‘Harmonised List of Infrastructure and will get the benefit of ‘infrastructure’
sector.
2. The government will streamline and simplify Customs procedures and ensure
a shift to paper-less air-cargo processing through the use of digital signatures
for transmission of messages.
3. Advance Cargo Information (ACI) system will be implemented in a phased
manner.
4. The government will endeavour that all relevant central government
authorities are available through a single window at the cargo terminals. These
include Customs, wildlife clearance, Drug Controller, Plant and Animal
Quarantine, FSSAI, Archaeological Survey of India, DGCI etc. Clearances
will be given promptly and online after necessary checks through a Single
Window System.
5. MoCA will encourage the development of cargo-villages near airports.
6. The Air Cargo Logistics Promotion Board (ACLPB) will propose specific
action steps to promote trans-shipment at Indian airports and the same will be
monitored by MoCA. Free Trade and Warehousing Zones will be set up to
facilitate transhipment cargo.
7. ACLPB will promote global good practices like Free-Trade Warehousing
Zones (FTWZ), Air Freight Stations, Bonded trucking, dedicated cargo
airports etc.
11) Aviation education and skill-building
1. The Government will create the necessary ecosystem and architecture for
ensuring full utilisation of the skill development capacities of institutes
providing aviation education and training, which will attempt to bring down
the cost of skill development on a self-sustaining basis without converting
these institutes into commercial centres with a profit motive.
2. MoCA will develop a scheme for providing financial support for Type-rating
of Pilots.
12) Miscellaneous Initiatives
1. The Government will promote the use of seaplanes for the growth of tourism
and regional connectivity along India’s 7,500 km coastline.
2. MOCA will promote the growth of General Aviation and Aero-sports
activities.
3. The Government will issue suitable guidelines for the operation of Remotely
Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS) and their use for civil operations.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_aviation_in_India
Civil aviation in India
Civil aviation in India, the world's third-largest civil aviation market as of 2020,[1] traces its
origin back to 1911, when the first commercial civil aviation flight took off from a polo
ground in Allahabad carrying mail across the Yamuna river to Naini.[2]
Air India is India's national flag carrier after merging with Indian in 2011[3] and plays a major
role in connecting India with the rest of the world.[4] IndiGo, Air India, Spicejet, Go
First and Vistara, AirAsia India are the major carriers in order of their market share. [5] These
airlines connect more than 80 cities across India and also operate overseas routes after the
liberalisation of Indian aviation. Several other foreign airlines connect Indian cities with other
major cities across the globe. However, a large section of country's air transport potential
remains untapped, even though the Mumbai–Delhi air corridor is ranked the world's third-
busiest route.[6]
India will be the third-largest civil aviation market in the world by 2020. It recorded an air
traffic of 131 million passengers in 2016, of which 100 million were domestic passengers.
The largest airline by international passenger traffic was Jet Airways which transported over
10 million passengers in and out of India in 2016, followed by Air India and AI Express (8.8
million). In third place was Emirates (5.46 million), which is the largest foreign airline
operating in India.[7]

History[edit]
See also: History of Indian aviation

Air routes of British India in 1925

Photograph of Amy Johnson with Jason (Moth) aircraft at Jhansi in India (c. 1930).
An elephant pulling a Supermarine Walrus aircraft into position at a Fleet Air Arm station in
India (c. June 1944).
Modern civil Aviation in India traces back to 18 February 1911, when the first commercial
civil aviation flight took off from Allahabad for Naini over a distance of 6 miles (9.7 km).
During the Allahabad Exhibition, Henri Pequet, a French aviator, carried 6,500 pieces of mail
on a Humber biplane from the exhibition to the receiving office at Allahabad. This is the
world's first official airmail service.[8] On 15 October 1932, J.R.D. Tata flew a consignment
of mail from Karachi to Juhu Airport. His airline later became Air India.[9]
In March 1953, the Indian Parliament passed the Air Corporations Act. India's airline
industry was nationalised and the eight domestic airlines operating independently at that time
– Deccan Airways, Airways India, Bharat Airways, Himalayan Aviation, Kalinga
Airlines, Indian National Airways, Air India and Air Services of India – were merged into
two government-owned entities. Indian Airlines focussed on domestic routes and Air India
International on international services.[8] The International Airports Authority of India (IAAI)
was constituted in 1972 while the National Airports Authority was constituted in 1986. The
Bureau of Civil Aviation Security was established in 1987 following the tragic crash of Air
India Flight 182. Pushpaka Aviation operated scheduled international passenger flights from
Bombay to Sharjah, as an associate carrier of Air India from 1979 to 1983.
East-West Airlines was the first national-level private airline to operate in the country after
the government de-regularised the civil aviation sector in 1991. The government allowed
private airlines to operate charter and non-scheduled services under the 'Air Taxi' Scheme
until 1994, when the Air Corporation Act was repealed and private airlines could now operate
scheduled services. Private airlines like Air Sahara, Modiluft, Damania Airways and NEPC
Airlines among others commenced domestic operations during this period.[8]
Air India placed orders for more than 68 jets from Boeing for US$7.5 billion in 2006
while Indian placed orders for 43 jets from Airbus for US$2.5 billion in 2005.[10][11] IndiGo
announced orders for 100 Airbus A320s worth US$6 billion during the Paris Air Show, the
highest by any Asian domestic carrier. [12] Kingfisher Airlines became the first Indian air
carrier on 15 June 2005 to order Airbus A380 aircraft worth US$3 billion.[13][14]
More than half a dozen low-cost carriers entered the Indian market in 2004–05. Major new
entrants included Air Deccan, Air Sahara, Kingfisher Airlines, SpiceJet, GoAir, Paramount
Airways and IndiGo. But Indian aviation industry struggled due to economic slowdown,
rising fuel and operation costs. This led to consolidation, buy outs and discontinuations in the
Indian airline industry. In 2007, Air Sahara and Air Deccan were acquired by Jet Airways
and Kingfisher Airlines respectively. Paramount Airways ceased operations in 2010 and
Kingfisher shut down in 2012. AirAsia India, a low-cost carrier operating as a joint venture
between Air Asia and Tata Sons launched in 2014. Vistara, another carrier was established as
a joint venture between Tata Sons and Singapore Airlines. As of 2013–14, only IndiGo and
GoAir were generating profits.[15]
Aviation economy[edit]
Market size[edit]
India is the world's third-largest civil aviation market (c. January 2018). [1] It recorded air
traffic of 131 million passengers in 2016, of which 100 million were domestic passengers.
[16]
 The market is also estimated to have 800 aircraft by 2020.[17]
In 2015, Boeing projected India's demand for aircraft to touch 1,740, valued at $240 billion,
over the next 20 years in India. This would account for 4.3 per cent of global volumes.
According to Airbus, India will be one of the top three aviation markets globally in the next
20 years. Airbus is expecting an annual growth rate of over 11 per cent for the domestic
market in India over the next ten years, while the combined growth rate for domestic and
international routes would also be more than 10 per cent.[18]
Future[edit]
UDAN-RCS scheme[edit]
Main article: UDAN
To increase the number of operational airports, number of operational airports with scheduled
flights, number of routes, number of flyers and to reduce the cost of flying, the Government
of India launched UDAN-RCS scheme from 2016, which increased number of operational
airports from 49 to 70 within first round that was awarded in April 2017, several more rounds
were awarded in Dec 2017, and many more rounds are planned later in 2018 and 2019 with
number of operational airports expected to go to 150 or even more.[19][20][21][22][23][24]
FDI[edit]
With a view to aid in modernization of the existing airports to establish a high standard and
help ease the pressure on the existing airports, 100% FDI under automatic route has now been
allowed in Brownfield Airport projects. This move would also serve in further developing the
domestic aviation infrastructure. Further, FDI limit for Scheduled Air Transport Service/
Domestic Scheduled Passenger Airline and regional Air Transport Service has been raised
from 49% to 100%, with FDI up to 49% permitted under automatic route and FDI beyond
49% through Government approval. For Non-Resident Indians (NRI's), 100% FDI will
continue to be allowed under automatic route. However, foreign airlines would continue to be
allowed to invest in capital of Indian companies operating scheduled and non-scheduled air
transport services up to the limit of 49% of their paid up capital and subject to the laid down
conditions in the existing policy. Increasing the FDI limit for these aviation services shall not
only encourage competition by lowering prices but shall also accord choice to consumers.
MRO[edit]
The civil aviation sector in India, which till now was dependent on foreign countries for
maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO) services, is planning to have indigenous facilities.
[25]
 The Government of India is planning to develop a sustainable air network in over 400 tier-
2 cities across India with an estimated expenditure of ₹50 crores.[26]
Vision 2040[edit]
The Ministry of Civil Aviation released a report entitled "Vision 2040" on 15 January 2019
outlining a roadmap for the future of civil aviation in India. The report projects that air
passenger traffic will increase six fold to 1.1 billion by 2040 including 821 million domestic
and 303 million international passengers. The report estimates that a total of 2,359 aircraft
would be required to server passengers in March 2040. The government expects air cargo
movement to quadruple to 17 million tons in 2040. The Ministry projected that the number of
airport in India would rise from 101 in January 2019 to around 190–200 by March 2040 and
an estimated 150,000 acres of land and US$40–50 billion of capital would be required for
construction. The government proposed creating a $2 billion fund to help support low-traffic
airports. The report also targets establishing an aircraft manufacturing base in India by 2040.
[27][28]

Management[edit]
Regulations[edit]
The industry is governed by the provisions of Aircraft Act.[29][30] According to the '5/20 rule,’
all airlines in India need five years of domestic flying experience and at least 20 aircraft in its
fleet in order to fly abroad.[31] The proposal to review or scrap the 5/20 rule had come up
during the tenure of former aviation minister Ajit Singh and around the same time when Tata
Group evinced interest in investing in airline sector.[32]
Regulations requiring hand baggage tags to be stamped by security personnel at all airports
was introduced from 1992.[33] Between 15–21 December 2016, the CISF conducted a week-
long trial at 6 airports during which all domestic passengers would be exempted from the
stamping requirement.[34] Civil aviation security regulator Bureau of Civil Aviation Security
(BCAS) announced on 23 February 2017, that stamping baggage tags was no longer required
at seven airports – Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad and Cochin.
[35]
 The Ministry of Civil Aviation intends to gradually eliminate the requirement from all
airports.[36]
National Civil Aviation Policy 2016[edit]
The Government of India released the National Civil Aviation Policy on 15 June 2016. The
NCAP 2016 covers the broad policy areas, such as Regional connectivity, Safety, Air
Transport Operations, 5/20 Requirement for International Operations, Bilateral traffic rights,
Fiscal Support, Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul, Air-cargo, Aeronautical 'Make in India'.
The broad key features of the NCAP are :


VGF for operation under Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS).

Revival of un-served or under-served routes under RCS.

Introduction of a new Category 'Schedule Commuter Operator' under Commercial
Air Transport Operations.
 Rationalization of Category-I routes under Route Dispersal Guidelines (RDGs) on
the basis of criteria given in NCAP 2016.
 The requirement of five years and 20 aircraft for international operation has been
modified to 0 years and 20 aircraft or 20% of the total capacity (in terms of
average number of seats on all departure put together) whichever is higher for
domestic operations.
 Liberalization of domestic code share points in India within the framework of
ASA.[37]
Partnerships[edit]
India's aviation regulator, the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA), and United
States Technical Development Agency (USTDA) signed the Grant Agreement for India
Aviation Safety Technical Assistance Phase II on 9 February 2016. Under the agreement,
USTDA will partially fund improving systems at the DGCA. While USTDA's assistance will
be of $808,327, contractor firm The Wicks Group (TWG) would share the cost of assistance
at $75,000.[38]
Security[edit]
The security of Indian airports is ensured by the Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)
through its Airport Sector.[39] Three Indian aircraft have been hijacked: 1971 Indian Airlines
hijacking (1971), Indian Airlines Flight 427 (1993) and Indian Airlines Flight 814 (1999).
Social and environmental responsibility[edit]

Solar panels at the Cochin International Airport, the world's first airport fully powered
by solar energy
Travel by air has significant environmental impacts. Construction of new airports may
require land acquisition, and can be mired in controversies, as happened in the case of
the Aranmula International Airport.
The world's first airport fully powered by solar energy is at Kochi.[40] Indira Gandhi
International Airport at Delhi is a "carbon neutral" airport.[41]
As of October 2016, India is not a signatory to the UN supported 'Carbon Offsetting and
Reduction Scheme for International Aviation' (CORSIA). 66 countries contributing more
than 85% of international aviation activity has decided to voluntarily participate in this
mechanism from the introductory phase itself.[42][43]
New constructions in some of the airports such as Chandigarh [44] and Vadodara[45] have
adopted green building features.

Organizations[edit]
Ministry of Civil Aviation[edit]
Main article: Ministry of Civil Aviation (India)
The Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) of Government of India is the nodal Ministry
responsible for the formulation of national policies and programmes for development and
regulation of civilian aviation, and for devising and implementing schemes for the orderly
growth and expansion of civilian air transport. Its functions extend to overseeing airport
facilities, air traffic services and carriage of passengers and goods by air. The Ministry also
administers implementation of the 1934 Aircraft Act and is administratively responsible for
the Commission of Railways Safety.
The ministry also controls aviation related autonomous organisations like the Airports
Authority of India (AAI), Bureau of Civil Aviation Security (BCAS), Indira Gandhi
Rashtriya Uran Akademi and Public Sector Undertakings including Air India, Pawan Hans
Helicopters Limited and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited.[46]
DGCA[edit]
Main article: Directorate General of Civil Aviation (India)
The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) is the national regulatory body for civil
aviation under the Ministry of Civil Aviation. This directorate investigates aviation accidents
and incidents.[47] The government of India is planning to replace the organisation with a Civil
Aviation Authority (CAA), modelled on the lines of the American Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA).[48]
Airports Authority of India[edit]
Main article: Airports Authority of India
AAI's implementation of Automatic Dependence Surveillance System (ADSS), using
indigenous technology at Kolkata and Chennai Air Traffic Control Centres, made India the
first country to use this technology in the Southeast Asian region, thus enabling air traffic
control over oceanic areas using a satellite mode of communication. Performance-based
navigation (PBN) procedures have already been implemented at Mumbai, Delhi and
Ahmedabad Airports, and are likely to be implemented at other airports in a phased manner.
AAI is implementing the GAGAN project in technological collaboration with the Indian
Space Research Organization (ISRO), where the satellite-based system will be used for
navigation. The navigation signals thus received from the GPS will be augmented to meet the
navigational requirements of aircraft.
AAI has four training establishments: the Civil Aviation Training College (CATC) at
Allahabad; the National Institute of Aviation Management and Research (NIAMAR) at
Delhi; and the Fire Training Centres (FTC) at Delhi and Kolkata. An Aerodrome Visual
Simulator (AVS) has been provided at CATC, and non-radar procedural ATC simulator
equipment is being supplied to CATC Allahabad and Hyderabad Airport. AAI has a
dedicated Flight Inspection Unit (FIU) with a fleet of three aircraft fitted with flight
inspection systems to inspect Instrument Landing Systems up to Cat-III, VORs, DMEs,
NDBs, VGSI (PAPI, VASI) and RADAR (ASR/MSSR). In addition to in-house flight
calibration of its navigational aids, AAI undertakes flight calibration of navigational aids for
the Indian Air Force, Indian Navy, Indian Coast Guard and other private airfields in the
country.
AAI has entered into joint ventures at
the Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore and Nagpur airports to upgrade these airports.

Infrastructure[edit]
Civil Aviation Parks[edit]
Several Integrated Aviation-industrial parks, for aerospace training, research,
manufacturing, Maintenance, repair, and operations (MRO) and Fixed-base
Operations (FBO) integrated international aviation hub and aerospace industrial hub, are in
the process of being setup, such as in Hisar[49][50][51] and Gujarat.[52]
Airports[edit]
Main article: List of airports in India
While there are 346[53] civilian airfields in India – 253 with paved runways and 93 with
unpaved runways, only 132 were classified as "airports" as of November 2014. [54] Of these,
the airports
in Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Kochi, Ahmedabad, Jaipur and 
Pune handle most of the traffic. The operations of the major airports in India have been
privatised over the past five years and this has resulted in better equipped and cleaner
airports. The terminals have either been refurbished or expanded.
India also has 33 "ghost airports," which were built in an effort to make air travel more
accessible for those in remote regions but are now non-operational due to a lack of demand.
The Jaisalmer Airport in Rajasthan, for example, was completed in 2013 and was expected to
host 300,000 passengers a year but has not seen any commercial flights take off till
2017,After UDAN – RCS scheme Jaisalmer Airport get its first commercial flight to Delhi
and till now there are around 5 destination connected through Jaisalmer.
Heliports[edit]
As of 2013, there are 45 heliports in India. [53] India also has the world's highest helipad at
the Siachen Glacier a height of 6400 metre (21,000 ft) above mean sea level.[56]
Pawan Hans Helicopters Limited is a public sector company that provides helicopter services
to ONGC to its off-shore locations, and also to various State Governments in India,
particularly in North-east India.[57]
Airlines[edit]
Main article: List of airlines of India
There are a total of 22 airlines which are operational in India as of 2015.[

https://www.ibef.org/industry/indian-aviation.aspx
INDIAN AVIATION INDUSTRY REPORT  (SIZE: 999.61 KB ) (MAY, 2021)
Introduction
The civil aviation industry in India has emerged as one of the fastest growing industries in the
country during the last three years. India has become the third largest domestic aviation
market in the world and is expected to overtake UK to become the third largest air passenger*
market by 2024^.
Market Size
India’s passenger* traffic stood at 115.37 million in FY21. Domestic passenger and
international passenger traffic declined at a CAGR of -9.02% and -28.64%, respectively,
from FY16 to FY21, owing to COVID-19-related restrictions on flights in FY21. In FY21,
airports in India pegged the domestic passenger traffic to be ~105.2 million, a 61.7% YoY
decline, and international passenger traffic to be ~10.1 million, an 84.8% YoY decline, over
the fiscal year ended March 31, 2020. In March 2021, the average daily passenger traffic
stood at 546,702.90.
Between FY16 and FY21, freight traffic declined at a CAGR of -1.77% from 2.70 million
tonnes (MT) to 2.47 MT. Freight traffic on airports in India has the potential to reach 17 MT
by FY40.
Aircraft movement declined at a CAGR of -7.79% from 1.60 million in FY16 to 1.20 million
in FY21. From FY16 to FY21, domestic aircraft movement decreased at a CAGR of -6.44%
and international aircraft movement declined at a CAGR of -18.52%. India’s domestic and
international aircraft movements reached 1,062 thousand and 135 thousand, respectively, in
FY21.The expenditure of Indian travellers is expected to grow to Rs. 9.5 lakh crore (US$ 136
billion) by 2021.
To cater to the rising air traffic, the Government of India has been working towards
increasing the number of airports. As of 2020, India had 153 operational airports. India has
envisaged increasing the number of operational airports to 190-200 by FY40.
Further, the rising demand in the sector has pushed the number of airplanes operating in the
sector. The number of airplanes is expected to reach 1,100 planes by 2027.
Investment
According to the data released by Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade
(DPIIT), FDI inflow in India’s air transport sector (including air freight) reached US$ 2.88
billion between April 2000 and December 2020. The government has allowed 100% FDI
under the automatic route in scheduled air transport service, regional air transport service and
domestic scheduled passenger airline. However, FDI over 49% would require government
approval.
India’s aviation industry is expected to witness Rs. 35,000 crore (US$ 4.99 billion)
investment in the next four years. The Indian Government is planning to invest US$ 1.83
billion for development of airport infrastructure along with aviation navigation services by
2026.
Key investments and developments in India’s aviation industry include:

 In April 2021, Boeing, an aircraft manufacturer, announced that it has partnered with
the Indian Aviation Academy (IAA) and the University of Southern California (USC)
to conduct safety management system training sessions for all stakeholders in the
domestic aviation industry.
 In March 2021, the Indira Gandhi International (IGI) Airport in Delhi announced a
key expansion project to increase its passenger handling capacity. The expansion
project includes a new terminal, advanced facilities, an additional runway and
improved capacity to handle more passengers.
 In March 2021, the government announced plan to set up two water aerodroames in
Assam and four water aerodromes in Andaman & Nicobar Islands this year to boost
tourism and connectivity.
 In March 2021, the government submitted a proposal to develop a water aerodrome
project at the Ujjani Dam, under the Ministry of Civil Aviation’s UDAN-RCS
(regional connectivity scheme).
 On March 25, 2021, Union Minister of Civil Aviation Hardeep Singh Puri
inaugurated the Kurnool Airport, Orvakal, Andhra Pradesh, in a virtual ceremony.
The flight operations at Kurnool airport will commence on March 28, 2021 under the
Regional Connectivity Scheme – Ude Desh Ka Aam Nagrik (RCS-UDAN). 
 On February 25, 2021, the Airports Authority of India (AAI) issued tenders for
construction of the first phase of an international airport at Dholera in Gujarat,
entailing an investment of Rs. 987 crore (US$ 135.07 million). The new facility is
being set up in greenfield city under the Delhi–Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC)
project at Dholera.
 On January 19, 2021, the Airport Authority of India (AAI) signed a concession
agreement with Adani Group for three airports—Jaipur, Guwahati and
Thiruvananthapuram. The concession period is 50 years from the date of commercial
operations.
 On December 21, 2020, IndiGo announced that it has collaborated with Urban Drive
car rental company to offer self-driven and chauffeur driver services across 60 Indian
cities.
 In October 2020, Zurich Airport International signed the concession agreement for the
development of Jewar Airport on the outskirts of Delhi. The agreement has granted
Zurich Airport International the licence to design, build and operate Noida
International Airport (NIAL) for the next 40 years.
 In October 2020, the Airports Authority of India (AAI) announced plan to upgrade
runways at seven airports across the country by March 2022.
 In January 2020, IndiGo became first Indian carrier to have an aircraft fleet size of
250 planes and became the first airline to operate 1,500 flights per day.
  AAI plans to invest Rs. 25,000 crore (US$ 3.58 billion) in next the five years to
augment facilities and infrastructure at airports.
 UK group to invest Rs. 950 crore (US$ 135.9 million) in Turbo Aviation's new airline
TruStar.
Government Initiatives
Some major initiatives undertaken by the Government are:

 On May 08, 2021, AAI commenced commercial operations at Rupsi airport—

Northeast India’s 15th airport and Assam’s 7th airport.
 In March 2021, on the launch of the ‘Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav (India@75)’ by the
Government of India, the Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) has proposed 392 routes
under the UDAN 4.1 bidding process.
 The Airport Authority of India plans to abolish royalty and offer steep discounts in
lease rent to encourage MRO units to set up facilities at its airports.
 The government is planning to start 14 more water aerodromes across the country,
after the successful launch of seaplane service by Prime Minister, Mr. Narendra Modi,
between the Statue of Unity near Kevadiya in Gujarat's Narmada district and
Sabarmati Riverfront in Ahmedabad in October 2020.
 In November 2020, the Government of India announced that it is likely to increase the
total number of allowed domestic flights to 75% of the pre-COVID-19 levels, as it
expects a rise in passenger numbers due to the festive and holiday season.
 In September 2020, the Government of India sanctioned Rs. 108 crore (US $ 14.73
million) for Jagdalpur, Ambikapur and Bilaspur airports in Chhattisgarh under the
UDAN scheme for upgrade and development.
 Under Union Budget 2021-22, the government lowered the custom duty from 2.5% to
0% on components or parts, including engines, for manufacturing of aircrafts by
public sector units of the Ministry of Defence.
 Under Union Budget 2021-22, the Indian government expanded the scope for ‘Krishi
Udaan’ in convergence with Operation Green Scheme, wherein air freight subsidy of
50% for agri-perishables would be provided to North East states and 4 Himalayan
states/UTs. The expansion of product-coverage will boost the ‘Krishi Udaan’ scheme
and improve air cargo transportation from these states.
 In February 2019, the Government of India sanctioned the development of a new
greenfield airport in Hirasar, Gujarat, with an estimated investment of Rs. 1,405 crore
(US$ 194.73 million).
 Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS) has been launched.
Achievements
Following are achievements of the Government:

 3,13,668 domestic passengers flew on February 28, 2021—the highest number since
resumption of domestic flights on May 25, 2020.
 Under RCS-Udan scheme, approximately 34,74,000 passengers were flown and 335
routes were awarded during 2019, covering 33 airports (20 unserved, 3 underserved,
10 water aerodromes).
 As of December 31, 2020, ~31 lakh Indians have been repatriated under the Vande
Bharat Mission (VBM). The VBM has so far involved 6,373 Air India flights and 474
 flights by private Indian carriers. About 1,035,471 Indian nationals have been
repatriated by Air India, whereas 74,675 Indian nationals have been brought back by
private carriers.
 In April 2020, the government introduced the ‘Lifeline Udan’ flights to transport
essential medical cargo to remote parts of the country to support India’s war against
COVID-19. Under this scheme, about 600 flights flew more than 5 lakh kms and
transported about 1,000 tons of essential cargo.
Road Ahead
India’s aviation industry is largely untapped with huge growth opportunities, considering that
air transport is still expensive for majority of the country’s population, of which nearly 40%
is the upwardly mobile middle class. 
The industry stakeholders should engage and collaborate with policy makers to implement
efficient and rational decisions that would boost India’s civil aviation industry. With the right
policies and relentless focus on quality, cost and passenger interest, India would be well
placed to achieve its vision of becoming the third-largest aviation market by 2020. The
expenditure of Indian travellers is expected to grow up to Rs. 9.5 lakh crore (US$ 136 billion)
by 2021. Due to rise in demand in air travel, India will need 2,380 new commercial airplanes
by 2038.
References: Media Reports, Press Releases, Press Information Bureau, Directorate General
of Civil Aviation (DGCA), Airports Authority of India (AAI), Union Budget 2021-22
Note: Conversion rate used in May 2021, Rs. 1 = US$ 0.01365
Note: * - International and Domestic, ^ - As per International Air Transport Association
(IATA) forecasts
Disclaimer: This information has been collected through secondary research and IBEF is not
responsible for any errors in the same