FARHAN KHOIRUDIN

1KB04
20120404

TUGAS ELECTRONIKA DASAR

Chapter 1
 Problems

1-5 The internal resistance of a voltage source equals 0.05 V. How much voltage is dropped
across this internal resistance when the current through it equals 2 A?
Given:
RS = 0.05 Ω
I=2A
Solution:
V = IR (Ohm’s law)
V = (2 A)(0.05 Ω)
V = 0.1 V
Answer: The voltage drop across the internal resistance is 0.1 V.

1.1 A given voltage source has an ideal voltage of 12 V and an internal resistance of 0.1 V.
For what values of load resistance will the voltage source appear stiff ?
Given:
V = 12 V
RS = 0.1 Ωn
Solution:
RL = 100RS
RL = 100(0.1 Ω)
RL = 10 Ω
Answer: The voltage source will appear stiff for values of load resistance of ≥10 Ω.

1.2 A load resistance may vary from 270 V to 100 kV. For a stiff voltage source to exist,
what is the largest internal resistance the source can have?
Given:
RLmin = 270 Ω
RLmax = 100 kΩ
Solution:
RS < 0.01 RL (Eq. 1-1)
RS < 0.01(270 Ω)
RS < 2.7 Ω
Answer: The largest internal resistance the source can have is 2.7 Ω.
1.3 The internal output resistance of a function generator is 50 V. For what values of load
resistance does the generator appear stiff ?
Given:
RS = 50 Ω
Solution:
RL = 100RS
RL = 100(50 Ω)
RL = 5 kΩ
Answer: The function generator will appear stiff for values of load resistance of ≥5 kΩ.

1.4 A car battery has an internal resistance of 0.04 V. For what values of load resistance
does the car battery appear stiff ?
Given:
RS = 0.04 Ω
Solution:
RL = 100RS
RL = 100(0.04 Ω)
RL = 4 Ω
Answer: The car battery will appear stiff for values of load resistance of ≥ 4 Ω.

 Critical Thinking

1-23 Suppose we temporarily short the load terminals of a voltage source. If the ideal
voltage is 12 V and the shorted load current is 150 A, what is the internal resistance of the
source?
Given:
VS = 12 V
IS = 150 A
Solution:
RS = (VS)/(IS)
RS = (12 V)/(150 A)
RS = 80 mΩ
Answer: If an ideal 12 V voltage source is shorted and provides 150 A, the internal
resistance is 80 mΩ.

1-25 Somebody hands you a black box with a 2-Kv resistor connected across the exposed
load terminals. How can you measure the Thevenin voltage?
Answer: Disconnect the resistor and measure the voltage.

1-26 The black box in Prob. 1-25 has a knob on it that allows you to reduce all internal
voltage andcurrent sources to zero. How can you measure the Thevenin resistance?
Answer: Disconnect the load resistor, turn the internal voltage and current sources to
zero, and measure the resistance.

1-27 Solve Prob. 1-13. Then solve the same problem without using Thevenin’s theorem.
After you are finished, comment on what you have learned about Thevenin’s theorem?
Answer: Thevenin’s theorem makes it much easier to solve problems where there
could be many values of a resistor.
1-28 You are in the laboratory looking at a circuit like the one shown in Fig. 1-20. Somebody
challenges you to find the Thevenin circuit driving the load resistor. Describe an
experimental procedure for measuring the Thevenin voltage and the Thevenin resistance?
Answer: To find the Thevenin voltage, disconnect the load resistor and measure the
voltage. To find the Thevenin resistance, disconnect the battery and the load resistor,
short the battery terminals, and measure the resistance at the load terminals.

 Troubleshooting

1-35 Using Fig. 1-22 and its troubleshooting table, find the circuit troubles for conditions 1 to
8. The troubles are one of the resistors open, one of the resistors shorted, an open ground,
or no supply voltage.
Answer:
1: R1 shorted
2: R1 open or R2 shorted
3: R3 open
4: R3 shorted
5: R2 open or open at point C
6: R4 open or open at point D
7: Open at point E
8: R4 shorted

Chapter 2

 Problems

2-1 What is the net charge of a copper atom if it gains two electrons?
Answer : -2

2-2 What is the net charge of a silicon atom if it gains three valence electrons?
Answer : -3

2-4 If a pure silicon crystal has 500,000 holes inside it, how many free electrons does it
have?
Answer : 500,000 free electrons

2-3 Classify each of the following as conductor or semiconductor:

a. Germanium
b. Silver
c. Silicon
d. Gold

Answer :
a. Semiconductor
b. Conductor
c. Semiconductor
d. Conductor

2-5 A diode is forward biased. If the current is 5 mA through the n side, what is the current
through each of the following?
a. p side
b. External connecting wires
c. Junction
Answer:
a. 5 mA
b. 5 mA
c. 5 mA

 Critical Thinking

2-10 A silicon diode has a reverse current of 5 _A at 25°C and 100 _A at 100°C. What are
the values of the saturation current and the surface-leakage current at 25°C?
Answer: Saturation current is 0.53 μA, and surface- leakage current is 4.47 μA at 25°C.

2-11 Devices with pn junctions are used to build computers. The speed of computers
depends on how fast a diode can be turned off and on. Based on what you have learned
about reverse bias, what can we do to speed up a computer?
Answer : Reduce the saturation current, and minimize the RC time constants.

 Troubleshooting

2-12. Open up and troubleshoot file MTC02-12.

Answer : R1 = 25 Ω

2-13. Open up and troubleshoot file MTC02-13.

Answer : R1 open

2-14. Open up and troubleshoot file MTC02-14.

Answer : D1 shorted

2-15. Open up and troubleshoot file MTC02-15.

Answer : D1 open

2-16. Open up and troubleshoot file MTC02-16.

Answer : V1 = 0 V

Chapter 3

 Problems
3-1 A diode is in series with 220 V. If the voltage across the resistor is 6 V, what is the
current through the diode?
Given:
R = 220 Ω
V=6V
Solution:
I = V/R
I = 6 V/220 Ω
I = 27.27 mA
Since it is a series circuit, the current flowing through the diode is the same as the
current through the resistor.
Answer: 27.27 mA

3-2 A diode has a voltage of 0.7 V and a current of 100 mA. What is the diode power?
Given:
VD = 0.7 V
ID = 100 mA
Solution:
P = VI
P = (0.7 V)(100 mA)
P = 70 mW
Answer: 70 mW

3-3 Two diodes are in series. The fi rst diode has a voltage of 0.75 V and the second has a
voltage of 0.8 V. If the current through the fi rst diode is 400 mA, what is the current through
the second diode?
Given:
VD1 = 0.75 V
VD2 = 0.8 V
ID1 = 400 mA
Solution: Since the diodes are in series, the current through each is the same.
Answer: 400 mA

3-5 If the resistor is doubled in Fig. 3-22a, what is the

load current?
Given:
VS = 20 V
VD = 0 V
RL = 2 kΩ
Solution:
IL = VL/RL (Ohm’s law)
IL = 20 V/2 kΩ
IL = 10 mA
Answer: 10 mA

3-8 If the diode polarity is reversed in Fig. 3-22b, what

is the diode current? The diode voltage?
Given:
 VS = 12 V
RL = 470 Ω
Solution: The diode would be reversed-biased and acting as an open. Thus the
current would be zero and the voltage would be source voltage.
Answer:
VD = 12 V
ID = 0 mA

 Critical Thinking

3-28 In Fig. 3-23a, what value should R be to get a diode current of approximately 20 mA?
Given:
VS = 5 V
VD = 0.7 V
ID = 20 mA
Solution:
VR = VS – VD (Kirchhoff’s law)
VR = 5 V – 0.7 V
VR = 4.3 V
R = V/I (Ohm’s law)
R = 4.3 V/20 mA
R = 215 Ω
Answer: R = 215 Ω

3-30 A silicon diode has a forward current of 500 mA

at 1 V. Use the third approximation to calculate its
bulk resistance.
Given:
500 mA at 1 V
0 mA at 0.7 V
Solution:
rB = (V2 – V1)(I2 – I1) (Eq. 3-7)
rB = (1 V – 0.7 V)/(500 mA – 0 mA)
rB = 600 mΩ
Answer: rB = 600 mΩ

3-31 Given a silicon diode with a reverse current of

5 _a at 25°C and 100 _A at 100°C, calculate the
surface leakage current.
1. IR = ISL + IS
2. 5 μA = ISL + IS(old)
3. ISL = 5 μA – IS(old)
4. 100 μA = ISL + IS(new)
5. IS(new) = 2(∆T/10) IS(old) (Eq. 2-6)
Substitute formulas 2 and 5 into formula 4.
6. 100 μA = 5 μA –IS(old) + 2(∆T/10)IS(old)
Put in the temperature values.
7. 100 μA = 5 μA –IS(old) + 2[(100ºC – 25ºC)/10]IS(old)
Move the 5 μA to the left side, and simplify the exponent of 2.
8. 95 μA = – IS(old) + 27.5 IS(old)
Combine like terms.
 9. 95 μA = (27.5– 1)IS(old)
10. 95 μA = (180.02) IS(old)
Solve for the variable.
11. IS(old) = 95 μA/(180.02)
12. IS(old) = 0.53 μA
Using formula 3:
13. ISL = 5 μA – IS(old)
14. ISL = 5 μA – 0.53 μA
15. ISL = 4.47 μA
Answer: The surface-leakage current is 4.47 μA at 25°C.

3-32 The power is turned off and the upper end of R1 is

grounded in Fig. 3-23b. Now you use an ohmmeter
to read the forward and reverse resistance of
the diode. Both readings are identical. What does
the ohmmeter read?
Given:
R1 = 30 kΩ
R2 = 10 kΩ
R3 = 5 kΩ 1-10
This condition will not occur if the diode is normal. It can be either opened or shorted.
If it is shorted, the resistance would be 0 Ω. If it is open, it would be the resistance of
the resistors.
Solution: The circuit would have R1 and R2 in parallel, and the parallel resistance in
series with R3.
R = [(R1)(R2)]/(R1 + R2) (Parallel resistance formula)
R = [(30 kΩ)(10 kΩ)]/(30 kΩ + 10 kΩ)
R = 7.5 kΩ
RT = 5 kΩ + 7.5 kΩ
RT = 12.5 kΩ
Answer: The resistance would be 12.5 kΩ if the diode is open and 0 Ω if the diode is
shorted.

3-33 Some systems, like burglar alarms and computers,

use battery backup just in case the main
source of power should fail. Describe how the
circuit in Fig. 3-24 works.
Answer : During normal operation, the 15-V power supply is supplying power to the
load. The left diode is forward-biased and allows the 15-V power supply to supply
current to the load. The right diode is reversed-based because 15 V is applied to the
cathode and only 12 V is applied to the anode. This blocks the 12-V battery. Once the
15-V power supply is lost, the right diode is no longer reversed-biased, and the 12-V
battery can supply current to the load. The left diode will become reverse-biased,
preventing any current from going into the 15-V power supply.

 Troubleshooting

3-34. Open up and troubleshoot fi le MTC03-34.

Answer : D1 is shorted
3-35. Open up and troubleshoot fi le MTC03-35.
Answer : D1 is open

3-36. Open up and troubleshoot fi le MTC03-36.

Answer : Power supply has failed and is 0 V

3-37. Open up and troubleshoot fi le MTC03-37.

Answer : R3 is shorted

3-38. Open up and troubleshoot fi le MTC03-38.

Answer : D1 is reverse biased

Chapter 4

 Problems

4-1 What is the peak output voltage in Fig. 4-36a if the diode is ideal? The average value?
The dc value? Sketch the output waveform.
Given: Vin = 50 V ac
Solution:
VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP = 1.414 (50 V ac)
VP = 70.7 V
Vp(out) = Vp(in) (Eq. 4-1)
Vp(out) = 70.7 V
Since the average and the dc values are the same:
Vdc = 0.318 VP (Eq. 4-2)
Vdc = 0.318 (70.7 V)
Vdc = 22.5 V
Answer: The peak voltage is 70.7 V, the average voltage is 22.5 V, and the dc voltage
is 22.5 V.

4-2 Repeat the preceding problem for Fig. 4-36b.

Given: Vin = 15 V ac
Solution:
VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP = 1.414 (15 V ac)
VP = –21.2 V
Vp(out) = Vp(in) (Eq. 4-1)
Vp(out) = –21.2 V
Since the average and the dc values are the same:
Vdc = 0.318 Vp (Eq. 4-2)
Vdc = 0.318 (–21.2 V)
Vdc = –6.74 V
Answer: The peak voltage is –21.2 V, the average voltage is –6.74 V, and the dc
voltage is –6.74 V.

4-3 What is the peak output voltage in Fig. 4-36a using the second approximation of a
diode? The average value? The dc value? Sketch the output waveform.
Given: Vin = 50 V ac
Solution:
VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP = 1.414 (50 V ac)
VP = 70.7 V
VP(out) = VP(in) – 0.7 V (Eq. 4-4)
VP(out) = 70.0 V
Since the average and the dc values are the same:
Vdc = 0.318 V (Eq. 4-2)
Vdc = 0.318 (70.0 V)
Vdc = 22.3 V
Answer: The peak voltage is 70.0 V, the average voltage is 22.3 V, and the dc voltage
is 22.3 V.

4-4 Repeat the preceding problem for Fig. 4-36b.

Given:
Vin = 15 V ac
Solution:
VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP = 1.414 (15 V ac)
VP = –21.2 V
VP(out) = Vp(in) – 0.7 V (Eq. 4-4)
Vp(out) = –20.5 V 1-11
Since the average and the DC values are the same:
Vdc = 0.318 V (Eq. 4-2)
Vdc = 0.318 (–20.5 V)
Vdc = –6.52 V
Answer: The peak voltage is –20.5 V, the average voltage is –6.52 V, and the dc
voltage is –6.52 V.

4-5 If a transformer has a turns ratio of 6;1, what is the rms secondary voltage? The peak
secondary voltage? Assume a primary voltage of 120 Vrms.
Given:
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 6:1 = 6
V1 = 120 Vrms
Solution:
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
V2 = 120 Vrms/6
V2 = 20 Vrms
VP = (1.414) (Vrms)
 VP = (1.414) (20 Vrms)
VP = 28.28 VP
Answer: The secondary voltage is 20 Vrms or 28.28 VP

 Critical Thinking

4-44 If one of the diodes in Fig. 4-41 shorts, what will the
probable result be?
Answer: If one of the diodes shorts, it will provide a low resistance path to either blow
a fuse or damage the other diodes.

4-45 The power supply of Fig. 4-45 has two output voltages.
What are their approximate values?
Given:
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 8:1 = 8
V1 = 120 V ac
Solution:
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
V2 = 120 V ac/8
V2 = 15 V ac
VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP = 1.414 (15 V ac)
VP = 21.21 V
Since each resistor is in the same current path and both have the same value, they
equally divide the voltage. Since they both have a capacitor input filter, they divide the
peak voltage.
Answer: Each power supply has 10.6 V, but the load connected to the right side of the
bridge is a positive 10.6 V and the load connected to the left side is a negative 10.6 V.

4-46 A surge resistor of 4.7 V is added to Fig. 4-45.

What is the maximum possible value of surge
current?
Given:
VP = 21.21 VP from Prob. 4-1
R = 4.7 Ω
Solution: The maximum surge current would be all of the peak voltage dropped
across the resistor.
I = V/R (Ohm’s law)
I = 21.21 V/4.7 Ω
I = 4.51 A
Answer: The maximum surge current will be 4.51 A.

4-47 A full-wave voltage has a peak value of 15 V.

Somebody hands you a book of trigonometry tables so that you can look up the value of a
sine
wave at intervals of 1°. Describe how you could
prove that the average value of a full-wave signal
is 63.6 percent of the peak value.
Answer: The signal is a sine wave, and thus the shape of the curve is a function of
sine. The formula for the instantaneous voltage at any point on the curve is V = Vp sin
θ. Using this formula, calculate the values for each point on the curve, add all 180 of
the 1° points together and divide by 180.

4-48 For the switch position shown in Fig. 4-46, what is

the output voltage? If the switch is thrown to the
other position, what is the output voltage?
Given:
Turns ratio = N1/N2 = 8:1 = 8
V1 = 120 V ac
Solution:
V2 = V1/(N1/N2) (Eq. 4-5)
V2 = 120 V ac/8
V2 = 15 V ac
VP = 1.414 Vrms
VP = 1.414 (15 V ac)
VP = 21.21 V
With the switch in the shown position, it is a bridge rectifier with a capacitor input
filter. Thus the output voltage would be 21.21 V.
With the switch in the other position, it is a full-wave rectifier with a capacitor input
filter. Since it is a center- tapped transformer, the peak voltage is half.
VP = 10.6 VP
The output would be 10.6 V.
Answer: With the switch in the shown position, 21.21 V; with the switch in the other
position, 10.6 V.

 Troubleshooting

4-50 Figure 4-48 shows a bridge rectifi er circuit with ideal circuit values and eight troubles—
T1–T8. Find all
eight troubles.
Answer :
Fault 1—Since the load voltage is 0.636 of the peak voltage, the capacitor input
filter is not doing its job; thus the capacitor is bad.
Fault 2—Since the load voltage dropped a little and the ripple doubled, one of
the diodes is open; this causes the frequence of the ripple to drop to half,
which in turn causes the ripple to double.
Fault 3—Since V1 is zero, the fuse must be blown. Since the load resistance is
zero, the load resistor is shorted. This caused the excessive current in the
secondary, which fed back to the primary and blew the fuse.
Fault 4—Since V2 is good and all other voltages are bad, the transformer and
fuse are good. R and C are good: thus either all four diodes opened (not likely)
or there is an open in the ground circuit.
Fault 5—Since V1 is zero, the fuse must be blown.
Fault 6—The load resistor is open. No current is drawn, and thus there is no
ripple.
Fault 7—Since V1 is good and V2 is bad, the transformer is the problem.
Fault 8—Since V1 is zero, the fuse must be blown. Since the capacitor reads
zero, the capacitor is shorted. This caused the excessive current in the
secondary, which fed back to the primary and blew the fuse.
Fault 9—Since the load voltage is 0.636 of the peak voltage, the capacitor input
filter is not doing its job and thus the capacitor is bad.
 Chapter 5

 Problems

5-4 If the zener diode is disconnected in Fig. 5-44, what is the load voltage?
Given:
VS = 24 V
VZ = 15 V
RS = 470 Ω
RL = 1.5 kΩ
Solution:
VL = [RL/(RS+RL)]VS (Voltage divider formula)
VL = [1.5 kΩ/(470 Ω + 1.5 kΩ)]24 V
VL = 18.27 V
Answer: The load voltage is 18.27 V.

5-5 Calculate all three currents in Fig. 5-44.

Given:
VS = 24 V
VZ = 15 V
RS = 470 Ω
RL = 1.5 kΩ
Solution:
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3)
IS = (24 V – 15 V)/470 Ω
IS = 19.15 mA
IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law)
IL = 15 V/1.5 kΩ
IL = 10 mA
IZ = IS – IL (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law)
IZ = 19.15 mA – 10 mA
IZ = 9.15 mA
Answer: The series current is 19.15 mA, the zener current is 9.15 mA, and the load
current is 10 mA.

5-6 Assuming a tolerance of 65 percent in bothresistors of Fig. 5-44, what is the maximum
zener current?
Given:
VS = 24 V
VZ = 15 V
RS = 470 Ω ± 5%
RS(max) = 493.5 Ω
 RS(min) = 446.5 Ω
RL = 1.5 kΩ
RL(max) = 1.575 kΩ
RL(min) = 1.425 kΩ
Solution: Looking at Eq. (5-6), the maximum zener current would occur at a maximum
series current and a minimum load current. To achieve these conditions, the series
resistance would have to be minimum and the load resistance would have to be
maximum.
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS(min) (Eq. 5-3)
IS = (24 V – 15 V)/446.5 Ω
IS = 20.16 mA
IL = VL/RL(max) (Eq. 5-5. Ohm’s law)
IL = 15 V/1.575 kΩ
IL = 9.52 mA
IZ = IS – IL (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law)
IZ = 20.16 mA – 9.52 mA
IZ = 10.64 mA
Answer: The maximum zener current is 10.64 mA.
IZ = 43.2 mA
Answer: The maximum zener current is 43.2 mA.

5-7 Suppose the supply voltage of Fig. 5-44 can varyfrom 24 to 40 V. What is the maximum
Zener current?
Given:
VS = 24 V to 40 V
VZ = 15 V
RS = 470 Ω
Solution: Maximum current will occur at maximum voltage.
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3)
IS = (40 V – 15 V)/470 Ω
IS = 53.2 mA
IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law)
IL = 15 V/1.5 kΩ
IL = 10 mA
IZ = IS – IL (Eq. 5.6, Kirchhoff’s current law)
IZ = 53.2 mA – 10 mA
IZ = 43.2 mA
Answer: The maximum zener current is 43.2 mA.

5-8 The zener diode of Fig. 5-44 is replaced with a 1N4742A. What are the load voltage and
the Zener current?
Given:
VS = 24 V
VZ = 12 V
RS = 470 Ω
RL = 1.5 kΩ
Solution:
VL = VZ = 12 V
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3)
IS = (24 V – 12 V)/470 Ω
 IS = 25.5 mA
IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law)
IL = 12 V/1.5 kΩ
IL = 8 mA
IZ = IS – IL (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law)
IZ = 25.5 mA – 8 mA
IZ = 17.5 mA
Answer: The load voltage is 12 V and the zener current is 17.5 mA.

 Critical Thinking

5-29 The zener diode of Fig. 5-44 has a zener resistanceof 14 V. What is the load voltage if
you include RZ in your calculations?
Given:
VS = 24 V
RS = 470 Ω
RZ = 14 Ω
VZ = 15 V
Solution:
IS = (VS – VZ)/RS (Eq. 5-3)
IS = (24 – 15)/470 Ω
IS = 19.15 mA
IL = VL/RL (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law)
IL = 15 V/1.5 kΩ
IL = 10 mA
IZ = IS – IL (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law)
IZ = 19.15 mA – 10 mA
IZ = 9.15 mA
ΔVL = IZRZ (Eq. 5-7)
ΔVL = (9.15 mA)(14 Ω )
ΔVL = 128.1 mV
VL = 15.128 V or approximately 15.13 V
Answer: The load voltage would be 15.13 V.

5-30 The zener diode of Fig. 5-44 is a 1N4744A. If the load resistance varies from 1 to 10
kV, what is the minimum load voltage? The maximum load voltage? (Use the second
approximation.)
Given:
VS = 24 V
RS = 470 Ω
RZ = 14 Ω
VZ = 15 V
RL = 1 kΩ to 10 kΩ
IS = 19.15 mA (from Prob. 5-29)
Solution:
IL(max) = VL/RL(min) (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law)
IL(max) = 15 V/1 kΩ
IL(max) = 15 mA
IL(min) = VL/RL(max) (Eq. 5-5, Ohm’s law)
IL(min) = 15 V/10 kΩ
 IL(min) = 1.5 mA
IZ(min) = IS – IL(max) (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law)
IZ(min) = 19.15 mA – 15 mA
IZ(min) = 4.15 mA
IZ(max) = IS – IL(min) (Eq. 5-6, Kirchhoff’s current law)
IZ(max) = 19.15 mA – 1.5 mA
IZ(max) = 17.65 mA
ΔVL(min) = IZ(min)RZ
ΔVL(min) = (4.15 mA)(14 Ω )
ΔVL(min) = 58.1 mV
ΔVL(max) = IZ(max)RZ
ΔVL(max) = (17.65 mA)(14 Ω )
ΔVL(max) = 247.1 mV
VL(min) = 15.058 V
VL(max) = 15.247 V
Answer: The minimum load voltage would be 15.06 V and the maximum voltage would
be 15.25 V.

5-31 Design a zener regulator to meet these specifi cations: Load voltage is 6.8 V, source
voltage is 20 V, and load current is 30 mA.
Given:
VS = 20 V
VZ = 6.8 V
VL = 6.8 V
IL = 30 mA
Solution:
RS(max) = [(VS(min) – VZ)/IL(max)] (Eq. 5-10)
RS(max) = [(20 V – 6.8 V)/30 mA]
RS(max) = 440 Ω
RS(min) = [(VS – VZ)/IZM]
RS(min) = [(20 V – 6.8 V)/147 mA]
RS(min) = 90 Ω
Answer: Any similar design as long as the zener voltage is 6.8 V and the series
resistance is less than 440 Ω, to provide the desired maximum output current, and
greater than 90 Ω, if a 1N4736A is used to prevent overcurrent if it becomes unloaded.
The load resistance does not need to be specified because, as a power supply, the
load resistance can vary. The only load parameter that is necessary is maximum
current, and it is given.

5-32 A TIL312 is a seven-segment indicator. Each segment has a voltage drop between 1.5
and 2 V at 20 mA. The supply voltage is 15 V. Design a sevensegment
display circuit controlled by on-off switches that has a maximum current drain of 140 mA.
Given: VLED = 1.5 to 2 V
ILED = 20 mA
VS = 5 V
Imax = 140 mA
Solution:
RS = [(VS – VLED(min))/ILED]
RS = [(5 V – 1.5 V)/20 mA]
RS = 175 Ω
Answer: Same as Fig. 5-20 with resistor values of 175 Ω, which limits each branch to a
maximum of 20 mA and a total of 140 mA.
5-33 The secondary voltage of Fig. 5-45 is 12.6 Vrms when the line voltage is 115 Vrms.
During the day, the power line varies by 610 percent. The resistors have tolerances of 65
percent. The 1N4733A has a tolerance of 65 percent and a zener resistance of 7 V. If R2
equals 560 V, what is the maximum possible value of the zener current at any instant during
day?
Given:
VLine = 115 V ac ± 10%
VSec = 12.6 V ac
R2 = 560 Ω ± 5%
RZ = 7 Ω
VZ = 5.1 V ± 5%
Solution: To find the maximum zener current, the maximum secondary voltage, the
minimum zener voltage, and the minimum resistance of R2 must be found. If the line
voltage varies by 10 percent, the secondary voltage should also vary by 10 percent.
VSec(max) = VSec + VSec (10%)
VSec(max) = 12.6 V ac + 12.6 V ac (10%)
VSec(max) = 13.86 V ac
VP = 1.414 V ac
VP = 1.414 (13.86 V ac)
VP = 19.6 V
VZ = 5.1 V ± 5%
VZ = 5.1 V – [(5.1 V) (5%)]
VZ = 4.85 V
R2 = 560 Ω ± 5%
R2 = 560 Ω – [(560 Ω ) (5%)]
R2 = 532 Ω 1-21
The circuit can be visualized as a series circuit with a 19.6 V power supply, a 532 Ω
R2, a 7 Ω RZ, and a 4.85 V zener diode.
IS = (VS – VZ)/(RS + RZ) (Eq. 5-13)
IS = (19.6 V – 4.85 V)/(532 Ω + 7 Ω )
IS = 27.37 mA
Answer: The maximum diode current is 27.37 mA.

 Troubleshooting

5-36 Find Troubles 1 to 4 in Fig. 5-48.

Answer :
 1. Open RS, since there is voltage at A and no voltage at B; also could be a short
from B or C to ground.
2. Open between B and D or an open at E. Since the voltages at B and C are 14.2
V, which is the voltage that would be present if the circuit were just a voltage
divider with no zener diode, suspect something in the diode circuit. Since the
diode is good, it is either an open between B and D or an open at E.
3. The zener is open. Since the voltages at B and C are 14.2 V, which is the
voltage that would be present if the circuit were just a voltage divider with no
zener diode, suspect something in the diode circuit. Since the diode reads an
open, it is bad.
4. RS shorted, which caused the zener to open. With all the voltages at 18 V, the
problem could be an open in the return path. But the zener is open, and the
most likely cause of that is overcurrent. The only device that could short and
cause the zener to burn open is RS.

5-37 Find Troubles 5 to 8 in Fig. 5-48.

Answer :
5. Open at A. Since all the voltages are zero, the power must not be getting to
the circuit.
6. Open RL, an open between B and C, or an open between RL and ground. To
solve this problem, the second approximation must be used. With the load
resistor operating normally, only part of the total current flows through the
zener, which causes the 0.3-V increase from its nominal voltage. But when the
load resistor opens, all the total current flows through the diode, causing the
voltage drop across the internal resistance to increase to 0.5 V.
7. Open at E. Since the voltages at B, C, and D are 14.2 V, which is the voltage
that would be present if the circuit were just a voltage divider with no zener
diode, suspect something in the diode circuit. Since the diode reads OK, that
only leaves an open in the return path.
8. The zener is shorted or a short from B, C, or D to ground. Since the voltages
at B, C, and D are 0, and A is 18 V, this could be caused by an open RS or a
short from B, C, or D to ground. Since the diode reads 0 Ω , it confirms that the
fault is a short.

Chapter 6

 Problems

6-1 A transistor has an emitter current of 10 mA and a collector current of 9.95 mA. What is
the base current?
Given:
IE = 10 mA
IC = 9.95 mA
Solution:
IE = IC + IB (Eq. 6-1)
IB = IE – IC
IB = 10 mA – 9.95 mA
IB = 0.05 mA
Answer: The base current is 0.05 mA.
6-2 The collector current is 10 mA, and the base current is 0.1 mA. What is the current gain?
Given:
IC = 10 mA
IB = 0.1 mA
Solution:
βdc = IC/IB
βdc = 10 mA/0.1 mA
βdc = 100
Answer: The current gain is 100.

6-3 A transistor has a current gain of 150 and a base current of 30 _A. What is the collector
current?
Given:
IB = 30 μA
βdc = 150
Solution:
IC = βdcIB
IC = 150(30 μA)
IC = 4.5 mA

6-4 If the collector current is 100 mA and the current gain is 65, what is the emitter current?
Given:
IC = 100 mA
βdc = 65
Solution:
IB = IC/βdc (Eq. 6-5)
IB = 100 mA/65
IB = 1.54 mA
IE = IB + IC
IE = 1.54 mA + 100 mA
Answer: The emitter current is 101.54 mA.

 Critical Thinking

6-36 What is the dc alpha of a transistor that has a current gain of 200?
Given: βdc = 200
Solution:
αdc = IC /IE (Eq. 6-2)
IC = αdcIE
βdc = IC /IB (Eq. 6-3)
IE = IC + IB (Eq. 6-1)
Substitute Eq. (6-2) for IC: βdc = αdcIE /IB
Substitute Eq. (6-1) for IE: βdc = αdc(IC + IB)/IB
Distribute αdc:
βdc = (αdcIC + αdcIB)/IB
βdc = αdcIC /IB + αdcIB /IB
Simplify: βdc = αdcIC /IB + αdc
Substitute Eq. (6-3) for IC /IB: βdc = αdcβdc + αdc
Factor out the αdc: βdc = αdc( βdc + 1)
Solve for αdc:
αdc = βdc/(βdc + 1)
αdc = 200/(200 + 1)
αdc = 0.995
Answer: The αdc is 0.995.

6-37 What is the current gain of a transistor with a dc alpha of 0.994?

Given: αdc = 0.994
Solution: From the previous solution:
βdc = αdcβdc + αdc
βdc – αdcβdc = αdc
Factor out the βdc: βdc(1 – αdc) = αdc
Solve for βdc:
βdc = αdc/(1 – αdc)
βdc = 0.994/(1 – 0.994)
βdc = 165.67
Answer: The βdc is 165.67.

6-38 Design a CE circuit to meet these specifi cations: VBB 5 5 V, VCC 5 15 V, hFE 5 120,
IC 5 10 mA, and VCE 5 7.5 V.
Given:
VBB = 5 V
VCC = 15 V
hFE = βdc = 120
IC = 10 mA
VCE = 7.5 V
VBE = 0.7 V
Solution:
βdc = IC /IB (Eq. 6-3)
IB = IC/βdc
IB = 10 mA/120
IB = 83.33 μA
IB = (VBB – VBE)RB (Eq. 6-6)
RB = (VBB – VBE)/IB
RB = (5 V – 0.7 V)/83.33 μA
RB = 51.6 kΩ
VCE = VCC – ICRC (Eq. 6-7)
RC = (VCC – VCE)/IC
RC = (15 V – 7.5 V)/10 mA
RC = 750 Ω
Answer: The base resistor needs to be 51.6 Ω, and the collector resistor needs to be
750 Ω. Note: These may not be standard values, so it may take more than one
resistor, or a potentiometer may be used.

6-39 In Fig. 6-33, what value base resistor would be needed so VCE 5 6.7 V?
Given:
VBB = 10 V
VCE = 6.7 V
VBE = 0.7 V (second approximation)
 VBE = 0 V (ideal)
RC = 820 Ω
VCC = 10 V
βdc = 200
Solution:
Ideal
VCC = VRC + VCE
VRC = VCC – VCE
VRC = 10 V – 6.7 V
VRC = 3.3 V
IC = VRC/RC
IC = 3.3 V/820 Ω
IC = 4 mA
IB = IC/βdc
IB = 4 mA/200
IB = 20.1 μA
IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB]
RB = [(VBB – VBE)/IB]
RB = [(10 V – 0 V)/20.1 μA]
RB = 497.5 kΩ
2nd Approximation
VCC = VRC + VCE
VRC = VCC – VCE
VRC = 10 V – 6.7 V
VRC = 3.3 V
IC = VRC/RC
IC = 3.3 V/820 Ω
IC = 4 mA
IB = IC/βdc
IB = 4 mA/200
IB = 20.1 μA
IB = [(VBB – VBE)/RB]
RB = [(VBB – VBE)/IB]
RB = [(10 V – 0.7 V)/20.1 μA]
RB = 462.69 kΩ
Answer: (Ideal) RB = 497.5 kΩ, (2nd Approximation) RB = 462.69 kΩ.

6-40 A 2N3904 has a power rating of 350 mW at room temperature (25°C). If the collector-
emitter voltage is 10 V, what is the maximum current that the transistor can handle for an
ambient temperature of 50°C?
Given:
PD = 350 mW @25°C
T = 50°C
VCE = 10 V
Solution:
ΔT = 50°C – 25°C
ΔT = 25°C
ΔP = ΔT (derating factor)
ΔP = 25°C (2.8 mW/°C)
ΔP = 70 mW
PD(max) = 350 mW – 70 mW
 PD(max) = 280 mW
PD = VCEIC
IC = PD/VCE
IC = 280 mW/10 V
IC = 28 mA
Answer: The maximum collector current is 28 mA.

Chapter 7

 Problems

7-1 What is the collector voltage in Fig. 7-30a? The emitter voltage?
Given:
VBB = 2.5 V
VCC = 20 V
RC = 10 kΩ
RE = 1.8 kΩ
VBE = 0.7 V
Solution:
VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-1)
VE = 2.5 V − 0.7 V
VE = 1.8 V
IE = VE/RE (Ohm’s law)
IE = 1.8 V/1.8 kΩ
IE = 1 mA
IE ≈ IC
VC = VCC − ICRC (Kirchhoff’s law)
VC = 20 V − (1 mA)(10 kΩ)
VC = 10 V
Answer: The collector voltage is 10 V, and the emitter voltage is 1.8 V.

7-2 If the emitter resistor is doubled in Fig. 7-30a, what is the collector-emitter voltage?
Given:
VBB = 2.5 V
VCC = 20 V
RC = 10 kΩ
RE = 3.6 kΩ
VBE = 0.7 V
Solution:
VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-1)
VE = 2.5 V − 0.7 V
VE = 1.8 V
IE = VE /RE (Ohm’s law)
IE = 1.8 V/3.6 kΩ
IE = 0.5 mA
IE ≈ IC
VC = VCC − ICRC (Kirchhoff’s law)
VC = 20 V − (0.5 mA)(10 kΩ)
VC = 15 V
VCE = VC − VE (Eq. 7-2)
VCE = 15 V − 1.8 V
VCE = 13.2 V
Answer: The collector-emitter voltage is 13.2 V.

7-3 If the collector supply voltage is decreased to 15 V in Fig. 7-30a, what is the collector
voltage?
Given:
VBB = 2.5 V
VCC = 15 V
RC = 10 kΩ
RE = 1.8 kΩ
VBE = 0.7 V
Solution:
VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-1)
VE = 2.5 V −0.7 V
VE = 1.8 V
IE = VE/RE (Ohm’s law)
IE = 1.8 V/1.8 kΩ
IE = 1 mA
IE ≈ IC
VC = VCC − ICRC (Kirchhoff’s law)
VC = 15 V − (1 mA)(10 kΩ)
VC = 5 V
Answer: The collector voltage is 5 V.

7-4 What is the collector voltage in Fig. 7-30b if VBB 5 2 V?

Given:
VBB = 2 V
VCC = 10 V
 RC = 910 Ω
RE = 180
VBE = 0.7 V
Solution:
VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-1)
VE = 2 V − 0.7 V
VE = 1.3 V
IE = VE/RE (Ohm’s law)
IE = 1.3 V/180 Ω
IE = 7.22 mA
IE ≈ IC
VC = VCC − ICRC (Kirchhoff’s law)
VC = 10 V − (7.22 mA)(910 Ω)
VC = 3.43 V
Answer: The collector voltage is 3.43 V.

7-5 If the emitter resistor is doubled in Fig. 7-30b, what is the collector- emitter voltage for
a base supply voltage of 2.3 V?
Given:
VBB = 2.3 V
VCC = 10 V
RC = 910 Ω
RE = 360 Ω
VBE = 0.7 V
Solution:
VE = VBB − VBE (Eq. 7-1)
VE = 2.3 V − 0.7 V
VE = 1.6 V
IE = VE /RE (Ohm’s law)
IE = 1.6 V/360 Ω
IE = 4.44 mA
IE ≈ IC
VC = VCC − ICRC (Kirchhoff’s law)
VC = 10 V − (4.44 mA)(910 Ω)
VC = 5.96 V
VCE = VC −VE (Eq. 7-2)
VCE = 5.96 V − 1.6 V
VCE = 4.36 V
Answer: The collector-emitter voltage is 4.36 V.

 Critical Thinking

7-38 Somebody has built the circuit in Fig. 7-35, except for changing the voltage
divider as follows: R1 5 150 kV and R2 5 33 kV. The builder cannot understand why
the base voltage is only 0.8 V instead of 2.16 V (the ideal output ofthe voltage
divider). Can you explain what is happening?
Answer : The circuit is no longer considered stiff or independent of Beta. The
base current is not small as compared to the voltage divider current.
7-39 Somebody builds the circuit in Fig. 7-35 with a 2N3904. What do you have to
say about that?
Answer : The maximum power dissipation of the 2N3904 is 625 mW. The
transistor is dissipating 705 mW. The transistor will probably overheat and fail.

7-40 A student wants to measure the collector-emitter voltage in Fig. 7-35, and so
connects a voltmeter between the collector and the emitter. What does it read?
Answer : As long as the voltmeter has a high enough input resistance, it
should read approximately 4.83 V.

7-41 You can vary any circuit value in Fig. 7-35. Name all the ways you can think of
to destroy the transistor.
Answer : Increase the power supply value, short R1.

7-42 The power supply in Fig. 7-35 has to supply current to the transistor circuit.
Name all the ways you can think of to fi nd this current.
Answer : Connect an ammeter between the power supply and the circuit.
Measure VR1 and VC, then calculate and add their respective currents.

 Troubleshooting

7-49 Find Trouble 1.

Answer: With VB at 10 V and R2 is good, the trouble is R1 shorted.

7-50 Find Trouble 2.

Answer: Since VB is 0.7 V and VE is 0 V, the trouble is RE is shorted.

7-51 Find Troubles 3 and 4.

Answer: Trouble 3: Since VC is 10 V and VE is 1.1 V, the transistor is good.
Thereforethe trouble is RC, which is shorted.
Trouble 4: Since all the voltages are the same, the trouble is that all the
transistor terminals are shorted together.

7-52 Find Troubles 5 and 6.

Answer:Trouble 5: Since VB is 0 V, it is either R1 open or R2 shorted. R2 is OK, so the
trouble is R1 open.
Trouble 6: R2 is open.

7-53 Find Troubles 7 and 8.

Answer:Trouble 7: Since VC is 10 V, there is an open below it or a short above it. A
shorted RC would not affect VB; therefore there must be an open below it. If the
transistor is open, VB would be 0 V; therefore the trouble is an open RE.
Trouble 8: R2 is shorted.
 Chapter 8

 Problems

8-1 In Fig. 8-31, what is the lowest frequency at which good coupling exists?
Given:
C = 47 μF
R = 10 kΩ
Solution:
XC = 1/(2πfC)
XC < 0.1R (Eq. 8-1)
1/(2πfC) = 0.1R
1/(2πC) = (0.1R)f
f = 1/{[2π(47 μF)][0.1(10 kΩ)]}
f = 3.39 Hz
Answer: The lowest frequency where good coupling exists is 3.39 Hz.

8-2 If the load resistance is changed to 1 kV in Fig. 8-31, what is the lowest frequency for
good coupling?
Given:
C = 47 μF
R = 1 kΩ
Solution:
XC = 1/(2πfC)
XC < 0.1R (Eq. 8-1)
1/(2πfC) = 0.1R
1/(2πC) = (0.1R)f
f = 1/{[2π(47 μF)][0.1(1 kΩ)]}
f = 33.9 Hz
Answer: The lowest frequency where good coupling exists is 33.9 Hz.

8-3 If the capacitor is changed to 100 _F in Fig. 8-31, what is the lowest frequency for good
coupling?
Given:
C = 100 μF
R = 10 kΩ
Solution:
XC = 1/(2πfC)
XC < 0.1R (Eq. 8-1)
1/(2πfC) = 0.1R
1/(2πC) = (0.1R)f
f = 1/{[2π(100 μF)][0.1(10 kΩ)]}
f = 1.59 Hz
Answer: The lowest frequency where good coupling exists is 1.59 Hz.
8-4 If the lowest input frequency in Fig. 8-31 is 100 Hz, what C value is required for good
coupling?
Given:
f = 100 Hz
R = 10 kΩ
Solution:
XC = 1/(2πfC)
XC < 0.1R (Eq. 8-1)
1/(2πfC) = 0.1R
C = 1/[2π(100 Hz)(0.1)(10 kΩ)]
C = 1.59 μF
Answer: A capacitor value of 1.59 μF is required for good coupling.

 Critical Thinking

8-35 Somebody has built the circuit in Fig. 8-31. The builder cannot understand why a very
small dc voltage is measured across the 10 kV when the source is 2 V at zero frequency.
Can you explain what is happening?
Answer: The capacitor has a certain amount of leakage current, and this current will
flow through the resistor and create a voltage drop across the resistor.

8-36 Assume that you are in the laboratory testing the circuit in Fig. 8-32. As you increase
the frequency of the generator, the voltage at node A decreases until it becomes too small to
measure. If you continue to increase the frequency well above 10 MHz, the voltage at node
A begins to increase. Can you explain why this happens?
Answer: A wire has a very small inductance value. As the frequency increases, the
inductive reactance starts to become significant. The wires connected to the
capacitor and the leads will start to have an inductive reactance, causing the voltage
to rise at the node.

8-37 In Fig. 8-33, the Thevenin resistance seen by the bypass capacitor is 30 V. If the
emitter is supposed to be ac ground over a frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz, what size
should the bypass capacitor be?
Given:
R = 30 Ω
f = 20 Hz to 20 kHz
Solution:
XC = 1/(2πfC)
XC < 0.1R (Eq. 8-5)
1/(2πfC) = 0.1R
1/(2πf) = (0.1R)(C)
1/(2πf)(0.1R) = C
C = 1/{[2π(20 Hz)][0.1(30 Ω)]}
C = 2653 μF
Answer: The capacitor would have to be at least 2653 μF, or 2700 μF (standard value).

8-38 All resistances are doubled in Fig. 8-34. What is the voltage gain?
Given:
R1 = 20 kΩ
R2 = 4.4 kΩ
RC = 7.2 kΩ
 RE = 2 kΩ
RL = 20 kΩ
VCC = 10 V
VBE = 0.7 V
Solution:
VBB = [R2/(R1 + R2)]VCC (Eq. 7-4)
VBB = [4.4 kΩ/(20 kΩ + 4.4 kΩ)]10 V
VBB = 1.8 V
VE = VBB – VBE (Eq. 7-5)
VE = 1.8 V – 0.7 V
VE = 1.1 V
IE = VE/RE (Eq. 7-6)
IE = 1.1 V/2 kΩ
IE = 0.55 mA
re' = (25 mV)/IE (Eq. 8-10)
re' = (25 mV)/0.55 mA
re' = 45.5 Ω
rc = RC || RL (Eq. 8-15)
rc = 7.2 kΩ || 20 kΩ
rc = 5.3 kΩ
Av = rc/r'e (Eq. 8-16)
Av = 5.3 kΩ/45.5 Ω
Av = 116
Answer: The voltage gain is 116.

8-39 If all resistances are doubled in Fig. 8-35, what is the output voltage?
Given:
R1 = 20 kΩ
R2 = 4.4 kΩ
RC = 7.2 kΩ
RE = 2 kΩ
RL = 20 kΩ
RG = 1.2 kΩ
VCC = 10 V
VBE = 0.7 V
Assume β = 100
VBB = 1.8 V (from Prob. 8-38)
VE = 1.1 V (from Prob. 8-38)
IE = 0.55 mA (from Prob. 8-38)
re' = 45.5 Ω (from Prob. 8-38)
re' = 5.3 kΩ
Av = 116
Solution:
zin = R1 || R2 || βre'
zin = 20 kΩ || 4.4 kΩ || 100(45.5 Ω)
zin = 2.01 kΩ
vin = [zin/(RG + zin)]vg (Eq. 10-4)
vin = [2.01 kΩ/(1.2 kΩ + 2.01 kΩ)]1 mV
vin = 0.626 mV
vout = Av(vin)
 vout = 116(0.626 mV)
vout = 72.6 mV
Answer: The output voltage is 72.6 mV.

 Troubleshooting

8-40 Find Troubles 1 to 6.

Answers:
Trouble 1: Since all the ac voltages are 0, the problem could be the generator,
RG open, or C1 open.
Trouble 2: Since the input voltage increased to 0.75 mV, the problem is an open
RE.
Trouble 3: Since there are no ac voltages and the base voltage has changed, the
problem is in the input circuit. Since there is a 0.7 V drop across the BE diode,
the transistor should be conducting and thus the collector voltage should be
less than 10 V. It appears that the BC diode is open, except the base voltages
are not consistent with that problem. To make this problem correct for the BC
diode open, return VB, VE, and vb to the OK values.
Trouble 4: Since the dc base voltage is 0 and there is an ac base voltage, the
problem is an R1 open.
Trouble 5: Since there is no output ac voltage, the problem is C2 open.
Trouble 6: Since there are no ac voltages and the base voltage has changed, the
problem is in the input circuit. The voltage points to an open R2.

8-41 Find Troubles 7 to 12.

Answers:
Trouble 7: All the dc voltages are OK; thus the transistor and resistors are OK.
Since the base and emitter ac voltages are the same, the problem appears to be
an open
bypass capacitor C3.
Trouble 8: Since there are no ac voltages and the base voltage has changed, the
problem is in the input circuit. Since the collector voltage is so low, the collector
resistor is open.
Trouble 9: Since there are no dc voltages, the problem is no VCC.
Trouble 10: Since the emitter voltage is 0 and the base voltage is near normal,
the problem is an open BE diode.
Trouble 11: With all the dc voltages the same, the problem is a shorted
transistor in all three terminals.
Trouble 12: Since all the ac voltages are 0, the problem could be the generator,
RG open, or C1 open.