UNIT II JOINING PROCESSES

Fusion welding processes – Types of Gas welding –Flame characteristics –

Filler and Flux materials - Arc welding, Electrodes, Coating and specifications
– Principles and type of Resistance welding-Gas metal arc welding–
Submerged arc welding – Electro slag welding – TIG welding – Principle and
application of special welding processes - Plasma arc welding – Thermit
welding – Electron beam welding – Friction welding – Diffusion welding – Weld
defects – Brazing and soldering process – Methods and process capabilities –
Adhesive bonding, Types and applications

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JOINING PROCESSES

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 WELDING
Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by
fusion. It joins different metals/alloys, with or without the application of
pressure and with or without the use of filler metal. The fusion of metal
takes place by means of heat

Welding is an alternative method for casting or forging and as a replacement

for bolted and riveted joints. It is also used as a repair medium,

• Welding is used for making permanent joints.

• Used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway

wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers,
general repair work and ship building.

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ADVANTAGES OF WELDING
Advantages
1. Welding is more economical and is much faster process as compared to
other processes (riveting, bolting, casting etc.)
2. Welding, if properly controlled results permanent joints having strength
equal or sometimes more than base metal.
3. Large number of metals and alloys both similar and dissimilar can be
joined by welding.

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4. General welding equipment is not very costly.
5. Portable welding equipments can be easily made available.
6. Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
7. Welding can join welding jobs through spots, as continuous pressure tight
seams, end-to-end and in a number of other configurations.
8. Welding can also be mechanized.

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DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING
Disadvantages
1. It results in residual stresses and distortion of the workpieces.
2. Welded joint needs stress relieving and heat treatment.
3. Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
4. Jigs, and fixtures may also be needed to hold and position the parts to be
welded
5. Edges preparation of the welding jobs are required before welding
6. Skilled welder is required for production of good welding
7. Heat during welding produces metallurgical changes as the structure of the
welded joint is not same as that of the parent metal

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 JOINING PROCESS

• Autogenous process: No filler metal is added during

the joining process i.e. Resistance, Cold welding,
Diffusion and hot forge welding

• Homogeneous process: Make use of filler metal but

of same composition as the parent metal i.e. arc, gas
and thermit welding
• Heterogeneous process: Filler metal soluble in both
the parent metal. 0
 Weldability of a Metal
• Metallurgical Capacity
• Parent metal will join with the weld metal without
formation of deleterious constituents or alloys
• Mechanical Soundness
• Joint will be free from discontinuities, gas porosity,
shrinkage, slag, or cracks
• Serviceability
• Weld is able to perform under varying conditions or
service (e.g., extreme temperatures, corrosive
environments, fatigue, high pressures, etc.)

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CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES
1. Forge or Pressure Welding (Under pressure without
additional filler metal)
(a) Friction welding
(b) Electric resistance welding
(c) Blacksmiths forge welding
(d) Cold pressure welding
2. Fusion or non-pressure welding (With additional filler
material)
(a) Gas welding (Heat created by Gas)
(b) Electric arc welding (Heat created by electrically)
(c) Thermite welding (Heat created by chemical Reaction)

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GAS WELDING PROCESSES

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• PRINCIPLE
A very hot flameOF OXY-ACETYLENE
is produced WELDING
by burning of the gases coming through the torch tip.
• The edges to be welded are heated up to melting. A filler metal is also added to
complete the welding. This molten metal mixture when solidifies on cooling forms a
welded joint.
• Oxygen cylinder and acetylene cylinder are filled with gases. Both the cylinders are
attached with pressure gauges, regulators and cylinder valves.
• The cylinder containing oxygen is painted black whereas the acetylene cylinder is
painted maroon. Hose pipes, are provided with each cylinder. These pipes are
connected to welding torch
• Many combinations of gases are used in gas welding. But the most common of these is
oxygen and acetylene.

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• To start PROCESS
WELDING welding, the acetylene control valve is turned first.
When acetylene comes out of the nozzle, it should be ignited
with spark lighter.
• It will give a yellow-colored smoke flame. After it, oxygen
cylinder valve is opened and supply is increased until a most
suitable flame is obtained. Then the flame is focused on the
edges to be welded.
• Flux and filler metal are also added with the heat of flame. The
edges and filler metal melt and a joint are formed after cooling
of the molten metal. The joint may be formed with or without
using filler metal

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• A fusion welding process which joins metals, using the heat of
combustion of an oxygen /air and fuel gas (i.e. acetylene,
hydrogen propane or butane) mixture is usually referred as ‘gas
welding”
• fuel gas combined with oxygen to produce a flame.
• The most common gas welding process uses acetylene; the process
is known as oxyacetylene-gas welding (OAW) and is typically
used for structural metal fabrication and repair work.

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 TYPES OF GAS WELDING
1. Oxy-acetylene Welding
• The process of oxy-acetylene welding can be used for almost
all metals and alloys for engineering purposes. A high
temperature flame (3200°C) can be produced by this method.

There are two systems of oxygen-acetylene welding.

(a) High Pressure System: In this process the oxygen and
acetylene are taken for use from high pressure cylinders.
(b) Low Pressure System: In this system oxygen is taken
from high pressure cylinder and the acetylene is produced by
the action of Calcium carbide and water.

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 GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT...
1. Gas Cylinders
Pressure
Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators
Working pressure of oxygen 1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene 0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure varies depends upon the thickness of the work pieces
welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
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APPARATUS (OR) EQUIPMENTS USED

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TYPES OF FLAME
Neutral welding Carburizing welding Oxidizing welding

Acetylene and oxygen in Excess of acetylene Excess of oxygen

equal proportions
Temperature around Approximate temperature Temperature as
(3260°C) of 3038°C. high as 3000°C
Well defined inner cone, The outer flame envelope is which is shorter, much
indicating that the longer than that of the bluer in color and more
combustion is complete neutral flame and is usually pointed than that of the
(blue colour) much brighter in color neutral flame
Commonly used for the welding high carbon steel. welding of copper and
welding of mild steel, copper-based alloys
stainless steel, cast Iron,
copper, and aluminium

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 Flux
• The chemicals which deoxidize the metal surface and provide
inert atmosphere around the molten metal are known as fluxes.
The main function of flux is given below:
1. To prevent oxides on the hot surfaces.
2. To reduce the viscosity of molten metal.
3. It maintains a steady arc in case of arc welding.
• Fluxes are available as liquid, powder, paste and gas.
• Powder flux is sprinkled on the surfaces to be welded or the filler

rod is dipped into the powder.

• Liquid & paste fluxes are sprayed on the surfaces to be welded.
• Gas fluxes are used to form inert atmosphere around the joint to be
welded
Filler
• The rod which provides additional metal in completing the welding
is known as filler. The composition of filler metal should be the
same as that of the metals to be welded. 0
Applications
Oxy-acetylene welding is particularly used for sheet metal work. All the
metals can be welded with proper filler metals. Same equipment may be
used for cutting purposes
Advantages of Oxy-acetylene Welding
1. Equipment is cheap as compared to other welding process.
2. It can be used for welding of all types of metals.
3. Maintenance of equipment is very less.
4. It is a portable process.

5. It can be used far cutting of metals of small thickness.

6. It is specially used for sheet metal work.
Disadvantages
1. It takes long time for heating the job as compared to the arc welding.
2. The heat affected area is more.
3. This is prone to corrosion and brittleness.
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4. Gases are expensive and difficult to store.
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

The welding in which the electric arc is produced to give heat for the purpose
of joining two surfaces is called electric arc welding.

PRINCIPLE

Power supply is given to electrode and the work. A suitable gap is kept between
the work and electrode. A high current is passed through the circuit. An arc is
produced around the area to be welded. The electric energy is converted into
heat energy, producing a temperature of 3000°C to 4000°C. This heat melts the
edges to be welded and molten pool is formed. On solidification the welding joint
is obtained.

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 Electric Power for Welding
• AC current or DC current can be used for arc welding. For most
purposes, DC current is preferred. In D.C. welding, a D.C.
generator or a solid state rectifier is used. D.C. machines are
made up to the capacity range of 600 amperes. The voltage in
open circuit is kept around 45 to 95 volts and in closed circuit it
is kept 17 to 25 volts. D.C. current can be given in two ways:
(a) Straight polarity welding.(direct-current electrode negative (DCEN)
(b) Reverse polarity welding. (direct-current electrode positive (DCEP)

• In straight polarity welding work piece is made anode and the

electrode is made cathode as shown in the fig 7.13. Electrons
flow from cathode to anode, thus, heat is produced at the
materials to be welded.
• In reverse polarity system the work is made cathode and the 0
electrode is made anode. This welding is done specially for thin
section.
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Equipment used for Arc Welding
Various equipments used for arc welding are as under:
1. D.C. Welding Equipment
(a) AC Motor - Generator set
(b) Diesel Engine - Generator set
(c) Transformer - Rectifier welding set
2. AC Equipment
(a) Welding transformer set
3. Equipment accessories
(a) Leads
(b) Holder
(c) Connectors
(d) Ground Clamps

4. Operator’s tool
(a) Chipping hammer
(b) Wire brush
(c) Arc shield
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(d) Closed shoe
The details of the above equipment and accessories are described below:
• 1. AC Motor Generator: In this a generator is driven by a
suitable AC motor. The average voltage of the generator is 25
volt. The current ranges from 25 to 100 amperes. The voltage in
the generator is variable. The voltage can be set to the desired
value with the help of rheostat.

• 2. Diesel Engine Generator Set: In this set, the drive is given by

a diesel engine. Rest of the system is same as in case of A.C.
motor generator. Diesel engine generator sets are used in the areas
when electricity is not available.

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 3. Transformer Rectifier Set: It allows the current to flow through it only in one
direction because it has a one way valve or solid rectifier installed on the
electrode side of the secondary coil. The set can supply straight polarity and
reverse polarity power supply. The rectifier, are of two types
(a) Silicon diode
(b) Selenium plate

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An 8 plate 160V 450mA

Federal brand Selenium Selenium rectifier from 1960s. 0
Rectifier Each plate is 1 inch square.
• 4. Welding Transformer Set: It is used to step down the voltage
supply. It consists of a primary and secondary circuit. The input
is given to primary winding. By electromagnetic induction the
current flows through the secondary coil. The output can be
controlled as per requirement.
• 5. Cables or Leads: These leads are made up of copper or
aluminium wire. The wires are insulated with rubber & cloth
fibre. A heavy insulation is necessary for these cables.
• 6. Face Shield: When arc is produced around the job, infrared
rays and ultraviolet rays are produced. To protect the face and
eyes from these dangerous rays, a shield is necessary.
• 7. Other Accessories & Tools: Other accessories & tools used
for arc welding

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Arc Welding

Uses an electric arc to coalesce

metals

Arc welding is the most

common method of welding
metals

Electricity travels from

electrode to base metal to

ground
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 Arc welding
Advantages
• Most efficient way to join
metals
• Lowest-cost joining method
• Affords lighter weight through
better utilization of materials
• Joins all commercial metals
• Provides design flexibility
Limitations
• Manually applied, therefore high
labor cost.
• Need high energy causing danger
• Not convenient for disassembly.
• Defects are hard to detect at joints.
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Welding Electrodes
Electrodes are of two types
(1) Consumable Electrodes
(a) Bare Electrodes
(b) Coated Electrodes
(2) Non-consumable Electrodes
(a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes
(b) Tungsten Electrodes

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 Consumable Electrodes
1. Coated electrodes: Coated electrodes are generally applied in arc
welding processes. A metallic core is coated with some suitable
material. The material used for core is mild steel, nickel steel,
chromium molybdenum steel, etc. One end of the coated core is
kept bare for holding.
2. Bare electrodes: Bare electrodes produce the welding of poor
quality. These are cheaper than coated electrodes. These are
generally used in modern welding process like MIG welding.
Electrode Size
• Electrodes are commonly made in lengths 250 mm, 300 mm, 350
mm, 450 mm, and the diameters are 1.6 mm, 2 mm, 2.5 mm, 3.2
mm, 4 mm, 7 mm, 8 mm and 9 mm.

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 Non Consumable Electrodes
• Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting
point materials like carbon, pure tungsten or alloy
tungsten etc.
• These electrodes do not melt away during welding.
• But practically, the electrode length goes on decreasing
with the passage of time, because of oxidation and
vaporization of the electrode material during welding.
• The materials of non consumable electrodes are usually
copper coated carbon or graphite, pure tungsten, and
zirconiated tungsten

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Functions of Coatings
The coating on an electrode serves the following functions:
1. To prevent oxidation.
2. Forms slags with metal impurities.
3. It stabilizes the arc.
4. Increases deposition of molten metal.
5. Controls depth of penetration.
6. Controls the cooling rate.
7. Adds alloy elements to the joint. Specifications of
electrodes.

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Electrode Classification and Coding
According to ISI coding system, an electrode is specified by six digits with
profile letter M.
For example IS: 815-ER1956
These six digits & M indicate the following matter:
M:It indicates that it is suitable for metal arc welding.
First Digit: First digit may be from 1 to 8, which indicate the type of coating
on the electrode.
Second Digit: It denotes the welding position for which electrode is
manufactured. It varies from 1 to 6.
Third Digit: It denotes the current to be used for an electrode. It is taken from
0 to 7.
Fourth Digit: Fourth digit is from 1 to 8. Each digit represents the tensile
strength of welded joint.
Fifth Digit: It carries any number from 1 to 5. This digit denotes a specific
elongation in percentage of the metal deposited.
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Sixth Digit: It carries any number from 1 to 5 and denotes impact strength of
the joint.
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• Resistance welding (RW) is a group of fusion-welding processes
that uses a combination of heat and pressure to accomplish
coalescence, the heat being generated by electrical resistance to
current flow at the junction to be welded. The heat energy
supplied to the welding operation depends on current flow,
resistance of the circuit, and length of time the current is applied.

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Types of Resistance welding
The major types of resistance welding are given as under:
(1) Spot Welding
(2) Seam Welding
(3) Projection Welding
(4) Resistance Butt Welding
(5) Flash Butt Welding
(6) Percussion Welding
(7) High Frequency Resistance Welding
(8) High Frequency Induction Welding
Some of the above important welding processes are discussed
as under,
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• Spot Welding
• The process is used to join sheet-metal parts of thickness 3 mm
(0.125 in) or less, using a series of spot welds, in situations
where an airtight assembly is not required.
• The size and shape of the weld spot is determined by the
electrode tip, the most common electrode shape being round,
but hexagonal, square, and other shapes are also used.
• The resulting weld nugget is typically 5 to 10 mm (0.2–0.4 in)
in diameter, with a heat-affected zone extending slightly beyond
the nugget into the base metals. If the weld is made properly, its
strength will be comparable to that of the surrounding metal.
• Materials used for RSW electrodes consist of two main groups:
(1) copper-based alloys and (2) refractory metal
compositions such as copper and tungsten combinations.
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The second group is noted for superior wear resistance
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• Applications of Spot Welding
• (i) It has applications in automobile and aircraft industries
• (ii) The attachment of braces, brackets, pads or clips to
formed sheet-metal parts such as cases, covers or trays is
another application of spot welding.
• (iii) Spot welding of two 12.5 mm thick steel plates has been
done satisfactorily as a replacement for riveting.
• (iv) Many assemblies of two or more sheet metal stampings
that do not require gas tight or liquid tight joints can be more
economically joined by spot welding than by mechanical
methods.
• (v) Containers and boxes frequently are spot welded.

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• Resistance Seam Welding
• In resistance seam welding (RSEW), the stick-shaped electrodes
in spot welding are replaced by rotating wheels and a series of
overlapping spot welds are made along the lap joint.
• The process is capable of producing air-tight joints, and its
industrial applications include the production of gasoline tanks,
automobile mufflers, and various other fabricated sheet metal
containers
• RSEW is the same as spot welding, except that the wheel
electrodes introduce certain complexities. Since the operation is
usually carried out continuously, rather than discretely, the
seams should be along a straight or uniformly curved line.
Sharp corners and similar discontinuities are difficult to deal
with
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 Applications
• 1. It is used for making leak proof joints in fuel tanks of
automobiles.

• 2. Except for copper and high copper alloys, most other metals
can be seam welded.
• 3. It is also used for making flange welds for use in watertight
tanks.

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• Resistance Projection Welding
• This process is a resistance welding process in which two or
more than two spot welds are made simultaneously by
making raised portions or projections on predetermined
locations on one of the workpiece.
• These contact points are determined by the design of the parts
to be joined, and may consist of projections, embossments, or
localized intersections of the parts.
• The projected contact spot for welding should be
approximately equal to the weld metal thickness. The
welding of a nut on the automotive chassis is an example of
projection welding.

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• In flash welding(FW), normally used for butt joints, the two
surfaces to be joined are brought into contact or near contact and
electric current is applied to heat the surfaces to the melting
point, after which the surfaces are forced together to form the
weld.
• Applications of flash welding include butt welding of steel strips
in rolling-mill operations, joining ends of wire in wire drawing,
and welding of tubular parts.
• The ends to be joined must have the same cross sections.
• For these kinds of high-production applications, flash welding is
fast and economical, but the equipment is expensive

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• Upset welding (UW) is similar to flash welding except that in
UW the facing surfaces are pressed together during heating and
upsetting. In flash welding, the heating and pressing steps are
separated during the cycle. Heating in UW is accomplished
entirely by electrical resistance at the contacting surfaces; no
arcing occurs.
• When the facing surfaces have been heated to a suitable
temperature below the melting point, the force pressing the
parts together is increased to cause upsetting and coalescence
in the contact region. Applications of UW are similar to those
of flash welding: joining ends of wire, pipes, tubes, and so on.

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• Percussion welding (PEW) is also similar to flash welding,
except that the duration of the weld cycle is extremely short,
typically lasting only 1 to 10 ms.
• Fast heating is accomplished by rapid discharge of electrical
energy between the two surfaces to be joined, followed

immediately by percussion of one part against the other to

form the weld.
• The heating is very localized, making this process attractive
for electronic applications in which the dimensions are very
small and nearby components may be sensitive to heat.

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 High-frequency resistance welding High-frequency induction welding
(HFRW) (HFIW),
High-frequency alternating current is used the heating current is induced in the parts by
for heating (10 to 500 kHz) a high frequency induction coil
The electrodes make contact with the work The coil does not make physical contact
in the immediate vicinity of the weld joint with the work

longitudinal seams of metal pipes and tubes

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HIGH-FREQUENCY RESISTANCE WELDING HIGH-FREQUENCY INDUCTION WELDING
(HFRW) (HFIW)

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Parameter Affecting Resistance Welding
1. Current: Enough current is needed to bring the metal to its plastic
state of welding.
2. Pressure: Mechanical pressure is applied first to hold the metal
pieces tightly between the electrodes, while the current flows
through them called weld pressure, and secondly when the metal
has been heated to its plastic state, to forge the metal pieces together
to form the weld, called forge pressure.
3. Time of Application: It is the cyclic time and the sum total of the
following time period allowed during different stages of welding
a. Weld Time :Time period during which the welding current flow through the metal
pieces to raise their temp.
b. Forge Time :Time period during which the forge pressure is applied to the metal
pieces.
c. Hold Time: Time period during which the weld to be solidify.
d. Off Time :The period of time from the release of the electrodes to the start 0of the
next weld cycle.
4. Electrode contact area: The weld size depends on the contact area
 ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS OF RESISTANCE WELDING

ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
It is well suited for mass production. High initial cost of the resistance
welding equipment
It is economical in operation, consumed Certain resistance welding processes are
except electrical power limited to lap joints

Skilled welders are not required

Welds are quickly made

It is possible to weld dissimilar metals

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 Gas Metal ARC Welding (GMAW) or Metal Inert Gas Welding
(MIG)
• Metal inert gas arc welding (MIG) or more appropriately called as
gas metal arc welding (GMAW) utilizes a consumable electrode.
• The consumable electrode is in the form of a wire reel which is fed
at a constant rate, through the feed rollers. (0.8 to 6.5mm dia)
• The welding torch is connected to the gas supply cylinder which

provides the necessary inert gas (argon, helium, carbon dioxide, or

various other gas mixtures)
• The electrode and the work-piece are connected to the welding
power supply. The power supplies are always of the constant
voltage type only.

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• The current from the welding machine is changed by the rate of
feeding of the electrode wire.
• Normally DC arc welding machines are used for GMAW with
electrode positive (DCRP).
• The DCRP increases the metal deposition rate and also provides
for a stable arc and smooth electrode metal transfer. With DCSP,
the arc becomes highly unstable and also results in a large spatter.
• But special electrodes having calcium and titanium oxide
mixtures as coatings are found to be good for welding steel with
DCSP. In the GMAW process, the filler metal is transferred from
the electrode to the joint.
• Depending on the current and voltage used for a given electrode,
the metal transfer is done in different ways.

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 Gas Tungusten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungusten Inert Gas
Welding (TIG)
• In this process a non-consumable tungsten electrode is used with
an envelope of inert shielding gas around it.
• The filler metal is supplied from a filler wire
• Because the tungsten electrode is not consumed in this operation, a
constant and stable arc gap is maintained at a constant current
level. The filler metals are similar to the metals to be welded, and
flux is not used

• The shielding gas protects the tungsten electrode and the molten
metal weld pool from the atmospheric contamination.
• The shielding gases generally used are argon, helium or their
mixtures. Typical tungsten inert gas welding setup is shown in Fig.
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Gas Tungusten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungusten Inert Gas
Welding (TIG)

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 Electrode materials
• The electrode material may be tungsten, or tungsten alloy
(thoriated tungsten or zirconiated tungsten). Alloy-tungsten
electrodes possess higher current carrying capacity, produce a
steadier arc as compared to pure tungsten electrodes and high
resistance to contamination.
Electric power source
• Both AC and DC power source can be used for TIG welding. DC
is preferred for welding of copper, copper alloys, nickel and
stainless steel whereas DC reverse polarity (DCRP) or AC is

used for welding aluminium, magnesium or their alloys. DCRP

removes oxide film on magnesium and aluminium.
Inert gases
• The following inert gases are generally used in TIG welding: 0

• 1. Argon 2. Helium
• 3. Argon-helium mixtures 4. Argon-hydrogen mixtures
• Tig Nozzle
• The nozzle or shield size (the diameter of the opening of the
shroud around the electrode) to be chosen depends on the shape of
the groove to be welded as well as the required gas flow rate.
• The gas flow rate depends on the position of the weld as well as its
size. Too high a gas consumption would give rise to turbulence of
the weld metal pool and consequently porous welds.
• Because of the use of shielding gases, no fluxes are required to be
used in inert gas shielded arc welding.
• However for thicker sections, it may be desirable to protect the

root side of the joint by providing a flux.

• The process is generally used for welding aluminium, magnesium
and stainless steel.
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 Submerged Arc Welding
• In this welding process, a consumable bare electrode is used in
combination with a flux feeder tube.
• The weld arc is shielded by a granular flux consisting of lime,
silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds.
• The flux is fed into the weld zone from a hopper by gravity flow
through a nozzle
• The flux also acts as a thermal insulator by promoting deep
penetration of heat into the workpiece. The unused flux can be
recovered (using a recovery tube), treated, and reused.
• The arc, end of the bare electrode and molten pool remain
completely submerged under blanket of granular flux.
• The feed of electrode and tube is automatic and the welding is
homogenous in structure. 0
• No pressure is applied for welding purposes. This process is used
for welding low carbon steel, bronze, nickel and other non-ferrous
 0

submerged-arc welding process

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 Applications
• Submerged arc welding is widely used in steel fabrication for
structural shapes (e.g., welded I-beams); longitudinal and
circumferential seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and
pressure vessels; and welded components for heavy
machinery.
• In these kinds of applications, steel plates of 25-mm (1.0-in)
thickness and heavier are routinely welded by this process.
Low-carbon, low-alloy, and stainless steels can be readily
welded by SAW

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 Electroslag Welding
• The arc is started between the electrode tip and the bottom of
the part to be welded. Flux is added, which then melts by the
heat of the arc.

• After the molten slag reaches the tip of the electrode, the arc
is extinguished.

• Heat is produced continuously by the electrical resistance of

the molten slag. Because the arc is extinguished, ESW is not
strictly an arc-welding process.

• Single or multiple solid as Well as flux-cored electrodes may 0

be used. The guide may be non consumable (conventional

method) or consumable
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• Electroslag Welding is capable of Welding plates with
thicknesses ranging from 50 mm to more than 900 mm, and
Welding is done in one pass.

• The current required is about 600 A at 40 to 50V although

higher currents are used for thick plates.

• The travel speed of the weld is in the range from 12 to 36

mm/min. Weld quality is good.

• This process is used for large structural-steel sections, such as

heavy machinery, bridges, oil rigs, ships, and nuclear-reactor
vessels
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Gas tungsten arc welding

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SPECIAL WELDING
PROCESSES

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 THERMIT WELDING
• It may be of forge or fusion kind of welding. Fusion welding
requires no pressure. It is a process which uses a mixture of iron
oxide and granular aluminium.
• This mixture in superheat liquid state is poured around the parts to
be joined. The joint is equipped with the refractory mold structure
all around.
• In case of thermit pressure welding, only the heat of thermit
reaction is utilized to bring the surface of metal to be welded in
plastic state and pressure is the applied to complete the weld. The
temperature produced in the thermit reaction is of the order of
3000°C.
• Thermit welding is used for welding pipes, cables, conductors,
shafts, and broken machinery frames, rails and repair of large gear
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• LASER is the abbreviation of Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.

• A highly collimated, monochromatic, and coherent light beam is generated

and focused to a small spot.
• Spectral property
• Highly directive properties
• High focused density

• High power densities (106 W/mm2) are then obtained. A large variety of
lasers are available in the market including solid-state, ion, and molecular
types in either continuous wave (CW) or pulsed mode (PM) of operation as
shown in Table 5.2.

• Lasers are widely used in many industrial applications including plating,

heat treatment, cladding, alloying, welding, and machining
 Laser-beam Welding
• Laser-beam welding (LBW) utilizes a high-power laser beam
as the source of heat, to produce a fusion weld. Because the
beam can be focused onto a very small area, it has high
energy density and deep-penetrating capability. The beam can
be directed, shaped, and focused precisely on the workpiece.
• A vacuum is not required, and the beam can be transmitted
through air.
• Laser beams can be shaped, manipulated, and focused
optically (by means of fiber optics), so the process can be
automated easily.
• The beams do not generate X-rays.
• The quality of the weld is better than in EBW; the weld has
less tendency toward incomplete fusion, spatter, and porosity;
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and there is less distortion.
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 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
• In EBW process, the heat is generated when the electron beam
impinges on work piece. As the high velocity electron beam
strikes the surfaces to be welded, their kinetic energy changes to
thermal energy and hence causes the workpiece metal to melt and
fuse.
• This process employs an electron gun in which the cathode in
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form of hot filament of tungsten or tantalum is the source of a
stream of electrons.
• The electrons emitted from filament by thermionic emission are
accelerated to a high velocity to the anode because of the large
potential difference that exists between them.
• The potential differences that are used are of the order of 30 kV to
175 kV. The higher the potential difference, higher would be the 0
acceleration. The current levels are low ranging between 50 mA
to 1000 mA.
• The electron beam is focused by a magnetic lens system on the
workpieces to be welded. The depth of penetration of the weld
depends on the electron speed which in turn is dependent upon
the accelerating voltage.
• When the high velocity electron beam strikes the work-piece all
the kinetic energy is converted to heat. As these electrons
penetrate the metal, the material that is directly in the path is
melted which when solidifies form the joint.
• Electron beam welding has several advantages which may not be
found in other welding processes.
• The penetration of the beam is high. The depth to width ratios
lies between 10:1 to 30:1 can be easily realized with electron
beam welding.
• It is also possible to closely control this penetration by
controlling the accelerating voltage, beam current, and beam0
focus. The process can be used at higher welding speeds
typically between 125 and 200 mm/sec. No filler metal or flux
• The heat liberated is low and also is in a narrow zone, thus the
heat affected zone is minimal as well as weld distortions are
virtually eliminated. It is possible to carry out the electron beam
welding in open atmosphere.
• For welding in vacuum, the work-piece is enclosed in a box in
which the vacuum is created. When electron beam moves in the
normal atmosphere, the electrons would be impinging with the
gas molecules in the atmosphere and would thus be scattered.
This scattering increases the spot size of the electron beam and
consequently there is lower penetration.
• As the vacuum increases, the scattering effect of the electron
beam decreases and hence, penetration increases. The other
advantage of using vacuum is that the weld metal is not
contaminated.
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• Almost any metal can be welded by EBW, and workpiece

thicknesses can range from foil to plate The EBW process is

mainly used for welding of reactive metals (nuclear reactor
components), titanium, zirconium, stainless steel, etc. for aero-
space and automotive industries.

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 Plasma Arc Welding
• Plasma arc welding (PAW) is a special form of gas tungsten
arc welding in which a constricted plasma arc is directed at the
weld area.
• In PAW, a tungsten electrode is contained in a specially
designed nozzle that focuses a high-velocity stream of inert
gas (e.g., argon or argon–hydrogen mixtures) into the region of
the arc to form a high velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream
• The arc is stable and reaches temperatures as high as 33,000°C.
A plasma is an ionized hot gas composed of nearly equal
numbers of electrons and ions.
• The plasma is initiated between the tungsten electrode and the
orifice by a low-current pilot arc. What makes plasma-arc
welding unlike other processes is that the plasma arc is
concentrated because it is forced through a relatively small0
orifice
 TRANSFERRED-ARC NON-TRANSFERRED
•The workpiece being welded is part of the •The arc occurs between the electrode and
electrical circuit. the nozzle, and the heat is carried to the
•The arc transfers from the electrode to the workpiece by the plasma gas.
workpiece hence the term transferred •This thermal-transfer mechanism is similar
to that for an oxyfuel flame
Applications
●better arc stability, less thermal distortion
●higher energy concentration, permitting deeper and narrower welds.
●In addition, higher welding speeds, from 120 to 1000 mm/min,. A variety of metals can
be welded with part thicknesses generally less than 6 mm.

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 Friction Welding
• In friction welding, developed in the 1940s, one of the
workpiece components remains stationary while the other is
placed in a chuck or collet and rotated at a high constant
speed.
• The two members to be joined are then brought into contact
under an axial force.
• The surface speed of the rotating parts may be as high as 900
m/min.
• After sufficient contact is established, the rotating member is
brought to a quick stop (so that the weld is not destroyed by
shearing) while the axial force is increased.
• Oxides and other contaminants at the interface are removed
by the radially outward movement of the hot metal at the
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interface.
• The rotating member must be clamped securely to the chuck
or collet to resist both torque and axial forces without
slipping. The pressure at the interface and the resulting

friction produce sufficient heat for a strong joint to form.

• The weld zone usually is confined to a narrow region; its size
depends on the following parameters:
• Amount of heat generated.
• Thermal conductivity of the materials.
• Mechanical properties of the materials being joined at
elevated temperatures.

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• Friction Stir Welding
• In conventional friction welding, heating of an interface " is
achieved through friction by rubbing two contacting surfaces.
• third body is rubbed against two surfaces to be joined.

• rotating non-consumable probe, typically 5 to 6 mm in

diameter and 5 mm high, is plunged into the joint.
• The contact pressure causes frictional heating, raising the
temperature to between 230° 260°C. The probe at the tip of
the rotating tool forces mixing (or stirring) of the material in
the joint.

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Friction Stir welding

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Friction Stir welding

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• Materials such as aluminium, copper, steel, and titanium have
been welded successfully, and developments are taking place
to extend FSW applications to polymers and composite
materials.
• The process is now being applied to aerospace, automotive,
shipbuilding, and military vehicles, using sheet or plates.
• The thickness of the welded material can be as little as 1 mm
and as much as 50 mm welded in a single pass.

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 DIFFUSION BONDING
• The principle of diffusion bonding dates back centuries to when
goldsmiths bonded gold over copper to create a product called
filled gold.
• First, a thin layer of gold foil is produced and placed over
copper, and a Weight is placed on top of the foil. Finally, the
assembly is placed in a furnace and left until a strong bond is
obtained; hence, the process is also called hot-pressure welding
(HPW).
• Although diffusion welding is used for fabricating complex
parts in low quantities for the aerospace, nuclear, and
electronics industries, it has been automated to make it suitable
and economical for moderate-volume production. Unless the
process is highly automated, considerable operator training and
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skill are required
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WELDING DEFECTS

1. Lack of Penetration
It is the failure of the filler metal to penetrate into the joint. It is
due to
(a) Inadequate de-slagging

(b) Incorrect edge penetration

(c) Incorrect welding technique.

2. Lack of Fusion
Lack of fusion is the failure of the filler metal to fuse with the
parent metal. It is due to
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(a) Too fast a travel
(b) Incorrect welding technique
3. Porosity
It is a group of small holes throughout the weld metal. It is
caused by the trapping of gas during the welding process, due
to
(a) Chemicals in the metal
(b) Dampness
(c) Too rapid cooling of the weld.

4. Slag Inclusion
It is the entrapment of slag or other impurities in the weld. It is
caused by
(a) Slag from previous runs not being cleaned away,
(b) Insufficient cleaning and preparation of the base metal before
welding commences.
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5. Undercuts
These are grooves or slots along the edges of the weld caused by
(a) Too fast a travel
(b) Bad welding technique
(c) Too great a heat build-up
6. Cracking
It is the formation of cracks either in the weld metal or in the

parent metal. It is due to

(a) Unsuitable parent metals used in the weld
(b) Bad welding technique.

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7. Poor Weld Bead Appearance
If the width of weld bead deposited is not uniform or straight, then
the weld bead is termed as poor. It is due to improper arc length,
improper welding technique, damaged electrode coating and poor
electrode and earthing connections. It can be reduced by taking
into considerations the above factors.

8. Distortion
Distortion is due to high cooling rate, small diameter electrode,
poor clamping and slow arc travel speed
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9. Overlays
These consist of metal that has flowed on to the parent metal

without fusing with it. The defect is due to

(a) Contamination of the surface of the parent metal
(b) Insufficient heat
10. Blowholes
These are large holes in the weld caused by 0

(a) Gas being trapped, due to moisture.

(b) Contamination of either the filler or parent metals.
11. Burn Through
It is the collapse of the weld pool due to
(a) Too great a heat concentration
(b) Poor edge preparation.
12. Excessive Penetration
It is where the weld metal protrudes through the root of the
weld. It is caused by
(a) Incorrect edge preparation

(b) Too big a heat concentration

(c) Too slow a travel.

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 SOLDERING

• It is a low temperature joining

process. It is performed at
temperatures below 840ºF for joining.

• Soldering is used for,

• Sealing, as in automotive
radiators or tin cans
• Electrical Connections

• Joining thermally sensitive

components
• Joining dissimilar metals

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 SOLDERING
• Soldering is a process of joining two metals by using another low
temperature metal alloy. The metal used for the joining purpose is
called solder. Solders are of two types:
• 1. Hard solder (alloy of copper and zinc)
• 2. Soft solder (alloy of tin and lead)
Process
• The surfaces to be joined are cleaned and are placed on each other.
A flux is employed to prevent oxidation. Zinc chloride is
commonly used for this purpose.
• The soldering iron is heated either electrically or by some external
heat. Then the hot end is dipped into the flux and solder is pressed
against the surfaces to be joined. A joint is formed by melting the
solder. 0
 Solder Fluxes
• The flux does not constitute a part of the soldered joint. Zinc
chloride, ammonium chloride, and hydrochloric acid are the
examples of fluxes commonly used in soldering.
• The function of fluxes in soldering is to remove oxides and
other surface compounds from the surfaces to be soldered by
displacing or dissolving them. Soldering fluxes may be
classified into four groups-
(1) Inorganic fluxes (most active)
(2) Organic fluxes (moderately active)

(3) Rosin fluxes (least active), and

(4) Special fluxes for specific applications

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Applications
Soldering is widely used for sheet metal work and in radio and
television work for joining wires.
Advantages
1. Joining cost is low
2. Equipment is very simple and cheap
3. Good sealing in fabrication as compared to other processes
like rivet, spot weld and bolts
4. It provides a positive electrical connection
5. Due to low operating temperature the properties of base

metal are not affected

Disadvantage
1. Joints formed are weak 0
 BRAZING
• The process of joining two metal surfaces by heating and adding
a non-ferrous alloy with melting point above 400°C is known as
brazing process.
• The surfaces to be joined are cleaned from all oil, dirt or oxides.
Then both the surfaces are placed in joining position. Flux is
sprinkled or placed on it.
• The heat is given to the surface and the filler metal. The molten
filler metal flows to the surfaces to be joined. On cooling,
brazing joint is formed.
• The filler metals used are copper, copper alloy, silver alloy and

aluminium alloys. In brazing, the filler metal melts but the

surfaces to be joined remain unmelted.
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BRAZING

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 The various methods used to melt the filler metal and flux are:
(a) Gas Torch Brazing: It is a commonly used process in which oxy-
acetylene torch is used.
(b) Furnace Brazing: The surfaces to be joined are placed in a
furnace already hot.
(c) Dip Brazing: The surfaces to be joined are dipped in molten filler
metal.
(d) Electrical Brazing: In electric brazing heat is produced by
resistance or induction method.
Applications
• Brazing is used for electrical items, radiators, heat exchangers,
pipes & pipe fittings and tool tips.

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Advantages
1. It is useful for joining dissimilar metals.
2. Thin sections can be easily joined.
3. Good finish is obtained on joint.
4. Less skill is required.
5. Cost of operation is less as compared to other welding
processes.
Disadvantages
1. Low strength.
2. Not applicable for hardened steel and aluminium alloys.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOLDERING AND BRAZING

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 ADHESIVE BONDING
• Numerous parts and components can be joined and assembled
by adhesives rather than by one or more of the joining methods
described thus far. A common example of adhesive bonding is
plywood, where several layers of wood are bonded with wood
glue.
Adhesive may require one or more of the following properties
• Strength: shear and peel
• Toughness
• Resistance to various fluids and chemicals
• Resistance to environmental degradation, including heat and
moisture

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• Capability to wet the surfaces to be bonded.
TYPES OF ADHESIVES AND ADHESIVE
SYSTEMS
a. Natural adhesives

-such as starch, dextrin (a gummy substance obtained from

starch), soya flour, and animal products.

b. Inorganic adhesives

-such as sodium silicate and magnesium oxychloride.

c. Synthetic organic adhesives

-which may be thermoplastics (used for non structural and some

structural bonding) or thermosetting polymers (used primarily
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for structural bonding).

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