AY2021 Term 2 A3049C L10 Lecture

OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE
A3049C – Lesson 10
Introduction to Food Additives
Diploma in Applied Science (Nutrition and Food Science)
For Modular Certificate in Food Chemistry and Analysis
Che Ser Tong
School of Applied Science

Republic Polytechnic
Lesson 10
Buffer Systems and Salts
(Practical/HBL)
Lesson 10 Outline
Time Session
Lecture/
1400 – 1530
Video on pH meter
1530 – 1545 Break
Worksheet/
1545 – 1715
Video on measuring food samples using pH meter
1715 – 1745 Discussion
1745 – 1800 Quiz and Q&A
All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.

Learning outcomes
• Describe the role of electrolytes, buffer systems and salts
in food samples
• Differentiate buffer solutions for weak acid and its salt

from weak base and its salt
• Identify the uses of citric, phosphoric and tartaric acids

as sequestrants added to food and beverages
• Determine the pH value of various food samples that

indicates acidic or basic conditions
• Acquire laboratory skills and perform simple experiments

using pH meter for acid or basic solutions
Acids and Bases

- Strong and weak acid
- Monoprotic and polyprotic acid
- Conjugate base/acid
- Acid Dissociation Constant
Acids and bases
• An acid is a proton donor, i.e. any species that

donates a H+ ion.
For example:
hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid,
malic acid
• A base is a proton acceptor, i.e. any species that

accepts a H+ ion.
For example:
potassium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide,
sodium bicarbonate

Strong and weak acids
• A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in a

solution.
For example:
hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulphuric acid
• A weak acid is one that only partially dissociates in a

solution. Most food acids are weak acids.
For example:
acetic acid, citric acid, lactic acid, malic acid,
tartaric acid

Strong and weak acids
• Strong acid dissociation
HCl (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
In a strong acid dissociation, the “ ” represents

complete and irreversible dissociation.
• Weak acid dissociation
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) CH3COO− (aq) + H3O+ (aq)
In a weak acid dissociation, the “ ” represents

partial and reversible dissociation.

Monoprotic and polyprotic acids
• A monoprotic acid is an acid that can donate only

one H3O+ per molecule, e.g. acetic acid, lactic acid
CH3CH(OH)COOH (aq) + H2O (l) CH3CH(OH)COO- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

Lactic acid Lactate ion
• A polyprotic acid can donate more than one H3O+ per

molecule, e.g. citric acid, malic acid, phosphoric acid,
tartaric acid
(COOH)CH2C(OH)(COOH)CH2(COOH) (aq) + 3 H2O (l)

Citric acid
(COO-)CH2C(OH)(COO-)CH2(COO-) (aq) + 3 H3O+ (aq)
Citrate ion
Carboxyl group
• Organic food acids such as acetic acid, citric acid,

lactic acid, malic acid and tartaric acid contain the
carboxyl group, COOH, which is responsible for the
donation of H3O+ ion.
O O
R C + H2O R C + H3O+
OH O
Carboxyl group Carboxylate ion

Chemical structures
Identify the carboxyl groups in the following acids, then
state whether they are monoprotic or polyprotic.
Citric acid Malic acid
Acetic acid
Lactic acid Tartaric acid

Conjugate base/acid
• After an acid has given up a proton, the resulting

component can be a proton acceptor, and it is known
as a conjugate base.
Example:
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) CH3COO− (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

Acid Conjugate
base

Conjugate base/acid
• Similarly, after a base has taken up a proton, it

becomes able to donate a proton, and it is known as a
conjugate acid.
Example:
NH3 (g) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH− (aq)
Base Conjugate
acid

Acid Dissociation constant, Ka
• For the dissociation of a weak acid, HA, in water:
HA (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + A− (aq)
• The equilibrium constant for this reaction is referred to

as the acid dissociation constant, Ka.
H3O+ [A− ]
Ka=
[HA]
• The stronger the acid, the higher the [H3O+] at

equilibrium, and the larger the value of Ka.

• For polyprotic acids, there will be more than one

dissociation step.
 Example:
1st step: H3A (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + H2A− (aq)
2nd step: H2A− (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + HA2− (aq)
3rd step: HA2− (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + A3− (aq)
 Hence, THREE separate equations can be written for

the equilibrium constants:
H3O+ [H2A− ] H3O+ [HA2− ] H3O+ [A3− ]

K a1 = K a2 = K a3 =
[H3A] [H2A− ] [HA2− ]

• All polyprotic acids have decreasing successive Ka

values, i.e. Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3
• This trend can be understood as a result of Coulombic

factors.
• After one H+ is removed, it is more difficult to remove the

second H+ from a negatively charged H2A– ion.
H3A -H+ H2A- -H+ HA2- -H+ A3-

Difficult More Even more
difficult difficult

• The table below shows the Ka of food acids at 25 oC

Name Formula Ka1 Ka2 Ka3
Acetic acid CH3COOH 1.8 × 10-5
Citric acid C6H8O7 7.4 × 10−4 1.7 × 10−5 4.0 × 10−7
Lactic acid C3H6O3 1.4 × 10-4
Malic acid C4H6O5 4.0 × 10-4 7.8 × 10−6
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 6.9 × 10−3 6.2 × 10−8 4.8 × 10−13
Tartaric acid C4H6O6 1.0 × 10−3 4.6 × 10−6

Buffer Systems, Electrolytes

and Salts
What is a buffer?
• A buffer solution is one which can resist pH changes when
a small amount of acid or alkali is added to the solution.
• An acidic buffer solution is made from a weak acid and its

conjugate base (salt of the weak acid).
Examples:
- Citric acid and sodium, potassium or calcium citrate
- Tartaric acid and potassium tartrate
- Phosphoric acid and potassium phosphate
• An alkaline buffer solution is made from a weak base and

its conjugate acid (salt of the weak base).
Examples:
- Ammonia solution and ammonium chloride

Why are buffers important in food?

• Buffering solutions in foods play an important role in
maintaining specific pH values for optimum activity of
enzymes, protein solubility, and functionality.
• pH may also modify the colour and flavour of foods and it is

a critical factor in the preservation of many processed
foods.
• Buffering solutions are also used as reaction media in the

production of food ingredients and additives.
• Overall, pH control is a major factor in maintaining the

physical, chemical, and microbiological stability of foods.


• Foods contain numerous compounds able to form buffering
systems.
• Molecules with acid-base properties naturally found in

foods include amino acids, organic acids, proteins, and
charged polysaccharides.
• Other buffering systems are intentionally added to

processed foods. These are the weak acids in foods and
their corresponding acid salts acting as conjugate bases.
• For example, the addition of sodium citrate to a food

containing citric acid will create a buffer solution.

• In the buffer solution, the weak acid and its salt exist in
equilibrium, and this allows them to resist changes in
acidity by reacting with any extra hydrogen ions to
remove them, or by generating new hydrogen ions
when needed. This maintains a constant acidity within
the food product.

What are electrolytes?

• Electrolytes are minerals that carry an electric charge. The
body needs electrolytes to regulate nerve and muscle function,
maintain acid-base balance and maintain fluid balance.
• Electrolytes such as chloride, potassium, sodium, magnesium

and calcium can be lost through sweat and need to be
replaced through the diet.
• Example:

Sodium and Chloride Foods

• Sodium and chloride (the two electrolytes that make up
table salt) are present in foods together and work in the
body to maintain fluid balance for proper cell function.
• Foods containing sodium and chloride include table salt,

beef, pork, sardines, cheese, olives, corn bread and
sauerkraut.
• All processed and canned foods made with added salt,

such as deli meats, chips and other snacks, nuts, butter,
margarine, mayonnaise and many condiments, have
sodium and chloride.

Salt substitutes
• Increased intake of salt causes high blood pressure which
may lead to kidney disease, heart disease and stroke.
• Use salt substitutes to minimize sodium intake.
• Artificial salt substitutes

 Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
 Potassium chloride (KCl)
• Natural salt substitutes

 Herbs and spices
 Lemon juice
 Apple cider vinegar

Potassium Foods
• Potassium supports normal cell function, regulates blood
pressure and prevents bone loss and kidney stones.
• Potassium is found in a multitude of fruits and vegetables

especially leafy green vegetables such as spinach, turnip
greens, collard greens and kale, bananas, tomatoes,
oranges, melons, potatoes and sweet potatoes, prunes,
raisins, peas and beans.
• Potassium is also found in milk and salt substitutes made

from potassium chloride.

Magnesium Foods
• Magnesium supports bone and teeth development, nerve
and muscle function, and enzyme activation.
• Getting enough magnesium in your diet also protects you

from high blood pressure, a factor that increases your risk
of heart disease, and combats osteoporosis.
• It is found in leafy green vegetables, nuts, cereals, beans,

tomatoes, avocados and bananas.

Calcium Foods
• The body uses calcium for bone and teeth formation, blood
clotting, muscle and enzyme function, and normal heart
rhythms.
• Calcium is most commonly found in milk and milk products.

It is also found in meat, fish with bones such as sardines,
eggs, fortified breakfast cereals, beans and certain fruits
such as dried apricots and figs, and vegetables such as
asparagus and collard greens.

Sequestrants
- Citric acid
- Phosphoric acid
- Tartaric acid
Sequestrants
• A sequestrant is a term for a food additive which helps to
improve the quality and stability of food products.
• Metals such as iron, copper and nickel occur in trace

amounts in foods, and are active catalysts of undesirable
oxidative reactions.
• Sequestrants are referred to as metal scavengers. They

combine with trace metals and remove them from solution.
• Many of the sequestrants employed by the food industry

include citric acid, tartaric acid and phosphoric acid.
• Sequestrants serve to stabilise the numerous properties

identified with food including colour, flavour and texture.
Sequestrants – Sales of Food Act

FOOD ADDITIVES (Pg 42 of the PDF document)

Citric acid
• Citric acid (E330) is a weak organic acid with the formula
C6H8O7.
• It is a natural component of fruits and fruit juices, with the

largest amounts being in citrus fruits.
• The dominant use of citric acid is as a flavouring enhancer

in beverages.
• Citric acid is often added to jams, jellies, candy, canned

fruits and vegetables as a preservative. It helps to regulate
acidity, functions as an antioxidant and helps retain colour.

Citrate salts as buffering agent

• Salts of citric acids are known as citrates. Citrate additives
are widely used antioxidants and buffers that have a range of
applications. They are all capable of reducing the chemical
reaction that causes the discoloration of fruit, so a member of
this group of chemicals is often the additive of choice in fruit
products.
• Sodium citrate (E331) is a versatile food additive used as a

buffer principally in jams and jellies.
• Potassium citrate (E332) is another antioxidant and buffering

additive that is found in a number of food products including
cakes and biscuits, cheese and jam.
• Calcium citrate (E333) is an important acidity regulator that is

often used in carbonated drinks.
Read more : http://www.ehow.com/info_7786349_food-additives-act-buffer.html
Tartaric acid
• Tartaric acid (E334) is a white organic crystalline acid with
the chemical formula C4H6O6. This acid occurs naturally in
many plants, particularly grapes, bananas
and tamarinds.
• It is commonly combined with baking soda to

function as a leavening agent in recipes, and
it is one of the main acids found in wine.
• It is added to other foods to give a sour taste, and is used

as an antioxidant.
• Tartaric acid can be used as a natural

preservative for soft drinks, fruit juices, candies
and certain types of jams.
Tartrates salts
• Salts of tartaric acids are known as tartrates.
• Potassium tartrate (E336) is obtained from grapes during

the wine-making process.
• In addition to its buffering action, potassium tartrate also

helps bread to rise consistently. It is used as a buffer in
wine and bread production, and may also be added to fruit
pie mixes.

Phosphoric acid
• Phosphoric acid (E338) is a mineral (inorganic)
acid having the chemical formula H3PO4.
• It is a non-toxic acid, which when pure, is a solid at

room temperature and pressure.
• Food-grade phosphoric acid is to give a sharp flavour to

food or to serve as a preservative.

Phosphoric acid
• The most widely consumed source of phosphoric acid is soft
drinks. Phosphoric acid is responsible for the characteristic
biting taste associated with colas and other dark-coloured
carbonated sodas.
• In addition to colas, many sports drinks, bottled teas, punches

and fruit-flavoured beverages contain phosphoric acid.

Phosphate salts
• Salts of phosphoric acids are known as phosphates.
• Monopotassium phosphate (E340) is principally used as an

antioxidant, but it also has buffering capabilities.
• It is used in pudding products such as custard and milk

powder and jelly mixes, and may be added to cooked meat.
• Monopotassium phosphate is an important ingredient in

many sports drinks, as it provides potassium as an
electrolyte, as well as offers buffering action.

Phosphate salts
• Sodium phosphate (E339) can be added to food to keep it
from becoming too acidic or alkaline.
• Sodium phosphate can serve as an emulsifier. An emulsifier is
added to allow for the uniform dispersion of two or more
ingredients that would otherwise be immiscible.
• The most common specific purpose of an emulsifier is to
prevent oil from separating from the rest of the mixture.
Sodium phosphate is commonly added as an emulsifying
agent to processed cheeses, processed meats and canned
soups.
• Sodium phosphate may be added to a baked product to help
the dough rise. The most common uses of sodium phosphate
as a leavening agent are in batter for breaded chicken or fish,
and commercially sold cakes.
Summary
The following table is a summary of common food acids and
salts that are used as buffers in our foods:
Number Name Comment
330 Citric acid Derived from citrus fruits. Used in foods as an
antioxidant, acidity regulator and sequestrants.
331 Sodium Sodium salt of citric acid. Used in foods as an
citrate antioxidant and acidity regulator.
332 Potassium Potassium salt of citric acid. Used in foods as an
citrate antioxidant and acidity regulator.
333 Calcium Calcium salt of citric acid. Used in foods as a firming
citrate agent, acidity regulator and sequestrants.
334 Tartaric acid Occurs in certain fruits and wines. Used in foods as
an antioxidant, acidity regulator and sequestrants.
335 Sodium Sodium salt of tartaric acid. Used in foods as an
tartrate antioxidant and acidity regulator.
336 Potassium Potassium salt of tartaric acid. Used in foods as an
tartrate antioxidant and acidity regulator.
Summary
The following table is a summary of common food acids and
salts that are used as buffers in our foods:
Number Name Comment

338 Phosphoric Non-organic acid. Used in foods to enhance the
acid antioxidant effects of other compounds present, and
also act as an acidity regulator.
339 Sodium Sodium salt of phosphoric acid. Used in foods as an
phosphate antioxidant synergist, a stabiliser and a buffer.
340 Potassium Potassium salt of phosphoric acid. Used in foods as
phosphate an antioxidant synergist, a buffer and emulsifier.

Measurement of pH using
pH meter
pH and [H3O+]
• The hydronium ion concentration, [H3O+] is generally

expressed in terms of pH.
pH = − log [H3O+]
• The lower the pH, the greater the hydronium ion

concentration.
Example:
If the hydronium concentration is 4 × 10-4 M, what is

the pH of the solution?
pH = − log [4 × 10-4] = 3.4

pH meter
• A pH meter is an electronic equipment used to measure pH
which is linked to the concentration of [H3O+] in an aqueous
solution.
• The pH value will indicate whether a solution is acidic,

neutral or alkaline.
• Acidic solutions have a pH < 7, neutral solutions have a pH

of 7, and alkaline solutions have a pH > 7.

pH meter
• A typical pH meter consists of a special measuring probe
(a glass electrode) connected to an electronic meter that
measures and displays the pH reading.
• The probe is a rod-like structure usually made up of glass.

At the bottom of the probe there is a bulb which contains
the sensor.
• The bulb should be cleaned with the help of an

absorbent tissue paper, e.g. Kimwipes. Care must
be taken not to rub the tissue against the glass
bulb in order to avoid creating static.
• To measure the pH of a solution, the probe is dipped into

the solution.
Calibrating and using a pH meter
Website on calibrating and using a pH meter

https://www.wikihow.com/Calibrate-and-Use-a-pH-Meter
Video on calibrating and using a pH meter

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwY-xWMam7o

Measuring pH of food samples
Video on measuring pH of food samples

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QMfCYkZPvXg

Worksheet
Discussion
followed by …
Quiz and Q&A

References and Resources

1) Theron MM and Lues JFR (2011). Organic acids and food
preservation, CRC Press.
2) Rahman MS (2007). Handbook of Food Preservation, CRC Press.
3) Zeuthen P and Bogh-Sorensen L (2003), Food Preservation

Techniques, CRC Press, Woodhead Publishing Limited
4) Steen DP and Ashurst PR (2006), Carbonated Soft Drinks:

Formulation and Manufacture, Blackwell Publishing
5) Letterhead Food Research, http://www.leatherheadfood.com/food-

preservation-technologies
6) Codex Alimentarius,
http://www.codexalimentarius.net/gsfaonline/additives/index.html

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OFFICIAL (CLOSED) \ NON-SENSITIVE

For Modular Certificate in Food Chemistry and Analysis

Che Ser Tong

School of Applied Science

1530 – 1545 Break

1715 – 1745 Discussion

1745 – 1800 Quiz and Q&A

All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.

• Differentiate buffer solutions for weak acid and its salt

• Identify the uses of citric, phosphoric and tartaric acids

• Determine the pH value of various food samples that

• Acquire laboratory skills and perform simple experiments

Acids and Bases

Acids and bases

• An acid is a proton donor, i.e. any species that

• A base is a proton acceptor, i.e. any species that

All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.

Strong and weak acids

• A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in a

• A weak acid is one that only partially dissociates in a

All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.

Strong and weak acids

• Strong acid dissociation

HCl (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

In a strong acid dissociation, the “ ” represents

• Weak acid dissociation

CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) CH3COO− (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

In a weak acid dissociation, the “ ” represents

All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.

Monoprotic and polyprotic acids

• A monoprotic acid is an acid that can donate only

CH3CH(OH)COOH (aq) + H2O (l) CH3CH(OH)COO- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

• A polyprotic acid can donate more than one H3O+ per

(COOH)CH2C(OH)(COOH)CH2(COOH) (aq) + 3 H2O (l)

• Organic food acids such as acetic acid, citric acid,

Carboxyl group Carboxylate ion

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Citric acid Malic acid

Lactic acid Tartaric acid

• After an acid has given up a proton, the resulting

CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) CH3COO− (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.

• Similarly, after a base has taken up a proton, it

NH3 (g) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH− (aq)

All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.

Acid Dissociation constant, Ka

• For the dissociation of a weak acid, HA, in water:

HA (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + A− (aq)

• The equilibrium constant for this reaction is referred to

• The stronger the acid, the higher the [H3O+] at

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Acid Dissociation constant, Ka

• For polyprotic acids, there will be more than one

 Hence, THREE separate equations can be written for

H3O+ [H2A− ] H3O+ [HA2− ] H3O+ [A3− ]

All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.

Acid Dissociation constant, Ka

• All polyprotic acids have decreasing successive Ka

• This trend can be understood as a result of Coulombic

• After one H+ is removed, it is more difficult to remove the

H3A -H+ H2A- -H+ HA2- -H+ A3-

All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.

Acid Dissociation constant, Ka