Fundamentals of Agronomy

Course Code: AGR 101

Lecture 1 : Introduction to Agriculture and Agronomy

The course entitled “​Fundamentals of Agronomy​” provides the elementary concept of

agriculture and agronomy. It explains the relevant terminology and deals with the basic
principles of agronomy to understand relationships between crop plants and environmental
factors and the efficient use of these factors in favor of crop production.

Agriculture
Agriculture is a branch of applied science. It is defined as the art and science of growing plants
and other crops and rearing of animal for food ,other human need or for economic gain through
available natural resources. Agricultural development was the key development that led to the
rise of civilization, with the husbandry of domesticated animals and plants (crops). The word
agriculture is the English adaptation of Latin ​agricultura,​ from ‘​ager’ meaning soil and ‘​cultura​’
meaning cultivation. In the strict sense agriculture means ‘tillage of the soil’.
Agriculture is defined as the art, the science and the business of producing crops and the
livestock for economic purposes.

As an art, ​it embraces knowledge of the way to perform the operations of the farm in a skillful
manner. The skill is categorized as;
Physical skill: It involves the ability and capacity to carry out the operation in an efficient way
for e.g., handling of farm implements, animals etc., sowing of seeds, fertilizer and pesticides
application etc.
Mental skill: The farmer is able to take a decision based on experience, such as (i) time and
method of ploughing, (ii) selection of crop and cropping system to suit soil and climate, (iii)
adopting improved farm practices etc.
As a science : ​It utilizes all modern technologies developed on scientific principles such as crop
improvement/breeding, crop production, crop protection, economics etc., to maximize the yield
and profit. For example, new crops and varieties developed by hybridization, transgenic crop
varieties resistant to pests and diseases, hybrids in each crop, high fertilizer responsive varieties,
water management, herbicides to control weeds, use of bio-control agents to combat pest and
diseases etc.
As the business : ​As long as agriculture is the way of life of the rural population, production is
ultimately bound to consumption. But agriculture as a business aims at maximum net return
through the management of land, labour, water and capital, employing the knowledge of various
sciences for production of food, feed, fibre and fuel. In recent years, agriculture is
commercialized to run as a business through mechanization.

In true sense there ​are two productive units​ in agriculture:

a) The ​primary productive unit that includes all crop plants. The gifts of nature namely,
land solar radiation, air, temperature, water etc. are integrated into this primary
productive unit.
b) The ​secondary productive unit includes animals namely, livestock animals, poultry
birds, fishes and economic insects. The secondary unit feeds on primary productive unit
and provides many products, such as meat, milk eggs, honey wool, hide, silk etc.
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Branches of Agriculture
A. Crop Improvement (​i​) Plant breeding and genetics 
(​ii​) Bio-technology
B. Crop Management (​i​) Agronomy 
(​ii​) Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry 
(​iii​) Seed technology 
(​iv​) Agricultural Microbiology 
(​v​) Crop-Physiology 
(​vi​) Agricultural Engineering 
(​vii​) Environmental Sciences 
(​viii​) Agricultural Meteorology
C. Crop Protection (​i​) Agricultural Entomology 
(​ii​) Plant Pathology 
(​iii​) Nematology
D. Social Sciences (​i​) Agricultural Extension 
(​ii​) Agricultural Economics
Allied disciplines (​i​) Agricultural Statistics 
(​ii​) English and Tamil 
(​iii​) Mathematics 
(​iv​) Bio-Chemistry etc.

Importance of Agriculture
1. Agriculture provides the basic needs of the human beings such as foods, clothing,
shelters, medicine and recreation.
2. Agriculture provides raw materials for agro-industries.
3. It provides a free, fair and fresh environment and helps maintain a biological equilibrium
in the nature.
4. It helps in controlling flood.
5. Agriculture helps the nation to earn foreign exchange and to build up the national
economy.
6. With satisfactory production, agriculture brings peace, prosperity, harmony, health and
wealth to the individuals of a nation.
7. Export and import of agricultural commodities help maintain good relationship among
the nations of the world.

Role of Agriculture in the Economy of Bangladesh

1. The economy of Bangladesh is mainly dependent on agriculture.

2. The agricultural sector comprises crops, fisheries and livestock.
3. About 85% of the total population of the country lives in the rural areas. The rural people
are directly or indirectly involved in wide range of agricultural activities.

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 4. Agricultural sector is the single largest contributor to national GDP (Gross Domestic
Products). Of the agricultural GDP, the crop sub-sector contributes 71%, forest 10%,
fisheries 10% and livestock 9%.
5. The agricultural sector is the single largest contributor to income and employment
generation.
6. Agriculture is the vital element in the country’s challenge to achieve self-sufficiency in
food production and thereby to ensure national food security, to reduce poverty and to
foster sustainable economic development.

Opportunities and Constraints of Agriculture in Bangladesh

Opportunities:
1. Agricultural sector is the single largest contributor to GDP.
2. There is an abundance of labor to be engaged in agriculture.
3. Agricultural is the largest source of employment for skilled and unskilled labor.
4. Favorable natural environment generally exists throughout the year for crop production.
5. There is a wide diversity of crops in Bangladesh.
6. Different crops and agricultural commodities are the main sources of nutrition including
carbohydrates, proteins, minerals and vitamins.

Constraints:
1. Agriculture depends on the unpredictable nature and is risky.
2. Cultivable land is decreasing day by day.
3. Widespread poverty among the population engaged in agriculture.
4. Lack of required capital for agricultural activities.
5. Inadequacy of appropriate technology.
6. Uncertainty of fair price of agricultural commodities in the market.
7. Agricultural commodities are rapidly perishable and post harvest losses are too high.
8. Limited knowledge of common people about the nutritional value of agricultural
commodities including vegetables and fruits.

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Lecture 2: Concept and basic principles of Agronomy

Concept of Agronomy

Agronomy is a branch of Agricultural science, which deals with principles, and practices of field
management for the production of field crops. The science of Agronomy is a specialized subject
dealing with all aspects of field crop production, which accelerates the pace of food production,
aided by the progress made in understanding the relationships between crop growth and yield,
and between crop and its environment of climate, soil, biotic factors and management practices.

The term Agronomy is derived from Greek words ‘​agros​’ meaning field and ‘​nomos​’ meaning
to manage. That means the way of managing field for the production of field crops.

The branches of Agronomy

The main branches of Agronomy are:

1. Crop science
2. Soil science and
3. Environment science

Scope of Agronomy

The central theme of Agronomy is to study soil-crop-environment relationship i.e. the nature of
Agronomy is based on soil-crop-environment relationships. Agronomy mainly deals with:
1. The magnitude of variation in yield of field crops
2. Cause and effect relationships
3. Internal and external factors and their interrelationships
4. Techniques for increasing input or resource use-efficiency
5. Technologies for better management practices of soil, water, crop, nutrients, weed etc. for
increasing production per unit area of land time and input.

Agronomy denotes Activities on the Ground to Raise Outspread and Noble crops to Obtain
Massive Yields.

Principles of Agronomy

Agronomic principles are the ways and means for the better management of soils, crops and
environmental factors for maximum economic returns from a unit area of land per unit time.
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The environmental factors that control agronomy are modifiable to some extent, e.g. drought can
be overcome by irrigation. The fundamental principles of agronomy are:

Basic Principles

1. Planning, programming and executing measures for maximum utilization of land, labor,
capital, sunshine, rain water, temperature, humidity, transport and marketing facilities.
2. Selection of crop varieties adaptable to a particular agro-climate, land situation, soil
fertility, season and method of cultivation and be fitting to the cropping system.
3. Proper field management by tillage, irrigation and drainage, checking soil erosion.
4. Adoption of multiple cropping, mixed or intercropping.
5. Timely application of proper and balanced nutrients to the crop, improvement of soil
fertility, increasing soil organic matter through the application of green manure, farm
yard manure, organic wastes, bio-fertilizers etc.
6. Choice of quality seed, maintenance of requisite plant density with healthy and uniform
seedlings.
7. Adoption of adequate plant protection measures against weed, insect pests, pathogens etc.
8. Adoption of suitable intercultural operation to get maximum benefit.
9. Adoption of suitable method and time of harvesting of crops. and ​ post-harvest technologies.
10. Adoption  of  suitable  method  and  time  of  harvesting  of  crop  to  reduce  field  loss  and  to 
release ​land  for  succeeding  crop(s)  and  efficient  utilization  of  residual  moisture,  plant 
nutrients and other management practices

Relation of Agronomy to other sciences

Agronomy is a synthesis of several disciplines like soil science, agricultural chemistry, crop
physiology, Crop ecology, biochemistry and economics etc. The soil physical, chemical and
biological properties have to be understood thoroughly to effect modification of the soil
environment. Similarly, it is necessary to understand the physiology of crops to meet their
requirements.

Role of Agronomist

Agronomist aims at obtaining maximum production at minimum cost. He exploits the knowledge
developed by basic and applied sciences for higher crop production. Agronomist is concerned
with the production of food, and fiber to meet the needs of the growing population.

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Lecture 3: Definetion, Classification and salient fitures of Agronomic crops

What is a plant?
A plant is, first of all, a living thing and shares the characteristics which we recognize as ‘life’
with other living things. A plant may grow spontaneously or may be grown by farmers if it has
got economic importance. The plants that have economic value are termed as ​economic plants.

What is a crop?

A crop is a group of plants grown together in a community for particular purpose. These plants
interact with one another as well as with their environment. This environment is normally highly
modified by the activities of the growers. Crops are grown for a purpose. The produce of a crop
 must be suited to the purpose for which it is intended. The grower must therefore seek to
maximize the quality of his produce. The quantity of materials produced by a crop is termed as
yield.

Classification of crops

Crops are classified or grouped in several ways, according to the range of cultivation, place of
origin and distribution, different characters, uses, cultivation requirements etc. According to the
range of cultivation the crops are grouped into three main classes. They are:

1. Field crops: Crops that are grown on a vast scale in a field are known as field crops. They
are mostly seasonal e.g. rice, wheat maize, mungbean, mustard, jute, cotton etc.
2. Garden crops: ​Crops that are grown on small-scale in gardens e.g. brinjal, onion garlic
different types of vegetables etc. are known as garden crops.
3. Plantation crops: Crops that are grown on a large-scale for years together, these are mainly
perennial crops such as tea, coffee, cocoa etc.

Classification of field crops

Field crops are classified in the following ways.

1. ​Classification of field crops on the basis of their origin

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 a) Native crops: The crops that are grown within the geographical area from where
they are originated. For example the native crops of Indian sub-continent are rice,
barley, black gram, mungbean, castor, sugarcane etc.
b) Exotic crops or introduced crops: The crops which are grown even beyond their
place of origin and are introduced in one country form another country are known
as exotic or introduced crops, Such as maize, wheat, potato, and field bean are
introduced crops in Bangladesh.

2. Botanical or taxonomic classification of field crops

The crops that belong to a particular family under the consideration of their morphological
characteristics are grouped into different families. These are:

a) Gramineae or grass family: Rice, wheat, maize, millets, sorghum, barley, sugarcane etc.
b) Leguminosae (Sub-family: Papilionaceae): Lathyrus or grasspea (​Khesari)​, fieldpea, cow
pea, pigeonpea, blackgram, mungbean, lentil, chickpea, soybean, grounnut, sesbania
(​Dhaincha)​ , sunnhemp, fieldbean etc.
c) Cruciferae or mustard family: Mustard and rapeseed, radish, cabbage, cauliflower etc.
d) Cucurbitaceae: Sweet gourd, ash gourd, bitter gourd, cucumber, pumpkin,water melon
etc.
e) Malvaceae: Cotton, okra (lady’s finger) etc.
f) Solanaceae: Chilli, brinjal, potato, etc.
g) Tiliaceae: Jute.
h) Compositae: Sunflower, Safflower, niger etc.
i) Padaliaceae: Sesame.
j) Convolvulaceae: Sweet potato.
k) Umbeliferae: Coriander, cumin etc.
l) Zingiberaceae: Ginger, turmeric etc.

3. ​Commercial classification of field crops

The crops that have commercial importance and are used as industrial raw materials are known
as commercial crops or industrial crops such as jute, sugarcane, cotton etc.

4. Classification of field crops on the basis of their use

a) Cereal crops: Cereals are the cultivated grasses grown for their edible carbohydrate rich
food grains. In general, the larger grains which are used as staple food are known as
cereals e.g. rice, wheat, maize, barley and sorghum etc.
b) Millets: Millets are the small grained cereals which are of minor importance as food, e.g.
pearl millet, proso millet, foxtail millet etc.
c) Oilseed crops: The crops that contain oil or fatty acids in their seeds and the oil is
extracted from their seeds as vegetable oil to meet various requirement are known as
oilseed crops or oil crops such as mustard and rapeseed, sesame, sunflower, safflower,
niger, linseed, groundnut, soybean etc.
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 d) Pulse crops: These crops are of Leguminosae family. Their seeds are rich in protein and
are used as ​‘Dal’.​ These are: Mungbean, blackgram, lentil, grasspea or lathyrus, cowpea,
chickpea, pigeonpea, field bean etc.
e) Fiber crops: The crops which are grown for obtaining fibers are known as fiber crops
such as cotton, jute, ​mesta, sunnhemp etc. Fibers may be obtained from seed e.g. lint
fiber of cotton seed or from stem or bark e.g. bast fiber or secondary phloem fiber of jute,
mesta​, sunnhemp etc.
f) Forage crops: The crops that are utilized as feed for animals are known as feed or forage
crops. Such as maize, cowpea, Napier grass, sorghum, grasspea etc.
g) Sugar and starch crops: The crops grown for the production of sugar and starch are
called sugar and starch crops. Such as sugarcane, sugar beet, potato, sweet potato etc.
h) Spices and Condiments: The crops that (or their products) are used for flavor, taste and
sometimes for coloring of food are known as spices and condiments for example, ginger,
garlic, onion, turmeric, chilies, coriander etc.
i) Drug Crops:​ Crops that are used for the preparation of medicines, for instance mint.
j) Beverage Crops: The crops that are grown for the preparation of drinks are known as
beverage crops, for example tea, coffee, cocoa, cola etc.

5. Classification of crops on the basis of the duration of their life cycles

a) Annual Crops: Crops that complete their life cycles within a season or year are known
as annual crops such as rice, wheat, maize, mustard and rapeseed, mungbean, lentil, black
gram etc.
b) Biennial crops: Crops that complete their life cycles within two consecutive years are
called biennial crops such as cabbage, carrot etc. During the first year, these crops grow
and develop vegetatively, and during the second year they produce flower.
c) Perennial crops: Crops that grow and develop for three or more years are called
perennial crops. They may be seed-bearing or non-seed-bearing. They may propagate
generatively or vegetatively, such as sugarcane, Napier grass, ginger, sweet potato etc.

6. Agronomic classification of field crops

A. According to topography

1. High land crops: Crops grown on high land such as pigeon pea, groundnut, sunnhemp,
maize, cotton, sesame are called high land crops.
2. Medium high land crops: Crops that are grown on medium high land such as jute
(​olitorius​), potato, sugarcane, wheat, chickpea, blackgram, mustard and rapeseeds etc. are
known as medium high land crops. These crops require sufficient soil moisture but
cannot tolerate water logging.
3. Low land crops: Crops that are grown on low land such as rice, jute (​capsularis) are
called low land crops; they require an abundant supply of water and can stand prolonged
waterlogged conditions.

7. Agronomic classification of field crops

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B. According to topography

4. High land crops: Crops grown on high land such as pigeon pea, groundnut, sunnhemp,
maize, cotton, sesame are called high land crops.
5. Medium high land crops: Crops that are grown on medium high land such as jute
(​olitorius​), potato, sugarcane, wheat, chickpea, blackgram, mustard and rapeseeds etc. are
known as medium high land crops. These crops require sufficient soil moisture but
cannot tolerate water logging.
6. Low land crops: Crops that are grown on low land such as rice, jute (​capsularis) are
called low land crops; they require an abundant supply of water and can stand prolonged
waterlogged conditions.

C. According to the tolerance to problem soil

1. Acidity tolerant crops: Wet-rice, potato, mustard, tea, coffee, can tolerate acidity to
some extent and can grow in acidic soil. These crops are called acidity tolerant crops.
2. Salinity tolerant crops: Chilies, cucurbits, wheat, sesame, barley blackgram etc. can
tolerate salinity to some extent and can grow on saline soil. These crops are considered as
salinity tolerant crops.
3. Alkaline soil crops: The crops that can tolerate alkaline soil condition to some extent are
called alkaline soil tolerant crops such as barley, cotton, pea, maize etc.
4. Water-logging tolerant crops: Wet-rice, ​dhaincha (sesbania), Para grass, jute
(​capsularis​) can grow under water-logged condition. These crops are considered as
water-logging tolerant crops.

D. According to the depth of root system

1. Shallow-rotted crops: The crops whose root system remains just below the soil surface
are shallow rooted crops. Example: Rice, potato, onion, garlic etc.
2. Deep-rooted crops: The crops whose root system penetrate deep into the soil are
deep-rooted crops, e.g. wheat, groundnut, chickpea, cotton, sweet potato, pigeon pea,
sugar cane etc.

E. According to the tolerant to adverse weather condition

1. Cold tolerant crops: The crops that can grow under low temperature condition are cold
tolerant crops. These are mainly ​rabi season crops​; for example potato, cabbage,
mustard, wheat, etc.
2. Drought tolerant crops: The crops having comparatively low water requirement and can
grow under drought condition are considered as drought tolerant crops such as barley,
safflower, castor, cotton, chilli, sesame etc.

F. According to water supply

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 1. Irrigated crops: The crops whose water requirement is comparatively high and
require additional supply of water for their proper growth and development are
termed as irrigated crops such as potato, ​boro​ rice, cabbage, wheat etc.
2. Rainfed crops: The crops that can be grown under natural moisture condition
without supplying additional water through irrigation, they are dependent on rain
water. These crops are called rainfed crops. Such as jute, maize, upland rice,
pigeonpea, cotton, sesame, cowpea etc.

G. According to method of sowing or plating

1. Direct seeded crops: The crops that are grown directly from their seeds are direct
seeded crops such as, upland rice, wheat, mustard, maize, groundnut, peas, field
beans, chickpea, etc.
2. Planted crops: There are some crops which are propagated from their vegetative
parts instead of seeds are called planted crops such as sugarcane, potato, sweet
potato etc.
3. Transplanted crops: There are some crops whose seeds are not sown directly in
the main field, initially their seedlings are raised in seedbed or in the nursery, then
the seedlings are uprooted and planted in the main field. This method is known as
transplanting and the crops are called transplanted crops such as transplanted rice,
onion, brinjal, cabbage, chilli, cauliflower etc.

H. According to length of field duration

1. Short duration crops​ (<100 days): Mungbean, black gram, radish, spinach etc.
2. Long duration crops​ (> 150 days): Sugarcane, castor, pigeonpea etc.

I. According to the method of harvesting

1. Crops harvested by reaping:​ Rice, wheat, mustard, sugarcane.

2. Crops harvested by uprooting or by pulling: Lentil, linseed, Lathyrus
(​Khesari​), radish, etc.
3. Crops harvested by digging: Potato, onion, garlic, ginger, sweet potato,
turmeric, groundnut, carrot etc.
4. Crops harvested by picking: Mungbean, blackgram, cotton, brinjal, maize, chilli
etc.

7. Classification of field crops based on special purposes

Crops that are grown with the intention of serving purposes in addition to obtaining yield or to
meet a particular purpose are grouped into special purpose crops. These are:

a) Catch crop: The crops that are grown in between the two main crops. They are generally
very short duration, quick growing crops. For example, millets and ​kaon can be grown in
between ​boro​ rice and transplanted ​aman​ rice.
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 b) Contingent crops: There are some short duration crops which can replace the main crops
that have been failed due to biotic or climatic or management hazards. By growing these
crops the remaining period of the season can be utilized. These crops are considered as
contingent crops or emergency crops, such as Blackgram, mungbean, cowpea, radish,
coriander etc.
c) Cash crops: The crops that are usually grown for commercial purpose to earn ready cash
by selling them. These are called cash crops. Such as jute, sugarcane, cotton etc.
d) Restorative crops: The crops that provide a good harvest along with enrich the soil, such
as leguminous crops. ​Rhizobium bacteria form nodules on the root system of legume
crops. These bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen in root nodules of legume crops. Thus
these crops improve the soil fertility or restore the soil condition.
e) Exhaustive crops: These are crops that on growing leave the field exhausted because of
more aggressive nature, they uptake more nutrients form the soil and the field becomes
exhausted or less fertile; such as, maize, potato, sesame, brinjal, linseed etc.
f) Relay crops: These are the crops whose seeds are sown a few days or weeks before the
harvesting of a standing mature crop. These crops are grown on residual moisture without
preparatory tillage. The standing crops and the later sown crop become simultaneous for
a short period and after the harvesting of the standing crop the later sown crop remains as
single crop, for instance ​khesari​ in ​aman​ rice, sweet gourd in potato.
g) Cover crops: These crops are able to protect the soil surface from erosion (caused by
wind and water) through their ground covering foliage and roots; such as groundnut,
black gram, ​khesari​, and Para grass etc.
h) Mulch crops: These crops are grown to conserve soil moisture from bare ground by their
thick and multilayered foliage; for instance cowpea.
i) ​Cleaning crops: These are crops whose agronomic practices make the field clean from
weeds and stubbles; for instance potato, groundnut, ginger, turmeric etc. which require
considerable earthwork such as earthing up, harvesting by digging which helps disturb
the surface, the place of weed growth.
j) Green manuring crops: These crops are grown to be incorporated into the soil fresh to
increase the fertility of the soil; such as ​dhaincha ​(sesbania), sunnhemp etc.
k) Mixed crops: These consist of two or more crops that are grown simultaneously in the
same field. Seeds of these crops may be mixed together before sowing. They may be
harvested together or separately; for instance wheat + mustard, maize + cowpea etc.
l) Intercrops: These consist of two or more crops that are grown simultaneously in
alternate rows in the same field; for instance sesame + blackgram, wheat + mustard,
maize + cowpea etc.

Field crops in Bangladesh

A. Cereal crops
English Botanical name Family Growing season Grown for
name
1 Rice Oryza sativa Gramineae or Aus, Aman, Boro Carbohydrate rich
Poaceae food grains
2 Wheat Triticum aestivum Gramineae or Rabi Carbohydrate rich
Poaceae food grains

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3 Maize Zea mays Gramineae or Rabi, Kharif Food, feed and
Poaceae fodder
4 Sorghum Sorghum vulgare Gramineae or Rabi Food, feed and
Poaceae fodder
5 Barley Hordeum vulgare Gramineae or Rabi Food, feed and
Poaceae fodder
6 Millet Setaria italica Gramineae or Rabi Food, feed and
Poaceae fodder
7 Cheena Panicum Gramineae or Rabi Food, feed and
miliaceum Poaceae fodder

B. Pulse crops
1 Grass pea Lathyrus sativus Leguminosae Rabi Grains and fodder
2 Lentil Lens esculenta Leguminosae Rabi Grains
3 Mungbean Vigna radiata Leguminosae Kharif 1&11 Grains
4 Blackgram Vigna mungo Leguminosae Kharif 1&11 Grains
5 Chickpea Cicer arietinum Leguminosae Rabi Grains
6 Pea Pisum sativum Leguminosae Rabi Grains
7 Cowpea Vigna unguiculata Leguminosae Rabi Grains
8 Field bean Phaseolus vulgare Leguminosae Rabi Grains
9 Pigeonpea Cajanus cajan Leguminosae Rabi Grains
C. Oilseed crops

1 Rapeseed Brassical spp.: Cruciferae/Brassicaceae Rabi Edible oil

& mustard B. campestries,
B. juncea,
B. napus
2 Sesame Sesamum Pedaliaceae Kharif 1 & 11 Edible oil
indicum
3 Groundnut Arachis Leguminosae Rabi, Kharif Edible oil
hypogaea
4 Soybean Glycine max Leguminosae Rabi Edible oil
5 Sunflower Helianthus Compositae Rabi, Kharif Edible oil
annuus
6 Linseed Linum Linaceae Rabi Industrial oil
usitatissimum
7 Niger Guizotia Compositae Rabi Edible oil
abyssinica
8 Safflower Carthamus Compositae Rabi Edible oil
tinctorius

D. Fiber crops

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1 Jute Corchorus spp.: Tiliaceae Kharif I Industrial and textile
C. capsularis fiber
C. olitorius
2 Cotton Gossypium spp.: Malvaceae Kharif II Industrial and textile
G. hirsutum fiber
G. barbadense
G. arboreum
G. herbaceum
3 Mesta Hibiscus Malvaceae Kharif I Industrial and textile
sabdariffa fiber
4 Kenaf Hibiscus Malvaceae Kharif I Industrial and textile
cannabinus fiber

E. Sugar crops

1 Sugarcane Saccharum Gramineae or Rabi Sugar

officinarum Poaceae

Lecture 4: Cropping seasons of Bangladesh

As we know that there are six seasons in Bangladesh, each of which consists of two months.
However, almost there is no crop that can complete its life cycle within two months, therefore for
growing crops; the year is divided into cropping seasons. There are mainly three crop growing
seasons in Bangladesh. They are:

1. Rabi
2. Kharif​ I ​and
3. Kharif​ II​ seasons

1. Rabi season: This season stars in October-November and ends in March-April. The crops
that complete their life cycles within ​Rabi season are called ​Rabi crops e.g. wheat, lentil,
khesari, chickpea, pea, potato and winter vegetables. These crops require cold dry
weather for their major growth and development.
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 2. Kharif I season: This season starts in February-March and ends in May-June, and the
crops that are grown in this period are known as ​Kharif I crops e.g. mungbean, sesame,
aus rice, jute etc. These crops require warm dry weather for their growth and
development.
3. Kharif II season: ​Kharif II starts in July and ends in October. The crops which are grown
in this season are called ​Kharif II crops such as ​aman rice, summer vegetables etc. These
crops require warm-wet weather for their growth and development.

Rice growing seasons in Bangladesh

The rice growing seasons are classified as ​Aus, Aman and ​Boro seasons. So, according to the
growing season the rice crop is also classified as ​Aus ​rice, ​Aman​ rice and ​Boro​ rice.

1. Aus r​ ice season: Rice crop which is grown during the period from March-April
to June-July is called ​aus rice and its growing season is known as ​aus rice
season​. The seeds of ​aus rice are sown in March-April and the crop is harvested
in June-July.
2. Aman rice season: Rice crop which is grown during the period from June-July to
October-November is called ​aman rice and its growing season is known as ​aman
rice season​. The seeds of ​aman rice are sown in seedbed in June-July and the
seedlings are transplanted in the main field in July-August. The ​aman rice is
harvested in October-November.
3. Boro rice season: ​Rice crop which is grown during the period from
December-January to April-May is called ​boro rice and its growing season is
known as ​boro r​ ice season​. The seeds of ​boro rice are sown in seedbed in
December-January and the seedlings are transplanted in main field in
January-February. The crop is harvested in April-May.

Methods of Cropping:
Dryland
Normally only one crop is grown under dry land condition and cultivation is restricted during the
rainy season. However the intensity of cropping can be increased through sequential or
intercropping, depending on rainfall and moisture capasity of soil.
choice of crop: deep root and slow transpiration rate, leguminous crop,

Problem:
● moisture stress due to scarce and uncertain rainfall
● less effective storage system of water
● selection of limited crops
● careful and judicious manurial scheduling

Wetland (puddling)
Puddling is done when the soil is in a saturation conditions. Ploughing and harrowing the soft
saturated soil is called Puddling. Puddling is done for preparing an impermeable soil layer to
reduce loss of water by ​percolation from wet land soil. Puddling destroys the structure of soil,

14
reduces emergence and growth of weeds, facilitates uniform leveling of the field, and hastens
easy transplanting and the establishment of rice seedlings.

​The steps involved in puddling are:

1. saturating and flooding the soil
2. plowing the supersaturated soil
3. plowing or harrowing at progressively lower water contents

​Effects of puddling on soil

1. coarse aggregates are broken down
2. noncapillary pore space is destroyed
3. apparent specific volume decreases
4. water-holding capacity increases
5. hydraulic conductivity and permeability decreases
6. evaporation decreases
7. soil reduction is favored

Shifting Cultivatuion (Jhum)

Shifting cultivation is an ​agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily,
then abandoned and allowed to revert to their natural vegetation while the cultivator moves on to
another plot. The period of cultivation is usually terminated when the soil shows signs of
exhaustion or, more commonly, when the field is overrun by weeds. The length of time that a
field is cultivated is usually shorter than the period over which the land is allowed to regenerate
by lying fallow.

One land-clearing system of shifting agriculture is the slash-and-burn method, which leaves only
stumps and large trees in the field after the standing vegetation has been cut down and burned, its
ashes enriching the soil. Cultivation of the earth after clearing is usually accomplished by hoe or
digging stick and not by plough,

Hydroponics​ is a method of growing ​plants​ using mineral ​nutrient​ solutions, in water, without
soil​. Terrestrial plants may be grown with their ​roots​ in the mineral nutrient solution only or in
an inert medium, such as ​perlite​, ​gravel​.

Advantages

Some of the reasons why hydroponics is being adapted around the world for food production are
the following:

● No soil is needed for hydroponics.

● The water can be reused
15
 ● It is possible to control the nutrition levels in their entirety - lower nutrition requirements.
● No nutrition pollution is released into the environment because of the controlled system.
● Stable and high yields.
● Pests and diseases are easier to get rid of than in soil because of the container's mobility.
● Ease of harvesting.
● PH balance of nutrient solution can be easily set.

Disadvantages

● Without soil as a buffer, any failure to the hydroponic system leads to rapid plant death.
Other disadvantages include pathogen attacks such as damp-off due to ​Verticillium wilt
caused by the high moisture levels associated with hydroponics and overwatering of soil
based plants. Also, many hydroponic plants require different fertilizers and containment
systems.

Lecture 5 : Weather and climate: Climatic zones of Bangladesh

Weather:​ It is the state or condition of atmosphere at a given place at a given time.

16
Climate: Climate of a place is the summation of weather conditions over a given region during a
longer period i.e. 25-30 years.

Macroclimate: It is the weather condition over a long period of time, generally the average of
25-30 years or more. Macroclimate is independent of local topography, soil type and vegetation
and may extend for hundreds of kilometers. When we consider macroclimate, temperature is
measured at 1.5 meter above the ground and wind speed is determined at 10 meter above the
ground.

Microclimate: It is the climate of 0.5 meter to 1 meter above the ground. Consideration of
microclimate is important for studies of vegetation ecology and population dynamics of crops.
Atmosphere: Atmosphere is a mixture of gases that surrounds the earth. It extends up to a height
of 1600 km.
Weather clement and crop production

Growth and development of crop plants depend on the management of internal and external
factors. Internal factors include the genetic or hereditary make up of the crop plants, these are
biotic factors​, and the external factors include the environmental factors ​(abiotic or climatic
factor)​. The study of the effect of weather and climate on crop production may help us in
planning of agronomic activities.

Influence of climate on crops

The most important climatic factors or weather elements that influence growth, development and
yield of crops are:
♦Solar radiation
♦Temperature
♦Rainfall
♦Relative humidity and
♦Wind velocity

Influence of solar radiation on crops

The sun is the main source of energy. Sun emits energy in the form of electro-magnetic radiation.
It consists of flow of particles. The particles are called ​photons and the energy of a photon is
called ​quantum​. The visible portion of electro-magnetic radiation is called ​light​. Solar energy
provides light requires for leaf expansion, growth of stem and shoot, flowering, fruiting and
thermal conditions necessary for physiological functions of crop plants, such as:

♦More than 70% of the solar radiation absorbed by crops is converted to heat. This heat energy is
utilized for transpiration and for heat exchange with the surroundings.
♦ It is the primary source of energy for photosynthesis. Low light intensity reduces the rate of
photosynthesis.
♦Solar radiation influences the production of enzymes useful in photosynthesis.
♦ The reduction of CO​2 to carbohydrate is catalyzed by enzymes, namely phosphoenol pyruvate
carboxylase (​PEP carboxlyase​) and ribulose biphosphate caroxylase (​RuBP carboxylase​).
Light intensity increases the activity of these enzymes. The optimum range of light for

17
photosynthesis is 400-700 nm. This range of light is called ​PAR (Photosynthetically active
radiation​).
♦The different pigments necessary for photosynthesis are synthesized in the presence of light.
Chlorophyll formation is promoted by light of 300-338 nm wavelengths.
♦ The response of crop plants to the relative duration of light and dark period on flowering is
called ​photoperiodism​. Based on photoperiodic response, the crops are mainly classified as the
short day plants, long day plants and day neutral plants.

a) Short day plants: The crop plants those flower when the day length is less than a certain
critical length.​ Sunlight above this critical point will keep the short day plants vegetative.
b) Long day plants: The plants that flower when the day length is more than a certain critical
length.
c) Day neutral plants: These plants flower irrespective of the length of light or dark period
(Tomato).

Influence of temperature on crops

Temperature: Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance, determined by

the extent of its molecular activity. Crop growth is greatly influenced by the temperature. Very
high or extreme temperatures are destructive to crop growth. Crops are adapted to a wide range
of temperature. Air temperature of above 20​o​C is most favorable for the tropical crops. Most of
the ​temperate crops​ can grow well with a temperature of 15​o​C.

Cardinal temperature: Every crop has its own minimum, optimum and maximum temperature
known as their cardinal temperature. The cardinal temperature varies with the types of crop, crop
variety, physiological stages of the crops, etc. The cardinal temperature ranges for ​cool season
crops are: Maximum temperature 30-38​o​C; minimum temperature 0-5​o​C; and optimum
temperature 25-30​o​C. The cardinal temperature ranges for ​warm season crops are: minimum
temperature 15-20​o​C maximum temperature 38-45​o​C; and optimum temperature 30-38​o​C.
Optimum temperature: The temperature at which a crop can perform the best is called its
optimum temperature.

Temperature influences the physical and chemical processes within the plants, such as
♦ Biochemical reactions and enzymatic activity (mainly during seed germination, photosynthesis
and respiration)
♦ Uptake of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
♦ Rate of photosynthesis and respiration
♦ Chlorophyll synthesis and chloroplast production
♦Leaf area development
♦Activity of growth substances
♦Dry matter production
♦Yield formation and yield etc.

Effect of rainfall or precipitation on crops

18
Rainfall influences the vegetation of a place. Most of the crops receive their required amount of
water from rainfall. Water is essential for germination, cell enlargement, photosynthesis,
transpiration, nutrient uptake, to maintain plants water relations etc.

Effect of relative humidity on crops

Humidity is the water vapor content in the atmosphere. The amount of water vapor in the
atmosphere depends on wind and temperature. Wind distributes the water vapor in the
atmosphere. Higher the temperature more is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. The
air is said to be saturated when if holds maximum amount of water vapor at a particular
temperature. If the temperature rises, the atmosphere becomes unsaturated as it can
accommodate some more water vapor.
The amount of water vapor held in the atmosphere at any particular time can be expressed as
relative humidity (RH %).
Water vapor present in the air
RH % = ---------------------------------------------× 100
Water vapor required for saturation

Relative humidity influences the

♦Water relations of plants
♦Leaf growth
♦Photosynthesis
♦Transpiration
♦Pollination
♦Occurrence of disease and
♦Economic yield

Effect of wind on crops

Wind is air in motion, which moves from high-pressure area to low pressure area. The speed
with which wind is blowing is called wind velocity. The influences of wind on crops are:

♦Wind influences crop growth both physically and mechanically

♦Wind affects the crops directly by increasing transpiration and intake of CO​2​.
♦Moderate wind promotes photosynthesis.
♦Wind helps pollination and dispersal of seeds.
♦High wind velocity causes mechanical damage to crops, lodging of cereals and fruit drops.

Climatic zones of Bangladesh

On the basis of climatic condition Bangladesh can be divided into seven climatic zones. These
are:

19
1. Southeastern zone: It comprises of Chittagong sub-region and a strip of land
extending form southwest of the Sundarbans to the south of Comilla. In this zone
the temperature rarely goes over a mean of 32​o ​C, and below a mean of 13​o C.
Rainfall is heavy, generally over 2540mm.
2. Northeastern zone: Most of the east and south areas of Sylhet belong to this zone.
The maximum temperature is rarely above 32​o​C, and the mean minimum
temperature is 10​o​C and below. Average humidity is even more than that of the
southeastern zone. This is the cloudiest part of Bangladesh.
3. Northern part of the northern region: In this zone, the maximum mean
temperature in summer is above 32​o​C whereas in winter the mean minimum
temperature is below 10​o​C. The summer is scorching, but the rainy season is very
wet, with 2000 mm to 3000 mm of rainfall.
4. Northwestern zone: This zone is almost similar to northern part of the northern
region, but lower rainfall makes this zone drier.
5. Western zone: Greater Rajshahi district and parts of the adjacent districts belong
to this zone. This is the driest area in Bangladesh with rainfall below 1500 mm
and summer humidity is less than 56%. Mean maximum temperature in summer
is over 35​o​C.
6. Southwestern zone: In this zone the rainfall ranges between 1500 mm and 1800
mm. The mean maximum temperature in summer is below 35​o​C.
7. South-central zone: In this zone rainfall is abundant, being above 1900 mm. The
range of temperature in this zone is much less than that of southwestern zone and
somewhat more than of the southeastern zone.

20
 Lecture 6: Tillage and Crop production

Tillage: Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and implements in order to
provide necessary soil conditions which are favorable for seed germination, seedling emergence,
stand establishment​, growth and development of crops.

After harvest of the crops, soil becomes hard and compact. Field contains ​weeds and stubbles
after the harvest of the crops. Seeds need loose, friable soil with sufficient air and water for good
germination.

Tilth: The term tilth expresses the physical condition of soil resulting from tillage. The physical
condition is related to the structural changes of soils, which promote good seed germination and
crop establishment. Tillage operations are aimed at producing and maintaining good tilth.

Characteristics of good tilth

1. A soil with good tilth will be mellow or friable. ​Mellowness or friability is that property
of soil by which the ​clods​ when dry become more ​crumbly
2. Soil will have high ​retentive capacity of rain water and good aeration with adequate
infiltration.
3. The capillary and non-capillary pores should be in equal proportion so that sufficient
amount of water is retained in the soil as well as free air.
Objectives of tillage

1. To prepare the ​seedbed or soil to a satisfactory level which promotes good germination
and establishment of the seedlings.
2. To ​incorporate crop ​residues​, ​green manure and other ​organic manure, fertilizers etc.
into the soil.
3. To improve the physical conditions of soils so that rain water could be absorbed easily
and soil ​erosion​ can be minimized.
4. To prepare the field surface suitable for easy, early and uniform movement of ​irrigation
and drainage​ water.
5. To improve the availability of ​plant nutrients by enhancing the ​decomposition of
organic matter, ​mineralization​ etc.
6. To control weeds, soil-borne ​insect-pest, pathogens​ etc.
7. To encourage growth and activity of ​soil-inhabiting beneficial ​flora and ​fauna ​including
symbiotic bacteria​.

Advantages of tillage in crop production

1. Tillage favors break up of clods, incorporates the organic matter into the soil and kills the
weeds to create more favorable seedbed conditions.
2. Tillage improves the physical condition of the soil that significantly influences its
moisture retention, root spread and penetration.
21
 3. Tillage influences the supply and ​uptake of nutrients​ by the crop plants.
4. Tillage influences distribution of ​soil aggregates​. Soil aggregate depends on the clay and
the ​humus ​content in the soil
5. Soil porosity influences root penetration. Exchange of CO​2 from the soil and oxygen
from the atmosphere is essential for normal root development and ​microbial activity​.
Tillage ensures good soil aeration on heavy soils. The critical level of oxygen for better
root growth is about 1-2%. The oxygen supply normally determines the rate of root
growth. Due to lack of oxygen supply, the root hair growth is much inhibited. High
concentration of CO​2 in the soil is toxic to the roots. The critical limit of CO​2 for most of
the crop species is between 10 to 20%.
6. Tillage results in better aeration and hence increases the activity of microorganisms; the
rate of decomposition of organic matter is rapid, thus enabling the release and availability
of plant nutrients.
7. Weeds are incorporated into the soil by tillage operations. The seeds of weed go deep into
the soil and hence their germination is inhibited. Deep tillage is thus always preferred as
one of the measures to control the ​perennial​ weeds.
8. Tillage helps in reducing the insect pest population in certain situations. Insects (Pupae)
are exposed to the sun’s heat and to the attack of birds, and are eliminated. The place for
living and feeding of insects are also destroyed by tillage. Tillage helps destroy some of
the fungi causing crop diseases.

Disadvantages of tillage

Though tillage is an indispensable operation in crop production, it has some disadvantages too
such as

1. If tillage is done beyond optimum conditions, it deteriorates the physical condition of the
soil.
2. Repeated tillage operations over a longer period have detrimental effects on surface soil
granules.
3. Tillage operations with heavy equipments tend to break down the stable soil aggregates
and form a hard pan immediately below the tilled layer, called ​plough pan​, which
reduces infiltration of water and penetration of root system deep into the soil.
4. Tillage helps spread the colonies of different soil-borne pest, pathogens and parasites.
5. Weeds that propagate vegetatively (e.g. ​rhizomatous and stoloniferous perennials
multiply and spread profusely from the fragments of stem and root stocks by the tearing
action of tillage implements.

Types of tillage
With reference to crop, tillage operations are grouped into two types based on the time at which
they are carried out, they are:

1. Preparatory tillage and

2. Intertillage or intercultural operations.

22
 ● Preparatory tillage: Tillage operations that are carried out from the time of
harvest of a crop to sowing of the next crop are known as preparatory tillage.
Preparatory tillage is divided into (a) Primary tillage or ploughing and (b)
Secondary tillage.

a) Primary tillage or ploughing: Ploughing is opening of the compact soil with the help of
different ploughs. Ploughing should ensure inversion of soil, uprooting of weeds, stubbles
etc.

Optimum time for ploughing: The optimum time for ploughing depends on soil moisture.
When the soil is dry, it is difficult to open the soil, more energy is used and large sized clods are
made. When the soil is ploughed under wet conditions, the soil sticks to plough, the soil below
the plough sole becomes compacted and on drying becomes a hard pan, soil structure is
destroyed and the clods on drying become very hard. The optimum range of soil moisture for
effective ploughing is 25 to 50% depletion of available soil moisture. Optimum moisture of soil
should be uniform throughout the field to be ploughed. The moisture condition of soil at which
ploughing can be done to get good tilth is called ​“JOO” condition of soil or ​field capacity
moisture.
Depth of ploughing: Depth of ploughing depends on the effective root zone, depth of roots of
the crop to be grown. Generally, crops with tap root system require greater depth of ploughing,
while fibrous, shallow rooted crops require shallow ploughing.

Number of ploughing: The number of ploughings necessary to obtain a good tilth depends on
soil type, weed problem and crop residues on the soil surface. In ​heavy soils​, more numbers of
ploughings are necessary, the range being 3 to 5 ploughings. ​Light soils require 1 to 3
ploughings to obtain good tilth of the soil. When weed growth and plant residues are higher more
numbers of ploughings are necessary.

b) Secondary tillage: After primary tillage or ploughing, the fields are left with large clods
with some weeds and stubbles partially uprooted. So, after primary tillage, lighter or finer
tillage operations are done to make the field ready for sowing of crop seeds. These types
of finer tillage operations are called secondary tillage. This is post-ploughings but
pre-seeding tillage. Secondary tillage includes cultivating, harrowing, pulverizing,
leveling etc.

● Intertillage or intercultural operations: The tillage operations that are carried out in the
standing crop i.e. after sowing or planting and prior to the harvesting of the crops (during
field duration of the crops) are called intertillage.This is also known as intercultivation or
postseeding/planting cultivation. It includes cultivating, harrowing, weeding, earthing up
etc.
Earthing up: It is an operation that is usually done by using country plough or ridge plough or
spade in order to make ridges at the base of the crop. It is done either to provide extra support
against lodging as in sugarcane or to provide more soil volume for better growth of tuber as in
potato or for better growth of nuts in groundnuts.
Zero tillage or minimum tillage: This refers to the growing of crops with the least possible
disturbance of soil. As seeding requires some tillage operations, this is also known as minimum
23
tillage or reduced tillage. Thus zero tillage is a tillage system in which mechanical soil
manipulation is reduced. With zero tillage, crop residues remain on the soil surface. This
provides clothing that protects the soil from erosion. In undisturbed soils, the concentration of
organic matter is highest near the soil surface. Zero tilled surface soil holds more available water
immediately after rain. Zero tillage reduces run off, prevents soil erosion and crust formation and
thus protects both soil and water for better use by the crop plants.

24
 Lecture 7: Definition, structure and characteristics of good seed, Germination, types of
germination and Emergence.

Botanically a seed is a fertilized ripened ovule. Agronomical seed means a seed or seed material
which is the living organ(s) of the crop in rudimentary form that is used for propagation or it is
any part of the crop from which a new crop plant can be grown.

Structure of a seed
A seed has two parts, the outer part is called ​seed coat and the inner part is ​kernel​. The kernel is
again divided into ​cotyledons and ​embryo​. The embryo has an embryonic axis, ​epicotyl,
hypocotyl​, ​plumule and ​radicle​. Some seeds have ​hilum and ​micropyle​. In monocotyledon the
plumule is covered with a sheath which is known as ​coleoptyle​, and the radicle is covered by
coleorhiza.
Dormant seed: Seeds which do not germinate even when the conditions for germination are
ideal, these seeds are called dormant seeds.
Viable seed: Seeds which are able to germinate under ideal growing conditions are known as
viable seeds.
Characteristics of good seed or quality seed
Good seed means good crop. Good seeds ensure a uniform crop establishment with uniform
vigor and population of seedling per unit area of the field.
Therefore, the selection of good seeds is important for growing crops and reaping good harvest.
The characteristics of good seeds are:
1. The seeds should be of adaptable crop variety of the locality.
2. The seed should be healthy, pure and free from all the inert materials, insects and
their eggs, and weed seeds.
3. The seeds should be viable i.e. able to germinate.
4. The seeds should be free from any kind of physiological disorders and seed borne
diseases.
5. The seeds should be whole and uniform in size, shape and color.
6. The seed should contain required amount of moisture.
Seed germination and seedling emergence
Seed germination: Germination is a process by which the embryo of a seed wakes up from its
dormant state and a young plant (seedling) emerges under favorable conditions. In Agronomic
point of view, germination means the capacity of seeds to give rise to normal sprouts within a
definite period fixed for each crop under optimum field conditions. The primary environmental
factors which influence germination under field condition are: water, oxygen, temperature, soil
moisture etc.
Seedling emergence: Emergence of a seedling is the process of coming out of the young
seedling form the seed through a column of soil.
25
The important factors influencing the emergence of seedling are
1. Depth of sowing
2. Poor aeration
3. Inadequate or excess soil moisture
4. High soil compaction
5. Low soil temperature
6. Rapid desiccations of soil
7. Injurious level of salt content in the soil
8. Poor capacity of seed (poor seed vigor)
9. Physical, chemical and biological conditions of soil
Germination process and supply of energy

When the seed is sown in moist soil, it absorbs water and swells. As a result, the seed coat
breaks. The embryo secretes ​gibberellins ​(growth regulators or phytohormones) which induce
the secretion of enzymes from ​aleurone layer in cereals. These enzymes help in breaking down
the complex food materials like starches and proteins into simple sugars and amino acids,
respectively. Fats which are synthesized mainly in the cotyledons of oil containing seeds of dicot
plants, and in the embryos of cereals are split by ​lipage enzyme into fatty acids and glycerol.
These undergo chemical changes and form sugars. The simpler products thus formed are soluble
and can be translocated to growing points until the seedling becomes autotrophic. Thus the
energy required for the process of germination and for the growth of seedlings comes from the
stored food in the cotyledons, in case of dicot plants, and from the endosperm and embryo, in
case of monocot plants through respiration. During germination, the ​radicle (young root) is the
first organ to come out from the seed. The radicle is soon followed by the plumule (young shoot)

Type of germination

There are mainly two types of germination in crop seeds.

1. Epigeal germination: The type of germination in which cotyledons come out of the soil
is called epigeal germination. In epigeal germination the hypocotyl is more active and
elongates rapidly, for example germination in bean seeds.
2. Hypogeal germination: In some seeds, the cotyledons remain in the soil. The plumule
grows by the elongation of epicotyl. This type of germination is called hypogeal
germination because the cotyledon remains inside the soil e.g. germination in rice, pea,
chickpea seeds.

26
 Lecture 8: Sowing and planting, Seedling establishment and plant population density for
crop production, intercultural operation

Sowing and Planting

Sowing of seeds: The activity done for placing of seeds in the prepared soil is called sowing.
The prepared soil here means the soil that is made suitable for seed germination, seedling
emergence, and growth and development of crops.

Planting:​ Planting is the putting of plant propagules into the soil to grow as crop plants.
Planting material:​ seedling, cuttings, tubers, rhizomes etc
Methods of sowing and plantings

There are two methods of sowing. They are: 1. direct seeding or sowing, and 2. transplanting

1. Direct seeding or sowing:​ Direct seeding may be done by

a) Broadcasting
b) Dibbling, and
c) Drilling (Line sowing)
a) Broadcasting: Broadcasting is the scattering or spreading of seeds on the soil. Broadcasting
of seeds may be done by hand, mechanical spreader or aero plane. This method is suitable for
close-planted crops; such as, wheat, millets, jute, blackgram etc. For mixed cropping
broadcasting is normal practice of sowing of seeds. Broadcasting of seeds is done in dry,
semi-dry and wet fields. For sowing in wet fields, seeds must be soaked with water for eight to
twelve hours so that the radicle just begins to emerge from the seed.

Advantages of broadcasting:​ It is easy, quick and cheap method of seeding.

Disadvantages of broadcasting: Seed distribution is not uniform, all seeds are not placed in
uniform depth, and there is no uniformity in germination and seedling vigor. Intercultural
operation is difficult.

27
b) Dibbling: Dibbling is a method of putting a seed or few seed materials in a hole or pit.
Dibbling is done under a particular spacing and depth. It is done by planter or very often by
hand.

This method is suitable for planting maize, cotton, potato, groundnut, cowpea, soybean,
sunflower, sugarcane, sweet potato, onion, garlic, turmeric, ginger etc.

Disadvantages of dibbling: It is more laborious, time consuming and expensive compared to

broadcasting.

Advantages of dibbling: T​his method requires fewer amounts of seeds, germination is rapid and
uniform with good seedling vigor, and the intercultural operations are easy.

C) Drilling: Drilling is a practice for dropping of seeds in furrows. Furrows are made at a
definite depth and distance. Drilling can be done with sowing implements; such as seed drill.
Crops sown by drilling are wheat, mustard, blackgram, mungbean, jute, sunflower, sesame etc.

Advantages of drilling: It maintains a uniform plant population per unit area, seeding depth is
uniform, easy to do the intercultural operations.

Disadvantages of drilling:​ It requires more time and energy, and it costs more.

2) Transplanting: Transplanting is the removal of an actively growing plant or seedling from

one place (seedbed) and planting it in another place (main field) for further growth and
development. For example, seedlings of rice, tomato, brinjal etc. are generally transplanted.

Depth of sowing

It is the depth at which the seeds of crop plants are placed below the soil surface.

Optimum depth of sowing is necessary for

1. Better availability of moisture. 2. Avoidance of damages caused by birds, and for 3. Quick and
uniform emergence of seedling. Generally, optimum depth of sowing of most field crops is 3-5
cm.
The depth of sowing varies with

1. Seed capacity: i.e. the size and weight of seed. Seeds having larger size such as
maize, chickpea, groundnut etc. can be sown deep up to 10 cm. But smaller seeds
like mustard, sesame, jute etc. should be sown at a shallow depth of 3-5 cm.
Seedlings mainly depend on the reserve food for growth until it becomes
photosynthetically self-sufficient ​(Autotropic). Larger seed contain more stored
energy and can grow for a longer time from a higher depth. Hence, larger seeds
are sown deeper than the smaller seeds.

28
 2. Soil characters i.e. soil texture, structure and degree of soil crusting or capping.
Deeper sowing up to 10 cm is advantageous in sandy soil, and shallow sowing
(2-3 cm) in heavy soils.
3. Soil moisture content: Under dry land conditions, seeds are sown deeper for
better availability of soil moisture.
4. Mode of germination i.e. epigeal or hypogeal. In hypogeal germination, the
cotyledons remain within the soil e.g. chickpea, pea etc. Such seeds, if sown deep,
seedling emergence does not delay. The seeds with epigeal germination,
cotyledons come out of the soil. e.g. mungbean. Such seeds, if sown deep,
seedlings will fail to emerge.

Seed rate

Seed rate is the amount of seeds (kg) required for sowing in a unit area of land (ha).

The seed rate depends on

1. Weight of individual seed or 1000 seeds.
2. Germination percentage of seeds.
3. Spacing i.e. the distance between the rows, and within the rows the distance between the
plants.
4. Number of seedlings to be planted.
Seed rate calculation

The seed rate can be calculated according to the following formula.

Seed rate (kg ha​-1​) = (Area to be sown in m​2 × Test wt. of seed or 1000-seed wt. in gram ×100×100
)÷(1000 ×1000 × Germination percentage × purity percentage × spacing in m​2​)

Plant population or plant density

Plant population: Plant population is the number of plants per unit area of land. Yield of a crop
is the result of final plant population. Establishment of optimum plant population is necessary to
get maximum yield. The level of plant population should be such that the maximum solar
radiation is intercepted.

Population density effects on crop growth and yield

The yield potential of individual plant is achieved when the plant is grown at wider spacing.
When seeds are sown densely, competition among the plants is more for growth factors resulting
29
in reduction in size and yield of the plant. Yield per plant decreases gradually when plant
population pr unit area is increased. However, the yield per unit area is increased due to efficient
utilization of growth factors. Optimum number of plants per unit area is required to utilize
efficiently the available production factors such as water, nutrients, light and CO​2​. At high
population density the yield of individual plant decreases, but the higher number of plants per
unit area can compensate this decrease. Thus the entire community of plants is considered for
higher yield.

Optimum plant population: Optimum plant population is the number of plants per unit area of
land at which all the resources, required for optimum growth, development and yield, can be
utilized efficiently. Optimum plant population or plant density depends on

1. Nature and size of plants

2. Time of planting
3. Planting methods
4. Use of crops
5. Soil fertility
6. Irrigation facility
7. Tillering or branching habit etc.
Intercultural practices in crop production

After sowing and planting when the crop is established, some care is required for proper growth,
development and yield formation. This care is taken through some agronomic practices in the
field of standing crops. Thus all the practices or operations done during the period from crop
establishment to harvest of the crop are called intercultural operations or intercultural practices,
such as weeding, hoeing, mulching, ​earthling up etc. Other practices such as irrigation,
manuring, and plant protection measures are also know as intercultural operations or after care
measures.
Hoeing: Hoeing is an intercultural operation to remove the weeds from the crop field under
upland conditions by using hand hoe or ‘​Nirani’
Mulching: Mulching is an intercultural operation done to preserve adequate soil moisture. It is
done by using different mulching materials such as straw and water hyacinth. It is also done by
breaking surface crust of the soil by using different ​intertillage implements​, such as spade,
nirani etc.

Weeding: Weeding is an intercultural operation to control weeds. Weeds are unwanted plants in
a crop field. Weeds are uprooted and removed either by hand or by using tools called ​weeder​.
Hand weeding is normally done in wetland rice field, because standing water hinders the use of
hand hoe, however, ​Japanese rice weeder​ is used in wetland rice field.

Weed and crop production

Weed: Weeds are unwanted or undesirable plants grow in a crop field. Weed is also considered
in relative sense e.g. if some mustard plants grow in a wheat field, then the mustard plants are
considered as weed because they are not wanted in wheat field.
Harmful effects of weeds:
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 a) Reduce the yield of crops: Weeds compete for nutrient, water, light CO​2​ etc.
b) Increase the production cost of crops
c) Reduce the quality of crops
d) Cause ​allelopathic ​effects ​i.e. some weeds release toxic substances in the
environment which inhibit germination of seeds and growth of crops
Beneficial effects of weeds:
a) Increase organic matter content of soil when weeds are incorporated into the soil.
b) Increase soil fertility i.e. rhizobium bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen in association with
leguminous crops. The incorporation of such weeds into the soil increases soil fertility.

Critical stage of crops for weed competition:

The early growth phase or seedling stage of a crop is the most critical or vulnerable stage in
terms of competition with weeds. With the progress of crop growth the crops acquire a relatively
higher competitive ability to suppress the weeds.
Methods of weed control:
An effective control and eradications of weeds can be done by using following methods:
a) Mechanical methods​: Weeding, hoeing, tillage etc.
b) Cropping and competition methods​: Some crops such as sweet potato and some pulse
suppress weeds.
c) Biological methods​: Some natural enemies of weeds are employed to kill the weeds.
d) Chemical methods​: Control of weeds by using ​herbicides​ i.e. weeds killing chemicals.
Lecture 9 : Irrigation and Drainage- concepts, importance, methods

Water management in crop production is the planned use of water for better crop production.

Necessity of water in crops

Water is directly or indirectly essential for every physiological process in crops such as
1. Seed germination and seedling emergence
2. Uptake and transport of nutrients
3. Growth and development
4. Photosynthesis
5. Translocation of photosynthate from leaves to storage organs
6. Maintenance of body temperature through transpiration etc.

The critical stages of different crops for their water requirement are presented in the
following table.

Crops Critical stages

Rice Tillerings, panicle initiation and flowering
Wheat Grown root initiation, milk

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Maize Silking, cob development
Peas Flowering, pod formation and development
Mungbean Flower initiation, pod formation and development
Sunflower Flowering and grain filling
Mustard Pre-flowering and siliqua development
Potato Stolonization and tuber development
Groundnut Pegging and pod development

Water management in crop production includes

A. Irrigation​ and ​B.​ ​Drainage

A. Irrigation: When soil moisture is not sufficient for normal growth and development of crops
additional supply of water is required. The application of water to soil and crop to meet the water
requirement of the crops is called irrigation. Irrigation requirement is a part of the total water
requirement of a crop exclusive of rainwater and soil moisture stored in the root-zone of the
crops.
Source of irrigation water:

a) Surface water resource i.e. rivers, canals, lakes, ponds, etc.

b) Ground water resources i.e. underground water lifted by deep tube wells.

Methods of irrigation

Different methods used in irrigation are

1. Surface irrigation: Water is directly applied to the surface of the soil, such as flooding
and furrow methods. In flooding method, water is supplied into the entire field. This
flooding method is used in wetland rice. And in furrow method, water is supplied in the
furrows that are made between the ridges, such as in potato.
2. Sub-surface irrigation: In this method water is applied to the sub-surface soil through
underground perforated pipes.
3. Sprinkler irrigation: In this method, water is applied as a spray or rain drops over the
crops.
4. Drip irrigation:​ In this method, water is applied drop by drop to the root-zone of a crop.

Irrigation efficiency: It is the ratio of water actually consumed or used by the crop to the total
amount of water supplied through irrigation.

B. Drainage:​ Drainage is a method for removal of excess water from the crop field.

Necessity of drainage: Drainage is necessary because, sometimes, excess moisture or water

logging occurs due to heavy and continuous rain. Water logging causes several changes in the
soil and plant resulting in reduced growth and even death of the crop plant. Water logging causes
injury to the plant due to low oxygen content and accumulation of ​toxic substances in the soil.
Under waterlogged conditions​, anaerobic root respiration occurs and as a result ​CO​2 and
ethanol​ are produced which are toxic to plants
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Methods of drainage:​ Drainage methods can be grouped into
a) Surface drainage: In this method, large outlet channels are made on the surface
of the land to remove the excess water.
b) Sub-surface drainage: In this method, the ground water level is lowered below
the root zone of the crop with the help of perforated pipes placed under the soil
surface.

Lecture 10 : Crop Nutrition, Basic forms, source and function of essential plant nutrients.

Plant nutrients: Crop plants need some chemical elements for their growth, development and
other physiological activities, these chemical elements are called ​nutrient elements or plant
nutrients. The process of absorption, translocation and assimilation of nutrients by crop plants is
known as ​crop nutrition.

Essential elements: An element which is essential for a specific metabolic activity of plants, and
in its absence the plants cannot continue to grow or complete their life cycle, and it cannot be
substituted by any other element is called an essential element.

Criteria for essentiality of an element:​ The criteria are

1. The particular element is for a specific metabolic activity of plants
2. In absence of that particular element the plant cannot continue to grow or complete their
life cycle and
3. This particular element cannot be substituted by any other element.

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Essential plant nutrient elements

There are 16 essential plant nutrient elements. They are

C, H, O, N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Cu, Mo, and Cl.

Classification of essential nutrient elements

Based on their relative requirement the essential nutrient elements are classified as

1. Macronutrients or macroelements or major elements​: The elements, which are

required in large quantities by the plants, are called macronutrients. These are C, H, O, N,
P, K, S, Mg, and Ca.
2. Micronutrients or microelements or minor elements or trace elements: The elements,
which are required in smaller quantities by the plants, are called microelements or trace
elements. These are B, Mn, Zn, Fe, Cu, Mo, and Cl.

Important functions of nutrients in the plant

● The basic nutrients carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are constituents of carbohydrates and
several biochemical compounds.
● Nitrogen is a constituent of protein, enzymes, hormones, vitamins, chlorophylls etc. It
enhances plant growth.
● Phosphorus is constituent of sugar phosphate, nucleic acids, coenzymes, etc. It enhances
the reproductive development of crop plants.
● Potassium is required as a cofactor for enzymes. It controls the opening and closing of
stomata. It increases the resistant of plants to insects and diseases.
● Sulphur is a constituent of some amino acids and fatty acids.
● Calcium is a constituent of cell wall.
● Magnesium is a constituent of chlorophyll.
● Iron is a constituent of various enzymes and it plays vital role as catalyst in
photosynthesis and respiration.
● Manganese is a constituent of several enzymes. It is essential for the formation of
chorophyll.
● Copper and zinc are involved in cation activated enzymes.
● Boron helps in carbohydrate transport. It is necessary for pollen germination and for
formation of flowers and fruits.
● Molybdenum is required for the assimilation of nitrates and for the fixation of
atmospheric nitrogen.
● Chlorine is involved in oxygen evolution.

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The nutrient elements, their sources and forms at which plants absorb them are given below:

Element Source Available Element Source Available

form form
N Soil, air NO​3​-​, ​NH​4​+ S Soil SO​3​2- ​, SO​4​2-
P Soil H​2​PO​4​- Zn Soil Zn​2+
K Soil K​+ Cu Soil Cu​+​, Cu​2+
C Air, water CO​2 Mo Soil Mo​4​2-
H Air, water H​+​, OH​- B Soil BO​3​3-​, B​4​O​7​2-
O Air, water O​2- Fe Soil Fe​2+ ​,Fe​3+
Ca Soil Ca​2​+ Mn Soil Mn​2+,​ MnO​4​2-
Mg Soil Mg​2+ Cl Soil Cl​-
Losses of plant nutrients form the soil

Soil is the storehouse of plant nutrients. There are always in-and out flows of plant nutrients
form the soil. Plant nutrients are lost from the soil mainly by

a) Uptake and removal by crops and weeds

b) Leaching
c) Erosion or run off
d) Transformation to gaseous form (volatilization)

Lecture 11 : Manures and Fertilizers

When the nutrients are lost from the soil, the crops cannot get enough amounts of nutrients from
the soil for their proper growth and development. In such a situation, nutrients are supplied to the
soil either in the form of ​organic substances called ​manures​, or in the form of ​synthetic
chemicals​ called ​fertilizers​.

Manures: Manures are organic substances prepared from plant and animals wastes and are
applied to the soil to supply plant nutrients for crop growth and to improve the physical,
chemical and biological, conditions of soil. Manures are of two types
2. Bulky manures and
3. Concentrated manures.

1. Bulky manures: The manures that contain low percentage of nutrients per unit volume such
as farmyard manures, compost, green manure etc.

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a) Farmyard manures: These are decomposed mixtures of dung and urine of farm animals
along with the remaining parts of fodder. On average well-decomposed farmyard manure
contains 0.5% N, 0.2% P​2​O​5​ and 0.5% K​2​O.
b) Compost: A mass of organic matter prepared by decomposing plant residues, water
hyacinth, straw, farm wastes etc. are called compost. The process of making compost is
called composting. On average compost contains 0.5% N, 0.15% P​2​O​5​ and 0.5% K​2​O.
c) Green manure: Some green tender plants such as sesbania ​(Dhaincha​), sunhemp etc. are
ploughed down and thoroughly mixed or incorporated into the soil for improving the soil
fertility and physical condition of soil. The plant materials that are added to the soil at green
condition is called green manure, and the process of mixing and decomposing of green plants
or green parts of plants into the soil is called green manuring.

2. Concentrated manures: The manures that contain higher percentage of nutrients per unit
volume such as oil cake, fishmeal, bone meal etc.

Fertilizers: Fertilizers are the organic or inorganic materials of natural or synthetic origin which
are added to the soil to supply certain elements that are essential to the plants for their growth,
development and other physiological activities such as urea, triple super phosphate (TSP),
muriate of potash (MP), gypsum, zinc oxide, boric acid etc.

Classification of fertilizers

Fertilizer can be classified according to the nutrients present in them such as

a​) Nitrogenous fertilizers:

Name of fertilizer Chemical formula %N
Urea NH​2​-CO-NH​2 46
Ammonium nitrate NH​4​NO​3 30
Ammonium sulphate (NH)​4​SO​4 20
Diammonium Phosphate (NH​4​)HPO​4 21

b​) Phosphates fertilizers:

Name of fertilizer Chemical formula % P​2​O​5
Triple super phosphate (TSP) 3Ca​3​ (PO​4​)​2 48
Diammonium phosphate (NH​4​)​2​HPO​4 46
Ammonium phosphate NH​4​H​2​PO​4 48

c​) Potassic fertilizers​:

Name of fertilizer Chemical formula % K​2​O
Muriate of potash (MOP) KCl 60
Potassium sulphate K​2​SO​4 50
Potassium nitrate KNO​3 44

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d​) Sulphur fertilizers:
Name of fertilizer Chemical formula %S
Gypsum CaSO​4​, 2H​2​O 18
Ammonium sulphate (NH​4​)​2​SO​4 24

e​) Zinc fertilizers:

Name of fertilizer Chemical formula % Zn
Zinc oxide ZnO 78
Zinc sulphate ZnSO​4​, 7H​2​O 36

f) Boron fertilizers:
Name of fertilizer Chemical formula %B
Sodium borate (Borax) Na​2​B​4​O​7​, 10H​2​O 11

Biofertilizers: Bio-fertilizers are some selective microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, and algae,
which are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen or of converting insoluble phosphate in the soil
into forms at which they are available to the plants.

Types of bio-fertilizers:
1. Bacterial bio-fertilizers e.g​. Rhizobium
2. Fungal bio-fertilizers e.g. ​Mycorrhiza
3. Algal bio-fertilizers e.g. ​Blue-green-algae.

Dose, time and methods of fertilizer application

Dose or rate of fertilizer application is the amount of fertilizer that is applied in a particular crop
in unit area of land. The optimum dose of fertilizer depends on

1. Available form of nutrient present in the soil.

2. Types of crop to be grown, because nutrient requirement varies with the type and variety
of crops
3. Crop growing seasons.

Time of fertilizer application:

The time of fertilizer application depends on

1. Types of crop to be grown
2. Growth stages of the crop
3. Nutrient requirement of the crop
4. Nutrient status of the soil
5. Nature of the fertilizers

Methods of fertilizer application

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 1. Broadcasting method: Fertilizers are broadcast or spread as basal application or as top
dressing. It is done manually.
2. Placement method: Whenever a small amount of fertilizer is applied, placement method
is practiced. In this method fertilizer is placed simultaneously at the time of seed sowing
by using the ​seed-cum-fertilizer drill​. When fertilizer is placed in one or both sides of
the rows of a crop, it is called ​side dressing​. Fertilizer application of fruit trees is done by
ring placement method​. In this method fertilizers are placed away from the base of the
plants. ​Urea super granules (USG​) are ​deep placed​ in lowland rice field.
3. Foliar application method: Fertilizers that are soluble in water are applied on the
foliage of the crop with the help of a sprayer.
Vermicompost

Vermicompost is the product or process of ​composting​ using various ​worms​, usually ​red
wigglers​, ​white worms​, and other ​earthworms​ to create a ​heterogeneous​ mixture of decomposing
vegetable or food waste, bedding materials, and vermicast. Vermicast, also called worm castings,
worm humus or worm manure, is the end-product of the breakdown of ​organic matter​ by an
​ These castings have been shown to contain reduced levels of contaminants and a
earthworm​.[1]​
higher saturation of nutrients than do organic materials before vermicomposting.

Containing water-soluble nutrients, vermicompost is an excellent, nutrient-rich ​organic fertilizer

and soil conditioner. This process of producing vermicompost is called vermicomposting.

Topography of soil of Bangladesh

According to the topography of soil i.e. the natural characteristics of land the cultivated land of
Bangladesh is divided into:
1. High land, 2. Medium high land, 3. Low land , and 4. Very low land.

So, cropping patterns vary from place to place or from region to region according to the
topography of land. For example a cropping pattern, which is suitable in high land, may not be
suitable in low land.

Agro-ecological zones of Bangladesh

On the basis of soil, climate, hydrology and crop grown the entire Bangladesh is divided into 30
zones. These zones are known as agro-ecological zones (AEZ) of Bangladesh. The AEZ are
shown in the following map.

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Lecture 12 : Geographical distribution of crops in relation to climate and soil under world
perspective

The natural distribution of plant is largely determined by the complex interaction of all the
factors constituting the plant natural environment. The distribution of a plant is dynamic and ever
changing. The plant environment includes all the external forces and substances affecting the
growth, structure and reproduction of plant.
Factors affecting crop distribution
1. Climate
Climate largely determines the type of vegetation that grows naturally in any part of the world.
The three most important factors in climate from the standpoint of plant response are
temperature, water supply ​and ​light.
The climate of a particular place may cause yield of a particular species to be zero by preventing
germination or growth or reproduction.
Temperature: Crop distribution is strongly influenced by the ambient temperature in local and
global ecology. The influence of latitude (distance from the equator) on temperature is mainly
due to lowering angle of sun at mid day with increasing distance from the equator while
lowering temperature at high altitude (elevation from sea) is attributable largely to the expansion
of warm air as it raises from below causing it to cool.
Precipitation: Rainfall is determined largely by geography and pattern of large air movement of
weather system. The distribution of rainfall also largely determined by the direction of mountain
chain. When moisture laden winds blow from the ocean towards the high mountain they deposit
most of the moisture on the ocean facing mountain slopes with a resulting rain shadow and
produce desert on other side. The higher the mountain the greater the precipitation over it. This is
the main reason of causing desert behind a high mountain.
Low and ill distributed rainfall is common feature of dry land farming where drought registrant
crop like sorghum, pearl millet. On the other hand, places of heavy and regular rainfall, in flat
area rice is commonly grown but in hilly area tea, coffee, rubber are grown in slops.
Soil: Certain crops are adapted to certain kinds of soil. Loam soils are the best for the growth of
plants since they contain course sand as well as fine silt and clay particles. Loam soil has good
aeration, good water filtration, easy root penetration, good water holding capacity and fertility. In
general, fine textured soil hold much water and increase availability of water to the root for
longer period. The small grain and grass crops flourish most luxuriantly on the heavier classes of
soil such as clay and clay loam. Maize grows best on loam and silt loam while potatoes produces
best result in on loam and sandy loams. The crops requiring a large amount of cultivation usually
give best result in the light soil because light soil (course textured soil) can easily be workable.
Light soil are affected less by rain and dry weather.

Lecture 13: Calculation of fertilizer dose/rate

Problem 01. To apply 90 kg of nitrogen in a rice field, how much urea will be required?
Calculate

Solution
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We know, urea contains 46% nitrogen.

For 46 kg nitrogen, required amount of urea will be 100kg

So, for 1 kg nitrogen, required amount of urea will be 100/46kg
So, for 90 kg nitrogen, required amount of urea will be (100/46) x 90 kg =195.65 kg.

Problem 02. Calculate the amount of TSP to be applied in a rice field of 0.75 ha. If the
recommended dose of P​2​O​5​ is 45 kg/ha

Solution
1 ha requires 45 kg P​2​O​5
So, 0.75 requires 45x 0.75 kg P​2​O​5​ = 33.75 kg P​2​O​5

We know, TSP contains 48% P​2​O​5

For 48 kg P​2​O​5​, required amount of TSP will be 100 kg

So, for 1 kg P​2​O​5​, required amount of TSP will be 100/48kg
So, for 33.75 kg P​2​O​5​, required amount of TSP will be (100/48) x 33.75 kg=70.31 kg.

Problem 03. Calculate the amount of MOP to be applied in a rice field of 75m x 50m size, if the
recommended dose of K​2​O is 60 kg/ha.

Solution

Area of rice field = 75m x 50 m = 3750 m​2​. We know 1 ha =10000m​2

10000m​2​ requires 60 kg K​2​O

1m​2​ requires (60 /10000) kg K​2​O
So, 3750 m​2​ requires (60/10000) × 3750 K​2​O = 22.5 Kg K​2​O

Again we know, MOP contains 60% K​2​O

For 60 kg K​2​O, required amount of MOP will be 100 kg

For 1 Kg K​2​O, required amount of MOP will be 100/60 kg
So, for 22.5 kg K​2​O, required amount of MOP will be (1000/60) × 22.5 kg = 37.5 kg

40