The Electric Power System

(Embedded Generator)
Coal Plant
Wind Farm

End
Hydro Plant Users

End
Users
Generation Transmission Distribution
System System System
Small-Hydro

1
 Components of a Typical EPS

Generation
 Power Plants
 Power Station

Transmission
 Transmission Substations
 Transmission Lines
 Sub-transmission Lines

Distribution
 Distribution Substations
 Primary Distribution Lines
 Distribution Transformers
 Secondary Distribution Lines

2
 Outline

Magnetic Circuits

Coupled Circuits

Transformers & the Ideal Transformer

Referred Impedances & Referred Values

3
 Magnetic Field Intensity
Charges in motion produce a magnetic field.

Φ
Right-hand Rule

Magnetic flux of a current-carrying conductor

4
 Magnetic Flux Lines
Flux lines are used to
visualize the presence
of the magnetic field.
The flux lines form
concentric rings whose
density is proportional
to the strength of the
magnetic field.
Magnetic flux lines
of a current-
carrying conductor

5
 Magnetic Circuit

Consists of one or more wires (“windings”) wound
about a structure (“core”).
 Core is usually a highly permeable (i.e., high
permeability, high permeance, low reluctance) magnetic
material.
 The core confines the flow of magnetic flux within its
structure, much like conductors confine current in an
electric circuit.

6
 Linear Magnetic Circuits
Electric Circuits Magnetic Circuits

V = IR Vm = Φℜ

ρL l
R= ℜ=
A µA

7
Example: In the magnetic circuit shown, the iron core
has a mean length of 30 cm, an area of 9 cm2 and a
relative permeability of 5,000. The air gap has a length
of 0.05 cm and an area of 9 cm2.

I
flux
Find the current in the . φ
coil if the flux density
N=500
is B = 1 weber/m2.
.
Reluctance of the iron core
IRON CORE
Lc 30 × 10-2
Rc = =
µrµoAc (5000)µo(9 × 10− 4 )
= 5.31 × 104 amp-turn/weber
8
Reluctance of the air gap
Lg
Rg = = 4.42 × 105 amp-turn/weber
µo A g
From NI = (Rc + Rg )φ Rc
and φ = BA c
+
we get NI φ Rg
-
(Rc + Rg )BAc
I=
N
(5.31x104 + 4.42x105 )(1)(9x10−4 )
= = 0.89 A
500

9
 Faraday’s Law
A varying magnetic field induces an electromotive
force (emf) in a closed circuit.

dφ
e=−
dt
Note: A changing magnetic field is caused by:
1. a conductor moving in a constant magnetic
field; or
2. a changing magnetic field due to a changing
current.

10
 Right-Handed System
The induced voltage and current are positive when
they are flowing in the counter-clockwise direction.
A positive current produces a positive flux which is
pointing towards the reader.
Conductor
loop
- +
e i e i
+ -

Positive e, i and φ Negative e, i and φ

11
Example: Find the polarity of the induced voltage
in the conductor loop shown. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is increasing.
Using the right-handed system,
the magnetic flux is negative.
Since it is increasing in
e
magnitude,
dφ
< 0
dt
dφ
From Faraday’s law, e = − and e > 0 (CCW)
dt
r
Note: If B is negative but decreasing in magnitude,
it can be shown that e < 0.

12
Example: Find the polarity of the induced voltage
in the conductor loop shown. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is increasing.
Using the right-handed system,
the magnetic flux is positive.
Since it is increasing in
e
magnitude,
dφ
> 0
dt
dφ
From Faraday’s law, e = − and e < 0 (CW)
dt
r
Note: If B is positive but decreasing in magnitude,
it can be shown that e > 0.

13
Example: The conductor of length L is moving
towards the right with a velocity x.& Find the polarity
of the induced voltage. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is constant.
The flux in the loop is stationary moving
copper conductor
φ = BLx x&
The change in the L e
flux is
dφ
= BL x& x
dt
Hence dφ
e = − = − BL x& < 0 (CW)
dt

14
 Lenz’s Law
The induced voltage results in a current that
opposes whatever cause is producing the current.

What causes the current?

1. The motion of a conductor in a magnetic field.
The induced emf is called speed voltage.
2. The change of flux in a stationary circuit. The
induced emf is called transformer voltage.

15
Example: Find the polarity of the induced voltage
in the conductor loop shown. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is increasing.
The induced voltage is caused
by the increasing magnetic flux
which is directed into the page.
e
The resulting current will oppose
the increase in the flux. Thus
i
the current must flow in the
CCW direction.
r
Note: If B is directed into the page but is decrea-
sing in magnitude, the current will flow
r in the CW
direction to prevent the decrease in B.

16
Example: Find the polarity of the induced voltage
in the conductor loop shown. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is increasing.
The induced voltage is caused
by the increasing magnetic flux
which is directed out of the
e
page. The resulting current will
oppose the increase in the flux.
i
Thus the current must flow in
the CW direction.
r
Note: If B is directed out of the page but is
decreasing in magnitude, the current will flow rin
the CCW direction to prevent the decrease in B .

17
Example: The conductor of length L is moving
towards the right with a velocity x.& Find the polarity
of the induced voltage. The magnitude of the
magnetic flux density is constant.
stationary moving
The induced voltage is copper conductor
caused by the motion
x&
of the conductor
L i e
towards the right. The
resulting current will
produce a force that
x
will oppose the motion.
Thus the current must flow in the CW direction.

18
 Coupled Circuits
Coils that share a common magnetic flux are
mutually coupled; that is, a time-varying current in
one coil induces a voltage in the other coil.

Example: Two-Winding Transformer

i1 φ i2
L12
+ L11 L22
+
e1 e2
- N1 N2 -

19
 An increasing current i1 in coil 1 (directed as
shown) results in a magnetic flux φ which induces
voltages e1 and e2 in coils 1 and 2, respectively.
From Faraday’s Law, we get
dφ dφ di1 di1
e1 = N1 = N1 = L11
dt di1 dt dt
dφ d φ di1 di1
e2 = N 2 = N2 = L12
dt di1 dt dt

Note: L11 and L22 are self-inductances;

L12 and L21 are mutual inductances. (L12 = L21)
Both are measured in Henry (H).
20
 Transformers

Devices that transfer electrical energy from one
circuit to another through inductively coupled
electrical conductors.

Except in autotransformers, electrical connection
between circuits is unnecessary.

21
 Transformers

Consists of two or more windings (“primary”,
“secondary”, “tertiary”) linked by a common
magnetic flux in its core.

Frequency of induced secondary voltage is same
as primary voltage since there is no relative
motion between the coils.

22
 Transformers

Functions
 Conversion of voltage (AND current)
 Voltage sampling
 Current sampling
 Impedance matching
 Electrical isolation (for non-auto-transformers)
 DC blocking
 Safety

23
 Transformers

24
 AC Systems and
Transformers
Voltage and current conversion

Subsystems of the power system may now

operate at different voltage levels:

 Power plants: 6.24kV to 13.2kV.
 Transmission company: 230kV to 500kV.
 Distribution companies: 13.2kV to 34.5kV.
 End-users: 220V (or sometimes even 110V).
 Electronic devices (PCs, etc.) : <24V.

25
 Ideal Transformer
For the ideal transformer, we assume:

Infinite permeability µ=∞

No leakage flux. X1 = X2 = 0

Magnetizing current is zero. Xm = 0

Winding resistances are zero. R1 = R2 = 0

No core losses. Pc = 0

26
 Ideal Transformer

For the voltage at the primary: V1 = N1
dφ
dt

For the voltage at the secondary: V = N dφ
2 2
dt

The voltage at primary and secondary
are related: N1 N2
r + r r +
V1 N1 r I1 I2 r
r = V1 V2
V2 N 2 _ _

27
 Ideal Transformer
N1 N2
+ r r +
r I1 I2 r
V1 V2
_ _

Using magnetic circuits analysis (balancing

ampere-turns): NI =N I
1 1 2 2
r
I1 N 2
r =
I 2 N1
28
 Ideal Transformers

Additionally, since we are considering an ideal
transformer (no losses of any kind, whether real
or reactive), input complex power must equal
output complex power.
rr r r
V1 I1 = V2 I 2

Substituting the ratio (N1/N2) appropriately will

yield a reflexive equation.

29
 Referred Impedance

Define transformation ratio a = (N1/N2)

The impedance, as seen from the r primary side,
is defined as: r V1
Z1 = r
I1

The impedance, as seen from the secondary
side, is defined as: r
r V2
Z2 = r
I2

30
 Referred Impedance

Dividing Z1 by Z2, we get:
r r r r r 2
Z1  V1   I 2   V1   I 2   N1 
r =  r  r  =  r  r  =  
Z 2  I1   V2   V2   I1   N 2 

Arranging:
2
r  N1  r 2
r
Z1 =   Z2 = a Z2
 N2 

31
 Referred Values

The concept of referred impedance:
The primary side does not “see” the secondary
impedance as is. It “sees” a different impedance
(referred impedance) at the secondary.
 The same is true for the secondary side and the primary
impedance.

32
 Referred Values

The other values (voltage and current) are also
referred from one side to the other.
 This time the ratio is exactly the transformation ratio,
used appropriately for voltage and current, defined
previously.

The real and reactive power values do not change
from primary to secondary. This follows from
conservation of power.

33
 Referred Values

Shown here are three circuits

which are identical when
connected to any network by
terminals a and b.

34
AC and DC MACHINES

35
 Motor Principle
The force on a current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field is
r r r b
F= ∫ IdL × B I
a c
Torque equation: N B S

d
T = BI A sin φ
a,b
(motor principle) φ
F
N S
F

d,c
36
 Generator Principle
Consider a conductor loop that is rotating about an
axis in a magnetic field.
b
The induced
current will a c
produce a N B S
force that will
oppose the ω d
motion of the a,b
conductor
loop. N S

d,c

37
 Features of Rotating Machines

typical DC
machine

cylindrical rotor salient pole

AC machine AC machine
38
 Axial View of the Machine
stator core
stator winding

air gap
shaft
rotor winding
bearing
rotor core

Idealized Machine Structure

Two concentric right-circular cylinders made of
non-saturating, infinitely-permeable iron. The
stator and rotor are separated by a small air gap.

39
 Features of a DC Machine
q-axis

A 2-pole DC armature
Machine
a

C ωm d-axis
SF

compensating I shunt field

series field

interpole
40
 Synchronous Machine Details
d-axis
q-axis
b axis The stator has a
distributed three-
Phase b
Phase c winding
phase winding
winding (a,b,c).
Field
a axis
winding F

Damper
The rotor has a
Damper
winding D DC field winding
winding Q
(F) and short-
c axis Phase a circuited damper
winding
windings (D,Q).

41
 Induction Machine Details
b axis
a’
B axis a’ A axis
c b
c A’ b
B
C C’
a axis
b’ B’ A c’
b’ c’

a
a
c axis
Squirrel Cage Wound
Rotor Rotor
C axis

42
 Rotating Electrical Machines

Generator
 Mechanical energy to electrical energy.
 Driven by a “prime mover” – steam turbine, gas engine,
falling/running water.
 Depends on relative motion between the conductors
and magnetic fields.

Motor
 Electrical energy to mechanical energy.
 Supplied with electric power to develop torque.

43
 Comments

All machines are basically AC machines.
 DC Machines generate AC voltage which is rectified
and smoothed out to produce DC.

Models (in the form of equivalent circuits) have
already been derived for us.
 For this course, we will deal directly with the steady-
state equivalent circuits.

44
 DC Machines

Artemio P. Magabo
Professor of Electrical Engineering

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

University of the Philippines - Diliman
 Types of DC Machines

Separately-excited Shunt

Self-excited Shunt

Series field

Compound
 Long-shunt
 Short-shunt

NOTE: We will deal only with the shunt DC machines.

46
 Separately-Excited Generator
The shunt field is not connected to the armature.
At steady-state condition, all currents are constant.
Ra RF

Ia
Te Eg Vt IF VF = R F I F

ωm
Tm VF

E g = ω mL aF IF E g = R a Ia + V t
Pe = ω mTe Te = L aF IF Ia Tm = Te + D ωm
47
 Separately-Excited Motor
The shunt field is not connected to the armature.
At steady-state condition, all currents are constant.
Ra RF

Ia
Tm Ec Vt IF VF = R F I F

ωm
Te VF

E c = ω mL aF IF V t = R a Ia + E c
Te = L aF IF Ia Te = Tm + D ωm
48
 Self-Excited Generator
Shunt field is in parallel with the armature. At
steady-state condition, all currents are constant.
Ra

Ia IL
IF
V t = R F IF
Te Eg RF Vt
Ia = IF + IL
ωm
Tm
E g = ω mL aF IF E g = R a Ia + V t
Te = L aF IF Ia Tm = Te + D ωm

49
 Self-Excited Motor
Shunt field is in parallel with the armature. At
steady-state condition, all currents are constant.
Ra

Ia IL
IF
V t = R F IF
Tm Ec RF Vt
IL = IF + Ia
ωm
Te
E c = ω mL aF IF V t = R a Ia + E c
Te = L aF IF Ia Te = Tm + D ωm
50
 Generator Nameplate Data
Rated KW Rated V Rated RPM
The machine is assumed to supply its rated KW at
the rated voltage when driven at rated RPM. This
is called full load condition.
Example: Consider a 5 KW, 125 volt, 1200 RPM
DC generator. At full load,
PLoad = 5,000 watts
Vt = 125 volts
S = 1,200 RPM
5,000
The full-load current is IL = = 40 Amps
125

51
Example: A separately-excited DC generator has
a no-load terminal voltage of 125 V when driven at
1800 RPM with the field current set to 10 Amps.
Neglecting saturation, find
a) Eg at 1600 RPM with IF constant at 10 A.
b. the speed in RPM so that Eg = 100 V, with IF
constant at 10 A.
c. Eg if S and IF are increased to 1850 RPM and
12 A, respectively.
Assuming no saturation, Eg = ωmL aFiF reduces to
Eg
= constant
SI F

52
 Re RF

Ia
Eg Vt IF

S
VF
125 Eg
a. = or E g = 111 V
1800 (10 ) 1600 (10 )
125 100
b. = or S = 1440 RPM
1800(10) S(10)
125 Eg
c. = or E g = 154 V
1800(10) 1850(12)

53
Example: A separately-excited DC generator is
rated 5 KW and 125 V. The equivalent armature
resistance is 0.2Ω. Assuming the field current IF
and the speed S are held constant,
a. Find the terminal voltage Vt at no load.
b. Find Vt when the load power is 2.5 KW.
0.2Ω RF
a. At full load,
Ia
PL = 5,000 watts
Eg Vt IF
Vt = 125 volts
5000 S
Ia = = 40 A VF
125

54
The generated voltage is
Eg = R eIa + Vt = 133 V
At no-load, Vt=Eg. Thus Vt = 133 V.
2500
b. Since PL=2,500 watts, we get IL =
Vt
Substitute in Eg = ReIa + Vt = 133 V . We get
2500
133 = 0.2 + Vt
or Vt
2
Vt − 133 Vt + 500 = 0
Solving for Vt, we get Vt=129 V or (Vt=4 V).

55
 Separately-Excited Motor
The shunt field is excited by a separate source.
Re RF

IL=Ia
Vt Ec IF VF = R F I F

Te ωm
VF

E c = ω mL aF IF Vt = R e I a + E c
Te = L aF IF Ia Te = Tm + D ωm

56
 Self-Excited Motor
The shunt field is connected in parallel with the
armature.
Re

IL Ia
IF
V t = R F IF
Vt RF Ec
IL = IF + Ia
Te ωm

E c = ω mL aF IF Vt = R e I a + E c
Te = L aF IF Ia Te = Tm + D ωm

57
 Motor Nameplate Data
Rated HP Rated V Rated RPM
The machine is assumed to supply its rated HP
when the input voltage is rated and the machine is
running at rated RPM. The efficiency must be given
so that the line current can be calculated.

Example: Consider a 5 HP, 125 V, 1200 RPM DC

motor. The efficiency is 85% at full load.
5 × 746
Pin = = 4,388 watts
0 .85
4,388
IL = = 35 .1 A 1 HP = 746 W
125
58
Example: When IL = 200A, the speed ωm is 100
rad/sec. Find ωm when IL = 100A. Neglect
saturation. R e

Vt = 250 V IL Ia
R F = 62.5 Ω Vt RF IF Ec

R e = 0.1 Ω
Te ωm
The current in the shunt field

Vt 250
IF = = =4A
RF 62.5

59
When IL = 200 A,

Ia1 = 200 − 4 = 196 A

Ec1 = 250 − 196(0.1) = 230.4 V
ωm1 = 100 rad/sec

When IL = 100 A

Ia2 = 100 − 4 = 96 A
Ec2 = 250 − 96(0.1) = 240 .4 V
We want to find ωm2.

60
Neglecting saturation, Ec = ωmL aF IF = k F ωm
reduces to
ωm1 ωm2
=
Ec1 Ec2
Substitution gives
100 ωm2
=
230.4 240.4

We get ωm2 = 104.34 rad/sec.

61
 Starting a DC Shunt Motor
At starting condition, ωm=0 which makes Ec=0.
Re
E c = ω mL aF IF
Vt = R e I a + E c IL Ia
Vt RF IF Ec
The starting
current is
Vt Te ωm
Ias =
Re
Since Re is very small, Ia can be quite large, which
will damage the armature winding.

62
In order to limit the starting current, resistors are
connected in series with the armature at starting
condition.
S1 S2 S3 S4
Sa
Re
SF R1 R2 R3 R4
RF IF Ia
Vt Ec
Rh
Te ωm
Note: The field rheostat Rh is set to zero during
the starting period to maximize the field current
(and the electromagnetic torque).

63
 Starting Sequence
1. Switch SF is closed with Rh set to zero.
2. Switch Sa is closed. The electromagnetic torque
and the starting armature current are
Te = L aFIFIas = k FIas
Vt
Ias =
R e + R1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4
3. Te causes the armature to rotate and Ec begins
to build up.
4. Switches S1 to S4 are closed in sequence.
5. The rheostat Rh is increased until the motor
rotates at the desired speed.

64
 Starting Current and Speed
Ia

t
ωm

t
Note: Switching S1 to S4 causes the discontinuities.

65
 Separately-Excited Generator
Consider the build-up of a separately-excited DC
generator. Re RF

Ia=0
IF
Eg Vt

ωm VF
Assumptions:
1. The machine is driven at a constant speed, ωm.
2. There is no load; i.e. Ia=0 and Vt = Eg.
3. Residual magnetism is present.

66
From Eg=Er when IF=0, the voltage increases with
the field current, linearly at first, until saturation.

Eg
No-load
magnetization
curve

Linear Er is the generated

Approximation voltage due to the
Er residual flux.

IF
Note: The expression E g = ω mL aF IF does not
consider the effect of saturation.

67
 External Characteristics Curve
What happens to the terminal voltage Vt of the
separately-excited DC generator as the load is
increased?
Re RF

Ia=IL
E g = ω mL aF IF
Eg Vt IF Vt = E g − R e I a

ωm
VF
With the generated voltage Eg held constant, Vt
decreases as the load current IL is increased.

68
The plot of the terminal voltage versus the load
current is called the external characteristic curve.
Vt
ReIL drop
VNL
VFL

IFL IL
Define: Voltage Regulation
VNL − VFL
VR = × 100 (in percent)
VFL

69
 Self-Excited Generator
Consider the build-up of a self-excited DC
generator. Re

Ia IL=0
Eg IF RF Vt

ωm
Assumptions:
1. The machine is driven at a constant speed, ωm.
2. There is no load; i.e. IL=0 and Ia = IF.
3. Residual magnetism is present.

70
 No-Load
Eg Voltage
o Magnetization
Ed Curve

Vd Shunt Field
x Resistance Line

Er

Ix IF
Neglecting the small armature resistance drop,
then during the build up process,
d
Eg ≈ Vt = R FiF + λF
dt
71
At point x,
E g = E d and Vd = R F IF
Thus
d
λ F = E d − Vd
dt
Comments:
1. As long as the magnetization curve lies
above the field resistance line, the field flux
linkage will increase, and so will Eg.
2. At point o, the build up process stops. Eg
produces just enough IF to sustain the
generated voltage.

72
 External Characteristics Curve
What happens to the terminal voltage of the self-
excited DC generator as the load is increased?
Re
E g = ω mL aF IF
Ia IL Vt = E g − R e I a
Eg IF RF Vt Ia = IF + IL
Vt
ωm IF =
RF
Note: The generated voltage is affected by the
terminal voltage.

73
For comparison, the external characteristic
curves of the self-excited and separately-excited
generators are shown below.
Vt
separately-excited

self-excited

IFL IL
Note: The separately-excited generator has a
smaller voltage regulation.

74
 Separately-Excited Generator

1. The shunt field requires a separate source.

2. The machine will build up even if residual

magnetism is absent.

3. The magnitude of the field current is not

affected by changes in the load.

4. Voltage regulation is better compared to the

self excited machine.

75
 Self-Excited Generator
1. The shunt field does not need a separate source.
2. The machine will not build up if there is no
residual flux.
3. The residual flux must be in the same direction
as the flux produced by the shunt field.
4. The field current (and Eg) decreases with load.
The generator must be operated in the satu-
ration region to minimize the reduction in Eg.
5. The voltage regulation is poorer compared to
the separately-excited generator.

76
 Electromagnetic Torque
Whether self-excited or separately-excited,

Te = L aF IFIa = k FIa
Te

separately-excited or
self-excited motor

Ia
Note: The electromagnetic torque increases
linearly with the armature current Ia.

77
 Motor Speed
From Vt = R e Ia + E c and E c = ωmL aF IF = k F ωm
we get
Vt R e
ωm = − Ia
KF KF
ωm

separately-excited or
self-excited motor

Ia
Note: The motor speed decreases linearly with the
armature current Ia.

78
 Control of Steady-State Speed
From
Vt = R e I a + E c
E c = ω mL aF IF Re
we get
IL RF
Ia
Vt − R eIa Vt IF Ec
ωm =
L aFIF RF

Te ωm

Note: ωm increases when IF is decreased. This is

done by increasing Rh, the field rheostat.

79
 Speed Control
1. Control of the field current: A rheostat is
connected in series with the shunt field. When
Rh=0, the speed can no longer be reduced.

2. Control of the terminal voltage: The speed

can be controlled all the way to zero. Generally,
a sinusoidal input is passed on to a thyristor-
controlled rectifier.

3. Some applications require that the direction of

rotation be reversed. This is done by
a. reversing the shunt field connection or
b. reversing the armature connection.

80
Example: Consider a shunt motor with Vt=250V,
RF=62.5Ω and Re=0.1Ω. Assume that when Rh=0
and IL=200A, ωm=100 rad/sec. Suppose Rh is
increased to 5Ω. Find the value of Te immediately
after the increase in Rh.

Prior to the increase in Rh

250
IF1 = =4A
62.5
Ia1 = 200 − 4 = 196 A
Ec1 = 250 − 0.1(196) = 230.4 V
Te1 = L aFIF1Ia1 = 784L aF

81
Immediately after Rh is increased to 5 Ω
250
IF2 = = 3.7 A (down by 7.4% )
62.5 + 5
The speed momentarily stays constant at 100
rad/sec. Since Ec = ωmL aFIF , we get
Ec1 Ec2
=
ωm1IF1 ωm2IF2
Substitution gives
230 .4 Ec2
=
100 (4) 100 (3 .7)
E c 2 = 213 .3 V

82
The new armature current is
250 − 213.3
Ia2 = = 367 A (up by 87% )
0.1
The new electromagnetic torque is

Te2 = L aFIF2Ia2 = 1358L aF (up by 73% )

Note: The increase in Ia more than compensates

for the decrease in IF. The electromagnetic torque
increases and the machine speeds up.

83
 Developed Power
From
Re
Vt = R e I a + E c
we get Ia
2 Vt Ec
Vt I a = R e I a + E c I a

VtIa = input to armature

ReIa2 = armature copper loss
EcIa = developed power in the armature
Note: The developed armature power produces the
internal mechanical torque.

84
 DC Machine Losses
A. Electrical Losses
1. Copper Loss in Windings (I2R in shunt and
series fields, armature, compensating and
interpole windings)
2. Brush Contact Loss VbIa
B. Magnetic Field Loss (Core Loss)
1. Hysteresis Loss
2. Eddy-Current Loss
C. Mechanical Losses
1. Bearing Friction and Windage
2. Brush Friction Loss
3. Friction Loss in Ventilating Fan

85
D. Stray Load Loss
Leakage and Armature Reaction Fluxes
(assumed as 1% of output for machines 200
HP or above, otherwise neglected)

Define: Rotational Loss = Magnetic Field Loss

+ Mechanical Losses

output
Efficiency = (for a generator)
output + losses

input − losses
= (for a motor)
input

86
Induction Machines

Artemio P. Magabo
Professor of Electrical Engineering

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

University of the Philippines - Diliman
 Induction Machine
The stator (also called the armature) is a smooth
cylinder with a three-phase winding.
The rotor is a smooth right-circular cylinder, either
squirrel cage or wound:
A squirrel-cage rotor consists of conducting bars
embedded in slots and short-circuited at each end
by conducting rings.
A wound rotor is a 3-phase winding similar to, and
wound for the same number of poles, as the stator.
The end windings are connected to slip rings which
are in contact with carbon brushes.
 Induction Machine Details
b axis
a’
B axis a’ A axis
c b
c A’ b
B
C C’
a axis
b’ B’ A c’
b’ c’

a
a
c axis
Squirrel Cage Wound
Rotor Rotor
C axis
 Induction Machine
1. Generally used as a motor. As a generator, it
generates a variable frequency sinusoid.
2. Under normal running conditions, the rotor windings
are short-circuited. Voltage and current of variable
frequency are induced in the rotor by transformer
action.
3. The d- and q-axes rotate at synchronous speed. The
rotor speed is less than synchronous.
4. The induction motor is a variable-speed motor.
5. More than 90% of all motors used in the world today
are induction motor.
 Induction Motor Principle
Consider a permanent magnet that is suspended
by a string over a copper disc. Assume that the
magnet is rotated at a constant angular velocity.

Voltage and eddy current string

are induced in the copper
disc as the magnet rotates.
The current produces a
magnet
torque that tends to
oppose the cause of the
induced emf (Lenz’s law). copper
S N
Thus, the disc will turn and disc
iron
try to catch up with the plate
rotating magnet.
 Rotating Magnetic Field
Assume that balanced three-phase currents are
supplied to the stator; i.e.

ia (t) = Im cos ωt ib (t) = Im cos( ωt − 120 o )

ic (t) = Im cos( ωt + 120 o )
ia ib ic

2π
3
π π ωt
3
 Fc
At ωt=0 At ωt= π/3 Fb
a’ Fc a’
c b c b
Fa Fa
b’ c’ b’ c’
Fb
a a
At ωt=2π/3
Fb At ωt=π

a’ Fc Fb a’
c b c b
Fa Fa
b’ c’ b’ c’
a
Fc a
Observations:
1. From ωt = 0 to ωt = π, the current has gone
through one half cycle. Likewise, the resultant
flux has gone through one half revolution.
Thus, θe = ωt.
2. The resultant mmf has a constant amplitude.

1
2
NIm

60o

60o NIm

1
2
NIm Amplitude = 1.5NIm
3. The speed of rotation, ω, is called the
synchronous speed. Convert to mechanical speed,
2
ωm = ω in rad/sec
p

Convert to RPM

rad 1 rev sec

S=ω ∗
m sec rad
∗ 60 min
2π
2 60 120 f
= (2 π f ) ∗ =
p 2π p
The equivalent circuit of an induction motor with all
quantities referred to the stator is shown below.
R1+jX1 R2e+jX2e

+ r r
r I1 I2 e 1− s
V1 jXm
s
R 2e
-

R1+jX1 = stator resistance plus leakage reactance

R2e+jX2e = referred rotor resistance plus leakage reactance

Xm = referred magnetizing reactance

r
I2e = referred rotor current
The equivalent circuit of an induction motor with all
quantities referred to the stator is shown below.
R1+jX1 R2e+jX2e

+ r r
r I1 I2 e 1− s
V1 jXm
s
R 2e
-

ω − ωr
s=
ω
s = slip
ω = synchronous speed
ωr = rotor speed
 Steady State Characteristics
Developed Power
2 1−s
Pe = 3I2 e R 2 e (1)
s
Copper loss in the rotor
2
Pc = 3I2 e R 2 e (2)

The sum of (1) and (2) is the 3-phase power transferred

across the air gap from the stator to the rotor.
2 R 2e
Pg = Pe + Pc = 3I2 e (3)
s
 Steady State Characteristics
Take note that:

(4)
Pe = Teω r
ω − ωr
s = ωr = (1 − s)ω
ω

we get 3 2 R2 e
Te = I 2e (5)
ω s
It also follows that

Pg = Te ω s (6)

Pc = sPg (7)

Remarks:

(1) Te in equation is expressed in Newton-meters.

(2) Pe in equation is in Watts if Te is in N-m

and ωs or ωr is in mechanical radians/sec.

(3) The motor must run at low slip (near the synchronous
speed), otherwise the copper losses will be excessive.
 Synchronous Speed and Rotor Speed
Synchronous speed is dictated by the frequency of
the applied stator voltage and the number of poles.
120 f
Ss =
p
From the definition of slip, we get
Sr = (1 − s) S s

120 f
Sr = (1 − s)
p
2 π rad
ωr = s rev
r min × 1 min
60 sec × rev
A plot of the electromagnetic torque is shown
below.

Braking Motor Generator

Region Region Region

Te

1.5 1.0 0.5 0 -0.5 slip

Speed, % of
synchronous
-50 0 50 100 150
 Operating Modes
The slip specifies the operating mode of the
induction machine.
1. When s=1, the machine is at standstill (Pe=0).
2. When s=0, the machine is running at
synchronous speed and Pe=0.
3. When 0<s<1, the machine is operating as a
motor and Pe>0.
4. When s<0, the machine is operating as a
generator and Pe<0.
5. When s>1, the machine is operating in the
braking region and Pe<0.
 Braking Region
Some industrial applications require that the motor
be brought to a quick stop. This can be done by
interchanging any two of the three stator leads.
This reverses the direction of the rotating magnetic
field. Since the rotor rotation is opposite to the
rotating magnetic field, the slip is
ω − ( − ω r ) ω + ωr
s = = >1
ω ω
Pe is taken from the kinetic energy of the rotor.
This Pe, together with the power that crosses the
air gap from the stator is dissipated as heat in the
rotor.
Example: A 10-HP, 220-volt, 60-Hz, 6-pole, three-
phase, wye-connected induction motor has the
following impedances in ohms per phase, referred
to the stator:

R1 = 0.294 R2e = 0.144

X1 = 0.503 X2e = 0.209 Xm = 13.25

Total friction, windage and core losses may be

assumed constant at 403 W , independent of load.

Assuming an input voltage of 220 V line-to-line,

compute the speed, output torque and power,
stator current and input power, power factor and
efficiency when the slip is 2%.
 Single-phase equivalent circuit:

0.294+j0.503Ω 0.144+j0.209Ω
+ r + r
r I1 r I2 e 1 − s (0.144Ω)
V1 j13.25Ω Vx s
- -

220
The input voltage is V1 = = 127 Volts.
r o
3
Let V1 = 127 ∠0 Volts, the reference phasor.

Referred rotor impedance for s = 0.02

R 2e
+ jX 2 e = 7 .2 + j0 .209 Ω
s
Find the input impedance
j13 .25(7 .2 + j0 .209 )
= 5 .426 + j3 .107 Ω
7 .2 + j13 .459
Z in = 0 .294 + j0 .503 + 5.426 + j3.107 Ω
= 5 .72 + j3 .61 = 6 .76 ∠32.27 o Ω
Stator current and power factor
r
r V1 127 ∠0o o
I1 = = o
= 18 .78 ∠ − 32.26 A
Zin 6.76 ∠32 .27

pf = cos 32.26 o = 0.85 lag

Power input to the stator

Pin = 3 V1I1pf = 3(127 )(18 .78 )(0 .85 ) = 6,050 W

Synchronous speed and rotor speed
120 f 120 (60 )
Ss = = = 1,200 RPM
p 6
Sr = (1 − s)S s = (1 − 0 .02 )1,200 = 1,176 RPM

From KVL, we get

r r r
Vx = V1 − (0 .294 + j0 .503 )I1
= 117 .29 − j5 .04 = 117 .4 ∠ − 2 .46 o V
Referred rotorr current
r Vx
I2 e = = 16 .3∠ − 4 .12 o A
R 2e
+ jX 2 e
s
Power transferred across the air gap
2 R 2e
Pg = 3I2 e = 3(16 .3)2 (7 .2) = 5,738 W, 3φ
s
Rotor copper loss
Pc = sPg = 0 .02(5,738 ) = 114 .8 W, 3φ
Power developed in rotor

Pe = Pg − Pc = 5,623 W, 3φ
Output mechanical power

Pout = Pe − Prot = 5,623 − 403 = 5,220 W, 3φ

Rotor speed in rad/sec
2 π(1176 )
ωr = = 123 .15 r/s
60
Output Torque and Efficiency
Pout 5,220
Tout = = = 42 .4 N - m
ωr 123 .15
Pout 5,220
Eff = = = 86 .3 %
Pin 6,050
 Effect of Rotor Resistance
High efficiency during normal running condition
requires a low resistance. However, a low rotor
resistance results in a low starting torque and a
high starting current at a low starting power factor.
The rotor of a squirrel-cage induction motor is
designed to have a high starting resistance and a
low running resistance.
For wound-rotor induction motors, external
resistors are connected in series with the rotor
windings during starting conditions. After the
starting period, the rotor windings are short-
circuited at the brushes. The external resistors can
also be used for speed control.
 Squirrel-Cage Rotors
The frequency of the induced voltage in the rotor
varies with rotor speed. By use of suitable shapes
and arrangements for the rotor bars, squirrel cage
rotors can be designed so that their resistance at
60 Hz is several times their resistance at low
frequency.
Top Bar
Rotor Bar
Bottom Bar

Deep Bar Double-Squirrel-

Cage Bar
 Abnormal Operating Conditions
Standards specify that an induction motor “shall
operate satisfactorily on any voltage within ±10%
of the nominal voltage, and for any frequency
within ±5% of the nominal frequency.”
Mechanical Overload
Although a standard induction motor can develop
as much as twice its rated power for brief periods,
it should not be allowed to run continuously beyond
its rated capacity. Overloads cause overheating,
which deteriorates the motor’s useful life. Some
motors are designed to carry a continuous overload
of 15%. This overload capacity is indicated in the
nameplate by the service factor.
Changes in Input Voltage
The electromagnetic torque developed in the motor
is proportional to the square of the input voltage.
Thus, if the input voltage decreases by 10% , the
torque at every speed will drop by 19% . An over-
voltage increases the core loss and magnetizing
current, and the temperature increases slightly.
Unbalanced voltages applied to the stator increase
both stator and rotor copper losses which may
result in excessive overheating.
Single Phasing
If one of the three lines is accidentally opened, the
machine continues to run as a single phase motor.
The current drawn by the remaining two lines will
almost double and the motor will overheat.
Example: A 5-hp 440-V 4-pole 50-Hz Class B wye-
connected 3-phase squirrel cage induction motor
has the following impedances in ohms per phase,
referred to the stator:
R1=1.5 R2e=1.2 Xm=91.67
X1=2.0 X2e=3.0
a) Assume an input voltage of 440 V line-to-line at
50 Hz and a rotor speed of 1470 RPM. Find the
input current I1 and the internal electromagnetic
torque Te.

b) Assume an input voltage of 528 V line-to-line at

60 Hz and a rotor speed of 1770 RPM. Find the
input current and the internal electromagnetic
torque.
 1.5+j2.0 Ω 1.2+j3.0 Ω
+ r r
r I1 I2 e 1− s (1.2) Ω
V1 j91.67Ω
s
-
r
a) Let V1 = 254 ∠0 o Volts, the reference phasor.
Get the synchronous speed and slip at f=50 Hz.
120 f 120 (50 )
Ss = = = 1,500 RPM
p 4
S s − Sr 1500 − 1470
s = = = 0 .02
Ss 1500
Get the input impedance, current and power factor
R 2e 1 .2
+ jX 2 e = + j3 .0 = 60 + j3 .0 Ω
s 0 .02
j91 .67(60 + j3 .0)
Z eq = = 49 .13 ∠35 .23 o Ω
60 + j94 .67
= 40 .136 + j28 .34 Ω

Zin = R 1 + jX 1 + Z eq = 41 .64 + j30 .34 Ω

= 51 .52 ∠36 .08 o Ω
r 254 ∠0 o
I1 = o
= 4 . 93 ∠ − 36 . 08 A
51 .52 ∠36 .08
pf = cos 36 .08 = 0 .81 lag
Get the developed power and electromagnetic
torque
r r
j91 .67
I2 e = I1 = 4 .03 ∠ − 3 .71 o A
60 + j94 .67
Pg = 3(4 .03 )2 (60 ) = 2,972 W
Pc = 0 .02(2,972 ) = 58 .5 W
Pe = 2,972 − 58 .5 = 2,868 W

2 π(1470 )
ωr = = 153 .94 r/s
60
2,868
Te = = 18 .6 N - m
153 .94
 r
b) Let V1 = 304.8∠0o Volts, the reference phasor.
Get the synchronous speed and slip at f=60 Hz
120 f 120 (60 )
Ss = = = 1,800 RPM
p 4
S s − Sr 1800 − 1770
s = = = 0 .0167
Ss 1800

Get the input impedance, current and power factor

R 2e 1 .2
+ jX 2 e = + j3 .6 = 72 + j3 .6 Ω
s 0 .0167
 j110 (72 + j3 .6)
Z eq = = 58 .96 ∠35 .23 o Ω
72 + j113 .6
= 48 .16 + j34 .01 Ω

Z in = 1 .5 + j2 .4 + Z eq = 49 .66 + j36 .41 Ω

= 61 .58 ∠36 .25 o Ω
r 304 .8 ∠0 o
I1 = o
= 4 . 95 ∠ − 36 . 25 A
61 .58 ∠36 .25
pf = cos 36 .25 = 0 .81 lag
Get the developed power and electromagnetic
torque
r r
j110
I2 e = I1 = 4 .05 ∠ − 3 .88 o A
72 + j113 .6
Pg = 3(4 .05 )2 (72 ) = 3,540 W
Pc = 0 .0167 (3,540 ) = 59 W
Pe = 3,540 − 59 = 3,481 W

2 π(1770 )
ωr = = 185 .35 r/s
60
3,481
Te = = 18 .8 N - m
185 .35
 Wound-Rotor Induction Motor
A wound-rotor induction is more expensive than an
equal HP rating squirrel-cage induction motor.
However, it has some features which are needed
for some industrial applications. These are:

stator
• start-up of high
inertia loads brushes
slip rings

• variable speed drive

• frequency converter
Start-Up of high Inertia Loads
High inertia loads dissipate a lot of heat in the
rotor during starting conditions. In a wound-rotor
motor, the heat is dissipated in external resistors.

Variable Speed Drive

Any speed below the synchronous speed can be
attained by varying the external resistors. A lot of
power is dissipated in the external resistors. For
motors rated more than 1000 HP, the slip rings are
connected to an electronic converter which
converts the frequency of the rotor back to 60 Hz
and feeds this power back into the 3-phase supply.
Frequency Converter
The stator is connected to the utility line while the
rotor is driven by a separate DC motor. The rotor
supplies power to the external resistors at a
voltage Ex and frequency fx which are both
functions of the slip s.
E x = sE 2
fx = sfs

fs = stator frequency, Hz
E2= open-circuit rotor voltage at standstill
stator rotor
Example: A 150 HP 1800-RPM 60-Hz wound-rotor
induction motor has an open-circuit rotor voltage
of 500 Volts at standstill. The stator is connected
to a balanced 3-phase supply while the rotor is
driven by a DC shunt motor. Find the rotor voltage
and frequency
a) when it is driven at 720 RPM in the same
direction as the revolving magnetic field;
b) when it is driven at 720 RPM opposite to the
revolving magnetic field.
a) Rotation in same direction as the magnetic field
1800 − 720
s = = 0 .6
1800
E x = sE 2 = 0 .6(500 ) = 300 V
fx = sfs = 0 .6(60 ) = 36 Hz
b) Rotation is opposite to the magnetic field
1800 + 720
s = = 1 .4
1800
E x = sE 2 = 1 .4(500 ) = 700 V
fx = sfs = 1 .4(60 ) = 84 Hz
 Induction Motor Starting
An induction motor will draw a line current which is
about six times the rated value. This line current
creates a starting torque which is two to three
times the rated torque, and the rotor accelerates
very quickly, resulting in a drop in the line current.
Any induction motor may be started across the line
as long as the mains are of sufficient capacity. If
the mains have insufficient capacity, the large
starting current causes a large dip in the terminal
voltage. Since the starting torque is proportional
to the square of the applied voltage, this condition
results in a large reduction in torque. If the motor
does not accelerate to its no-load speed, severe
overheating will damage the machine.
Reduced Voltage Starting
The stator is connected to a three- phase auto-
transformer and supplied from 50 to 80% rated
voltage at the instant of starting. As soon as the
rotor accelerates, full voltage is impressed across
the machine.
Wye-Delta Starting
If the end windings of the stator are accessible,
the machine can be started with the stator
windings connected in wye. The voltage impressed
across a winding is 58% of the line-to-line voltage.
Once the machine has accelerated sufficiently, it is
reconnected in delta.
 Speed Control
Recall the expression for synchronous speed:

120 f
Ss =
p
From the definition of slip, we get
Sr = (1 − s) S s

120 f
Sr = (1 − s)
p
The following methods are used for speed control:
1. Varying the magnitude of the applied voltage;
2. Varying the frequency of the applied voltage;
3. Varying the rotor resistance (for a wound-
rotor machine; and
4. Changing the number of stator poles.
a a
S N N

... .. ..
..
A’ a’
..
A’ a’
.
4 poles 2 poles
N S S
....
A A
Synchronous Machines

Artemio P. Magabo
Professor of Electrical Engineering

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

University of the Philippines - Diliman
 Synchronous Machine Details
d-axis
q-axis
b axis The stator has a
distributed three-
Phase b
Phase c winding
phase winding
winding (a,b,c).
Field
a axis
winding F

Damper The rotor has a

Damper
winding D DC field winding
winding Q
(F) and short-
c axis Phase a circuited damper
winding
windings (D,Q).
 Cylindrical-Rotor Machine
v v v v
Va = R a Ia + jX s Ia + Em (motor equation)

For a cylindrical-rotor synchronous motor, the

equivalent circuit is shown below.
Ra+jXs

+ r +
r Ia r
Va Em
- -

Define: Zs = Ra+jXs = synchronous impedance

For a generator, current flows out of the machine
v v v v
Va = R a(− Ia ) + jX s (− Ia ) + Eg
or r v v r
(generator equation)
Eg = R a Ia + jX s Ia + Va
For a cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator, the
equivalent circuit is shown below.
Ra+jXs

+
r +
r Ia r
Eg Va
- -
Example: A 25 MVA, 13.8 kV, 3600 RPM, wye-
connected synchronous generator has a synchro-
nous reactance of 4.5 Ω per phase. The armature
resistance is negligible. Find the excitation voltage
when the machine is supplying rated MVA at rated
voltage and 0.8 power factor.
jXs
Va = 13.8 kV, line-to-line
+
r +
= 7.97 kV, line-to-neutral r Ia r
Eg Va
Pa=25(0.8)=20 MW, 3-phase - -
=6.67 MW/phase
Qa=Pa tan θ =15 Mvar, three-phase
= 5.0 Mvar/phase
 v
Let Va = 7.97∠0o kV, the reference phasor
From the complex power formula, we get
v Pa − jQa 6,667 − J5,000
Ia = r ∗ = o
Va 7 .97∠0
= 837 − j628 = 1,046 ∠ − 36 .87 o A
From KVL, we get
r r r
Eg = jX s Ia + Va
o o
= j4.5(1046 ∠ − 36 .87 ) + 7970 ∠0
= 10,791 + j3,766 = 11,429∠19.24o V
Eg = 11,429 volts, line-to-neutral
= 19,732 volts, line-to-line
Example: A 100 MVA, 20 kV, 3-phase synchronous
generator has a synchronous reactance of 2.4 Ω.
The armature resistance is negligible. The machine
supplies power to a wye-connected load, R=4Ω per
phase, at a terminal voltage of 20 kV line-to-line.
r
(a) Find the excitation voltage Eg.
(b) Assume that the field current is held constant.
A second identical resistive load is connected
across the
r machine terminal. Find the terminal
voltage Va .
(c) Assume that the field current is increased so
that the Va remains at 20 kV line-to-line after
r
the addition of the new resistive load. Find Eg .
 Single-phase equivalent circuit j2 . 4 Ω
Va=20 kV line-to-line r +
+
=11.547 kV line-neutral
r Ia r
Eg Va 4Ω
r o -
(a) Let Va = 11,547 ∠0 V -

r
r Va 11,547 ∠0o
Ia = = = 2,887 ∠0o A
R 4
From KVL, we get
r r r
Eg = jX s Ia + Va
= j2.4(2887 ∠0 o ) + 11,547 ∠0 o
= 11,547 + j6,928 = 13,466∠30.96o V
Thus, Eg=13,466 V line-to-neutral
=23,324 V line-to-line
(b) Since iF is constant, Eg is unchanged.
R eq = 4Ω // 4Ω = 2Ω
r
Let Va = Va∠0 o V, the reference phasor
r r
r Va
Ia = = 12 Va∠0o Eg r
R eq jX s Ia
From KVL, we get r r
r r r Ia Va
Eg = jX s Ia + Va
= j2.4( 12 Va∠0 o ) + Va∠0 o = Va + j1.2Va
 2 2
From the diagram, we get Eg = Va + (1.2Va )2
or 2 2
13,466 = 2.44 Va
Solving for Va, we get Va=8,621 V, line-to-neutral
=14,932 V, line-to-line
r
(c) Let Va = 11,547 ∠0 o V, the reference phasor
r r
Ia = 12 Va = 5,774 ∠0 o A
r
Eg = j2.4(5,774) + 11,547
= 11,547 + j13,856 = 18,037 ∠50 .19 o V
Thus, Eg=18,037 V line-to-neutral
=31,241 V line-to-line
 Power-Angle Characteristics
Consider a cylindrical-rotor synchronous generator.
Assume the power factor of the machine is lagging.
r r r r Ra+jXs
Eg = Va + R a Ia + jX s Ia
+
r +
r r Ia r
Eg Eg Va
r -
r -
δ Va jX s Ia
φ r r
r R a Ia Let: V = V ∠0 o
ra a
Ia Eg = Vg∠δ
R a + jX s = Z∠α
The current supplied by the machine is
r r
r Eg − Va Vg∠δ − Va∠0
Ia = =
R a + jX s Z∠α
Vg Va
= ∠(δ − α) − ∠−α
Z Z
The complex power delivered to the terminal
r ∗ r
Pa − jQa = Va Ia
2
VgVa V a
= ∠(δ − α) − ∠−α
Z Z
The real component is
2
VgVa V a
Pa = cos(δ − α) − cos(−α)
Z Z
In general, Ra << XS. Thus Z ≈ X s and α ≈ 90o.
We get
Motor Generator
VgVa Region Region
Pa = sin δ
Xs Pa
The imaginary com-
ponent can be shown δ
to be 2
VgVa V
a Qa
Qa = cos δ −
Xs Xs
Example: Consider a three-phase cylindrical-rotor
synchronous generator with Xs=2.4Ω. Assume the
following line-to-line voltages: Vg=25 kV, Va=20 kV
a) Find Pa and Qa for δ=0o and δ=30o.
b) Find δ when the power factor is 1.0.
Vg=14.43 kV, line-to-neutral
Va=11.55 kV, line-to-neutral
We get
VgVa (14.43)(11.55)
Pa = sin δ = sin δ
Xs 2.4
or
Pa = 69.5 sin δ MW/phase
Similarly, 2
VgVa V
a
Qa = cos δ −
Xs Xs
which gives

Qa = 69.5 cos δ − 55.6 Mvar/phase

a) When δ=0o, Pa=0 and Qa=13.9 Mvar/phase
When δ=30o, Pa=34.8 MW/phase
Qa=13.9 Mvar/phase

b) The power factor is 1.0 when Qa=0. We get

0 = 69.5 cos δ − 55.6

which gives δ = 36.87o