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 ABSTRACT

The main objective of the surge pipe and water hammer experiment were to demonstrate the
phenomena of pipe surge resulting from a change in velocity of the water flowing along a pipe
and to demonstrate the phenomenon of water hammer and the effects of water hammer in pipes.
Results of the experiment were collected and used to confirm the method of calculation for
determining the variation of level with time in a surge tank. The experiment was carried out in
the hydraulics lab using Armfield C7-MKII-10 apparatus.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aims and objectives of the experiment were to demonstrate the phenomenon of pipe surge
resulting from a change in velocity of the water flowing along a pipe. To demonstrate the use of
a surge shaft to attenuate any changes in pressure associated with pipe surge and oscillatory
characteristics of water level in a surge shaft. To demonstrate the head loss between the reservoir
and the surge shaft due to friction in the pipe. Also to demonstrate the phenomenon of water
hammer and the effects of water hammer in pipes.

INTRODUCTION

A surge tank is a standpipe or storage reservoir at the downstream end of a closed aqueduct or
barrage pipe to absorb sudden rises of pressure, as well as to quickly provide extra water during a
brief drop in pressure. The surge tank is an essential part of high head hydropower to protect the
low-pressure conduit system from high internal pressure. The surge tank is also useful to
minimize the possible danger due to water hammer due to pressure change in closed pipes
(penstock) caused by rapid closure of the valve causing the pressure wave to propagate upstream
to the penstock. Whenever there is an abrupt load rejection by the power system, the mass of
water in the conveyance system in turn get suddenly decelerated, this process gives rise to water
hammer phenomenon. The purpose of the surge tank is to intercept and dampen these high-
pressure waves and not allow them in the low-pressure system. The pressures obtained because
of water hammer may damage the pipe material or the associated components. Hence, the system
has to be designed to withstand high pressures and vibrations caused by water hammer. The
surge tank should be as close to the turbine as possible in order to cause a rectification of
pressure whenever the turbine speed changes.
 THEORY

In the case of C7-MKII-10 the pipe between the reservoir and the surge shaft is horizontal so θ=0
and k=0
A = cross section of pipe (from d) and
A=cross section of surge shaft (from D), at any time t after the flow through the valve is
changed.
Velocity in the pipe = u
Level in the surge shaft above static (reservoir) level =y
Discharge through the valve =q
dy
Level in the surge shaft (rises or falls with velocity) =
dt
Applying newton’s second law to the motion of the water,
Mass x acceleration = force due to pressure difference at ends + component of weight of water –
force
Due to friction in pipe.
du
ρaL = ρga H 1−ρga ( H 2 + y ) + ρgaL sinθ−ρga hf
dt

If θ is small then L sinθ ≈ K and H 2=H 1 +k

L du
Therefore + y + hf =0(1)
g dt

Where h f is the head loss in the pipe andh f =hs−hv .

Note: hs=H1=H2 when water is stationary with valve closed

Hv = H2 when water is flowing along the pipe therefore hfo = H1-H2
Hfo will vary with setting of flow control valve at exit from pipe.
For continuity, flow in the pipe = flow into surge shaft + flow through valve
dy A dy q
au= A +q∨u= + (2)
dt a dt a
Substituting for u from (2) in (1)

L d A dy q
[ ]
+ + y +h f =0(3)
g dt a dt a

This is the general equation with

h f =f ( u2 ) , q=f ( t )∧q=f ( y)

And there is no general solution.

A simplified solution is obtained if q=0(flow through the valve is zero) and if the friction losses
are neglected i.e. hf=0
Equation (3) then becomes:

A L d2 y
+ y=0
a g d x2

Or

d 2 y ga
+ y=0(4 )
d t 2 LA
This is the equation for undamped SHM in the form

d2 y ga
dt 2
+ω2 y=0 where ω=
LA √
2π
T 0=
ω
The period of oscillation

LA
T 0=2 π
√ ga
(5)

Therefore
Maximum amplitude Y is found from y= yω where v is the orbital velocity for SHM.
au 0
In this case, u= where u0 is the steady pipe velocity
A
 v au 0
Y= = (6)
ω ga
A
√ LA
Therefore by rearranging the equation

La
Therefore by rearranging the equation Y =u 0
√ gA
As stated previously, this result does not account for frictional effects. If friction is taken into
account, the following approximate solutions apply for the case of instantaneous closure of the
valve.
Maximum surge height = Y-0.6hfo (7)

hfo 2
Therefore maximum surge height = Y (1− ) (7 a)
3Y

PROCEDURE

Started by loading the C7-MKII software and choosing the pipe surge demonstration where the
welcome screen was displayed. We displayed the mimic diagram and confirming that the reading
from pressure sensor P3 was sensible (indicated the height of water in the surge shaft). We
ensured that the lower operated valve was fully opened (lever pushed backwards). Slowly
opened the flow control valve so that the water flowed through the test pipe then adjusted flow
control valve until the level in the surge shaft fell by a convenient amount below the static
datum. The difference between the level in the header tank and the level in the surge shaft
corresponds with the frictional losses in the test pipe due to the flow of water.

Using a self-adhesive tape, the drop in level corresponding to the velocity head hv was marked on
the surge shaft. Flow rate was measured using the volumetric tank. To measure the flow rate, the
dump valve was closed in the base of the volumetric tank while starting time using a stop watch.
A measurable quantity of water was allowed to collect in the tank. The volume collected and
time taken was recorded and the dump valve released to allow water to flow back into the sump
tank. The measurement of flow rate was repeated three times then calculated the average flow
rate from the three sets of readings obtained. The Go icon was chosen to start recording the level
on the PC then swiftly pulled the lever on the lever operated valve forward until it was fully
closed.it was observed that water in the surge shaft rose above the static datum hs then fell below
the datum and the level continued to oscillate with reducing magnitude until the level was steady
at the static datum. When water in the surge shaft was steady, the lever-operated gate valve was
swiftly opened fully and observed the level returning to the level marked hs, heavily damped with
little or no oscillations. The level was allowed to stabilize and confirmed that the level returned
to the hv mark.
 APPARATUS AND APPARATUS SETUP

 Pipe surge system

 Laptop

DATA PRESENTATION

Volume Time Flow Rate Initial Static Head Head in Initial Head
collected Taken Velocity shaft with loss
flow
V t Q uo hs hv hfo
(l) (s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m) (m) (m)
3.0 8.44 3.55−4 1.13 0.618 0.014 0.604
3.0 8.67 3.46−4 1.08 0.618 0.014 0.604
3.0 8.29 3.62−4 1.13 0.618 0.014 0.604
 DATA ANALYSIS
Sample nuber P3(mm H2O)
1 14
2 90
3 136
4 213
5 253
6 289
7 357
800
Graph of P3 (mm H2O) against sample number
8 398 700
9 438
10 469 600
11 511
12 528 500
p3(mm H2O)

13 565
14 600 400
15 608
16 619 300
17 634
18 647 200
19 643
20 661 100
21 653
22 645 0
23 667 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
24 648 Sample number
25 629
26 607
27 627
28 595
29 603
30 560
31 585

From the graph, maximum surge height is 0.049 m H2O

From the graph period of oscillation To is 3.5s

Theoretical value of To

LA
T 0=2 π
√ ga

3.0∗1.521−3
T 0=2 π
√ 9.81∗0.3204−3
=7.57 s

Maximum height of first surge

 La
Y =u 0
√ gA
−0. 6 h f

3∗0.3204−3
Y =1.13
√
9.81∗1.521−3
−0.6∗0.604=−0.07 m

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

From the results obtained, we came to realize that the static head when the valve was fully
opened was very low amounting to 0.014 m of water. When the valve was fully closed, the head
increased to a maximum value of 0.667 m of water and it oscillated with period of 3.5s and then
came to static value of 0.618m of water. The maximum surge height was 0.049m of water which
differs from the theoretical one which is -0.07m of water. The reason for low static head in full
opening of the valve is because most of the potential energy is converted top kinetic energy and
the high static head in full closure of valve is because no potential energy was converted to
kinetic energy.

We observed that the head loss for higher velocity is higher than the lower velocity so the size of
the penstock should be larger than the nozzle. The material of penstock should be capable of
withstanding the pressure generated during the sudden closure of the valve. The time of
oscillation obtained from the experiment is half of the theoretical one. The velocity through the
outlet is 1.13m/s

CONCLUSION

The surges resulting from varying flow in a long pipe can be damaging to a system such as the
flow to a turbine where the reservoir is located high up in a mountain and connected via a long
delivery pipe.

A surge shaft allows variation in head to be dissipated by friction and protects the pipework and
system components from damage.

The resulting period of oscillation and height reached in surge shaft can be compared with
theoretical values derived from basic equations.
 REFERENCES

F.M White, 1999. Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill.

“Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines” by Rajput R K

“Fluid Machines and Hydraulic machines” by Bansal R K

“Fluid Mechanics And Machinery” by S Ramachandran and V Saikrishnan