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Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673

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Energy efficiency in pumps

Durmus Kaya a,*, E. Alptekin Yagmur a, K. Suleyman Yigit b, Fatma Canka Kilic c,
A. Salih Eren b, Cenk Celik b
a
TUBITAK-MRC, P.O. Box 21, 41470 Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
b
Engineering Faculty, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey
c
Department of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, Kocaeli University, Kullar, Kocaeli, Turkey

Received 26 March 2007; accepted 22 November 2007

Available online 14 January 2008

Abstract

In this paper, ‘‘energy efficiency” studies, done in a big industrial facility’s pumps, are reported. For this purpose; the flow rate, pres-
sure and temperature have been measured for each pump in different operating conditions and at maximum load. In addition, the elec-
trical power drawn by the electric motor has been measured. The efficiencies of the existing pumps and electric motor have been
calculated by using the measured data.
Potential energy saving opportunities have been studied by taking into account the results of the calculations for each pump and elec-
tric motor. As a conclusion, improvements should be made each system. The required investment costs for these improvements have been
determined, and simple payback periods have been calculated.
The main energy saving opportunities result from: replacements of the existing low efficiency pumps, maintenance of the pumps whose
efficiencies start to decline at certain range, replacements of high power electric motors with electric motors that have suitable power,
usage of high efficiency electric motors and elimination of cavitation problems.
Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Pump; Energy savings; Energy efficiency

1. Introduction ple, obligatory labeling of circulation pumps (P < 2.5 kW)

In the studies that have been conducted for energy sav-
ing, it has been seen that one of the areas of high potential
energy saving is pumping systems [1–4]. According to a
study that the American Hydraulics Institute has made,
20% of the consumed energy has been consumed by pumps
in developed countries [5]. It has been explained that 30%
of this energy can be saved with good design of systems
and choosing suitable pumps. This situation has caused
new searches to be made to find more efficient systems in
production and operation by producers and users of pumps
[6–10]. Furthermore, some legal regulations have started to
be enacted on this topic in some countries [11]. For exam-
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 262 677 29 53; fax: +90 262 641 23
09.
E-mail address: Durmus.Kaya@mam.gov.tr (D. Kaya).
has been in the last stage in the EU. Placing a letter on the
label to show energy efficiency is obligatory for circulation
pumps that have been produced in Germany. Besides, it
has been stated and published at the end of the studies that
have been conducted that the flow rate, pump head and
period number of the pump for which the required effi-
ciency is attained should be showed on the diagrams to
inform clients about the efficiency of the centrifugal pumps
they purchase in the EU [12–14].
That pumps have high efficiency alone is not enough for
a pump system to work in maximum efficiency. Working in
maximum efficiency of a pump system depends not only on
a good pump design but also a good design of the complete
system and its working conditions. Otherwise, it is inevita-
ble that even the most efficient pump in a system that has
been wrongly designed and wrongly assembled is going to
be inefficient [15–20].

0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2007.11.010
 D. Kaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673
2. Energy efficiency and the factors that influence the
effectiveness in pumps
Effective usage of energy in pumps can be considered in
two stages, design and operation.
2.1. The effectiveness in pump design
2.1.1. Selection of pump of suitable capacity and type and
design of pipe installation
When planning the selection of a pump to provide the
most active and effective system, the needs of the process
should be known. Also, the flow rate-time intervals and
pump head of the system throughout one year should be
well known.
The system should be selected not only to meet the needs
of working in maximum capacity but also, in an economic
point of view, it should also be known what capacity will
be required. After this, the pipe installation can be
designed. If the maximum capacity required is for a short
time period, there is no need to have a pipe with a big
diameter. If the system works with a high capacity for a
long time, this situation should be taken into consideration
in the selection of the pipe diameter [21,22].
When designing a pipe system, the system curve must
definitely be drawn. It is very important to choose a pump
with maximum efficiency and the most convenient running
clearance. Because the first purchasing costs are only in the
range of 3–5% of the life cycle costs, it is the obligation of
the administrators to make more careful selections of the
pump.
2.1.2. The selection of an electric motor in suitable power
It is very important to select an electric motor of suitable
power to work efficiently. In general, motors are chosen in
big capacities to meet extra load demands. Big capacities
cause motors to work inefficiently at low load. Normally,
motors are operated more efficiently at 75% of rated load
and above. Motors operated lower than 50% of rated load,
because they were chosen in big capacity, performing inef-
ficiently, and due to the reactive current increase, power
factors also are decreased. These kinds of motors do not
consume the energy efficiently because they have been cho-
sen in big power, not according to the needs. These motors
should be replaced with new suitable capacities motors,
and when purchasing new motors, energy saving motors
should be preferred.
The motor shows the stated efficiency on the label of the
motor when it is fully loaded. The efficiency value in differ-
ent loads is different from the value that has been showed
on its label. Fig. 1 shows the variations of motor efficiencies
according to loading. The efficiency at which the motor is
being operated is determined by looking at the efficiency
loading curve. The efficiency value is equal to the maxi-
mum value only when the motor is operated at loading val-
ues of 75% and bigger of the rated value. The preferred
optimum operating region is between 60% and 90% of
1663
Motor Efficiency-Loading Curve
90
Value of Efficiency [ % ]
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Value of Loading [ % ]
(According to Rated Loading Value)
0-1HP 1,5-5HP 10HP
15-25HP 30-60HP 75-100HP
Fig. 1. The variations of the motor efficiencies according to loading.
the rated load for motors; the ideal value is when the motor
is operated in its full load.
2.1.3. The selection of high efficiency electric motor
The energy that electric motors consumed in plants is
about 65% of the total energy consumption. Therefore, it
is important to choose ‘‘high efficiency” motors in plants.
Like all motors, electric motors also can not transform
all the energy they use into mechanical energy. The ratio
of the mechanical power output of a motor and its drawn
electric power is named the motor efficiency, and according
to its size, it can range between 70% and 96% [23]. Also,
motors that are operated at partial load are operated at
low efficiencies. These efficiencies can vary from motor to
motor. For example, while the efficiency of a motor is
90% when it is fully loaded, 87% when it is half loaded
and 80% when it is 1/4 loaded; the efficiency of an another
motor may be 91% when it is fully loaded and only 75%
when it is 1/4 loaded.
The costs of high efficiency motors that have been devel-
oped in the last years are more expensive, around 15–25%
more than that of standard motors. Usually, because of the
low operating costs, this difference can be regained in a
short time [24–27]. By increasing the cross section of the
copper conductors that are used in the motor winding,
the primary I2R loss can be decreased. Iron core loss with
the decrease of flux density, usually, can be limited by
increasing the neck of the stator core. Beside, these losses
can be decreased by decreasing the thickness of the panels
and using good quality alloys. On the other hand, in high
efficiency motors, because of the decreased losses, the need
of disposing of the revealed heat decreases (Fig. 2).
2.1.4. Selection of a system with variable flow rate
The different methods to get a pump system with vari-
able flow rate are: to operate the pump when it is needed
(part load operation), to operate the pump continuously
1664 D. Kaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673

Efficiency Loading Curve

0.98
0.96

Motor Efficiency
0.94
0.92
0.9
0.88
0.86
0.84
0.82
0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Value of Motor Loading (%)
Standard Motor High Efficient Motor

Fig. 2. The efficiency of standard and high efficient motors.

but send back some of the fluid to the tank (by pass sys-
tem), by feeding the system from a tank to operate the
pump at part load operation in respect to the level of the
tank, adjust the flow rate by changing a flow rate control
valve at the outlet of the pump and system curve, to adjust
the pump rotational speed according to the needs of flow
rate or pressure by putting a hydraulic or electrical cou-
pling between the constant speed electric motor and the
pump, to set a parallel operating pump system, to change
the belt and pulley system and pump rotational speed
and to use a frequency converter.
From the methods mentioned above, the most usable
and widespread one is the systems with frequency convert- Fig. 3. The effect of periodic maintenance on pump efficiency.
ers [28].

2.2. The saving at the facility
The most important performance loss at the operation
stage of pumps arises from operating at part load. In the
situation of pumps operated at nominal capacities, the
highest efficiency can be achieved. Besides, on centrifugal
pumps, if the flow rate value assumed is 100%, maximum
efficiency exists, but if operated at a flow rate value of
approximately 40%, usually, vibration, increase of radial
loads, excessive sound and decrease of efficiency can be
experienced. For this reason, more attention should be
given to operating the pumps close to their nominal
capacities.
Elimination of clogging in valves, pipelines and pumps,
assurance of the impermeability of the pipe circuit; regular
maintenance of belts, pulleys, bearings and filters, insula-
tion of the heating circuit and prevention of vibration will
all assure energy saving and financial economy.
It has been stated that it is necessary to examine the
economy of variable flow rate systems at the design stage
of the pumps. In the same way, it is very important that
examinations should be made for the existing pumps. In
the studies that have been made about energy efficiency,
it has been calculated that frequency control application
to existing pumps will assure a very important rate of
saving.
Pumps, like other machines, are also worn away in time;
the flow rate and pump head may decrease. In this case,
Fig. 3 compares the efficiency variations for the conditions
of the pump that has been worn away being repaired peri-
odically and rejoined in the circuit and when it is not
repaired [5].
Although there is some extra cost, the pump efficiency
can be increased by polishing the pump surface coating
and elimination of the surface roughness. This is very effec-
tive, especially in low powered pumps.
Pumps finally complete their economic period at their
working conditions. If the pumps are in this state, they will
be renewed in the investment plan.
3. The measurement method, measurement devices and
measurement results
In the facility, for the pumps in the scope of the energy
efficiency study, the measurements that have been per-
formed in the factory comprise two different groups; one
is electrical ant the other is mechanical. The electrical mea-
surements are comprised of the measurements that have
been taken from the electric motors that are used to drive
the pumps. The mechanical measurements are comprised
of the values that have been measured of flow rate, pressure
and temperature of the pumps.
 D. Kaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673 1665

3.1. Electrical measurements 3.1.3. Power measurement

In the electrical measurements in pump motors that are
driven by an electric motor, the motor supply voltage, cur-
rent drawn from the network, apparent power, active
power, reactive power and motor power factor have been
measured. By using the measured data, the electric motor
loadings, operation efficiencies and the power value that
has been transmitted to the pump have been calculated,
and the results have been evaluated.
3.1.1. The assumptions
During the measurements that have been performed for
all the pumps, the assumption has been made that there is
no big sudden change about the load variations that
changes the behavior of system in a wide range, and the
measurements have been performed on the electric motors
by getting the values for short terms.
3.1.2. The form of the measurement
In the measurements, an electric energy analyzer device
marked as UPM 6100 has been used; the measurements
have been performed in the form ‘‘3 phases, 1 line”. In
the measurements three voltage sensors and a 200 ampere
current sensor have been used.
The measurements have been made over the current and
voltage transformer existing in the secondary part of the
supply point in the main panel of the motors that are fed
from the medium voltage (2300 V) level. In the measure-
ments, the three voltage sensors of the energy analyzer
are connected to the secondary part of the voltage trans-
formers and a 200 ampere current sensor is connected to
the secondary part of the current transformer.
In the motors that are fed from the low voltage (400 V)
level, the voltage has been measured by voltage sensors that
are directly connected to the supply point in the main panel
of the motor, and the motor current has been measured
over the current transformer by using a 200 ampere sensor.
All measurements have been made in normal operating
time of the motors while driving the existing pump.
In electrical power measurements that have been made
by an energy analyzer, the values are drawn from the net-
work of the pump three phase electric motor; the apparent
power, active power, reactive power, voltage, current and
power factor have been measured.
3.1.4. The measurement points
The measurements have been performed on the pump
motors that are driven by 10 electric motors in the factory.
The names of the measurements points and the nominal
label values of the electric motors on which measurements
have been made are given in Table 1.
3.1.5. Electrical measurement results
The results of the electric motors of the pumps in the
area of the measurements are given in Table 2.
3.2. Mechanical measurements
In the scope of the mechanical measurements, the pump
fluid flow rate and the inlet and outlet temperatures and
pressures of the fluid have been measured.
The flow rate that the pumps discharge has been mea-
sured by an ultrasonic flow meter, brand of ‘‘PANAMET-
RICS”. Two transducers that belong to the flow meter are
connected to the pipe from the outside, in the form parallel
to the flow; the first transducer has been operated as a sig-
nal generator and the second one as a signal receiver. The
fluid velocity has been determined as the difference between
the measured signal arrival time and the sound velocity.
The device has also measured the diameter of the pipe,
and the amount of the flow rate has been measured online.
The system of measurement is given schematically in Fig. 4.
The measurement of the fluid inlet and outlet pressure
values has been performed by existing pressure gauges that
are verified by another calibrated gauge.
The fluid temperatures have been determined by the
existing pump inlet and outlet line temperatures that have
been measured by a thermal camera and added about

Table 1
The electric motors that measurements have been made on and nominal (label) values
Electric motors Nominal (label) values
Power Voltage Current Speed Power Efficiency
(V) (A) (rpm) factor (–) (–)
(HP) (kW)*
Number 1 and 2 boiler, electric motor of boiler feeding pump-A 450 335 2300 100 2950 – –
Number 1 and 2 boiler, electric motor of boiler feeding pump-B 450 335 2300 100 2950 – –
Number 3 and 4 boiler, electric motor of C pump 790 590 2300 176.1 2973 0.84 –
Number 5 boiler, electric motor of B pump 670 500 2400 149 2965 – –
Number 6 waste heat boiler, electric motor of number 2 medium pressure pump 150 110 380 202 2975 0.86 –
Number 7 waste heat boiler, electric motor of number 1 medium pressure pump 150 110 380 202 2975 0.86 –
1. High furnace electrical booster pump motor (second motor) 250 186 2400 59 1450 – –
2. High furnace electrical booster pump motor (first motor) 340 250 2400 78 1480 – –
Seaside electric motor of number 2 pump 600 447 2400 143 735 – –
Seaside electric motor of number 4 pump 600 447 2400 143 735 – –
1 HP* = 0.745 kW (accepted as).
1666 D. Kaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673

Table 2
The power measurement of electric motor of pumps
Name Current Voltage Voltage Current Apparent Active Reactive Power
transformer transformer (V) (A) power power power factor
change rate change rate (kVA) (kW) (kVAr)
The number 1 and 2 boiler, electric motor of boiler feeding 150/5A 2400/120V 2386 78 289.8 140.3 0.91
pump-1
The number 1 and 2 boiler, electric motor of boiler feeding 150/5A 2400/120V 2397 75 311 279.9 135.5 0.9
pump-2
Number 3 and 4 boiler, electric motor of C pump 200/5A 2400/120V 2400 156 647.7 570 307.6 0.88
Number 5 boiler, electric motor of B pump 150/5A 2400/120V 2432 120 504.8 459.9 208 0.911
Number 6 waste heat boiler, number 2 electric motor of 300/5A – 403 150 104.6 94.2 45.6 0.9
medium pressure pump
Number 7 waste thermal boiler, number 1 electric motor of 300/5A – 403 152.4 106.3 95.7 46.3 0.9
medium pressure pump
The number 1 high furnace electrical booster pump motor-2 75/5A 2400/120V 2398 52.5 217.7 179.7 123 0.825
The number 2 high furnace electrical booster pump motor 100/5A 2400/120V 2412 68 283.7 242.6 147 0.855
Seaside number 2 pump electric motor – – 2400 120 498.2 423.5 262.4 0.85
Seaside number 4 pump electric motor – – 2400 119 494 420 260 0.85

mechanical power value the motor shaft transfers to the

Fig. 4. Schematic projection of the measurement system.
+2 °C as the surface temperature loss value. It has been
seen that these measurement values are in harmony with
the values measured by the thermometers on the system.
The result of the mechanical measurements is given in
Section 4.
4. The calculation of the efficiencies
4.1. The calculation of loading and operating efficiency of the
motors
With the active power drawn by the electric motor from
the network ss Pnetwork and the efficiency value as gm, the
pump is calculate as Pmec
P mec ¼ P network  gm : ð1Þ
It is showed schematically in Fig. 5.
The Pe power values of the electrically driven pump
motors, which have been drawn from the network, have
been measured in the factory. The efficiency values of these
motors and the efficiency loading curves that show the var-
iation of motor efficiency with loading do not exist. There-
fore, the operation load and efficiency of the motors have
been found by calculating. In these calculations, area mea-
surements and motor nameplate values have been used.
The electric motors loading value has been calculated
according to the current measurement technique. In the cal-
culation of motor efficiency when being operated at this
loading value, the calculated loading value, the power the
motor has drawn from the network and the nominal
(nameplate) power have been used.
The motor loading value has been calculated in% as
showed below:
   
I network V network
Loading ð%Þ ¼   100 ð2Þ
I nominal V nominal
where Inominal is the nominal current of the motor (A),
Inetwork the current that has been drawn by the motor from
the network (A), Vnominal the nominal voltage of the motor

Pnetwork

electric
pump The Power that has been taken from the Pump
motor

The Efficiency of the Electric Motor Pmech The Efficiency of the Pump

Fig. 5. Schematic projection of the electric motor system of the pump.

 D. Kaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673 1667

Table 3
Electric motors loading, efficiency and the power values that have been transferred to the pump
Measured electric motors Measured electric Loading Operating The power that is transferred
motors power (kW) valuea (%) efficiencyb (%) to the pump Pmec (kW)
Number 1 and 2 boiler, electric motor of boiler feeding pump-A 278.50 80.92 97 271.07
Number 1 and 2 boiler, electric motor of boiler feeding pump-B 251.62 72.85 97 244.06
Number 3 and 4 boiler, electric motor of C pump 565.49 95.28 99 562.16
Number 5 boiler, electric motor of B pump 459.95 81.61 89 408.05
Number 6 waste heat boiler, number 2 electric motor of medium 94.17 78.79 92 86.67
pressure pump
Number 7 waste thermal boiler, number 1 electric motor of medium 95.68 80.46 92 88.50
pressure pump
1. High furnace electrical booster pump motor 179.68 8891 92 165.37
2. High furnace electrical booster pump motor 242.60 87.62 90 219.04
Seaside number 2 pump electric motor 423.50 83.92 89 375.10
Seaside number 4 pump electric motor 419.97 83.22 89 371.98
a
In the calculation of the loading electric motor value, current measurement is taken as a fundamental.
b
In the calculation of operating efficiency, motor loading value has also taken into consideration.

(V) and Vnetwork the voltage that has been measured at the
terminals of the motor (V).
Motor efficiency has been calculated by the ratio of use-
ful exit power of the motor to the power that has been
drawn from the network Pnetwork.
Loading  P nominal ðkWÞ
gm ð%Þ ¼
P network ðkWÞ
Motors loading and operating efficiency values are given in
Table 3. The mechanical power value that is connected to
the motor shaft and transferred to the pump has been cal-
culated with Eq. (1).
As can be seen in Table 3, all of the engine’s loading val-
ues are 60–90% of their nominal load in our calculations.
The motors working efficiencies are higher than 80%. Also,
it is a suitable value for the electric motor.
In our investigations, for the number 6 and 7 waste ther-
mal boiler’s medium pressure pump’s electric motors
(110 kW). We calculate the motors loading values as 78%
and 80% and the Pmec power values as 86.6 kW and
88.5 kW, respectively. These values are lower than the ori-
ginal motors label values. If the pumps driven by these
motors efficiencies have low calculated values, we will pro-
pose new lower power ones.
4.2. The calculations of the pump efficiency
The pump efficiency for normal operation conditions in
each pump station has been calculated by using the pump
flow rate, inlet and outlet pressures and the electrical power
that has been provided to the pump. The results of the
efficiency for the pumps are given in Table 4.
5. Potential saving options and recommendations
In the studies that have been conducted in the facility
pump systems, the potential saving options have been
determined as follows: replacements of the existing low
efficiency pumps, maintenance of the pumps whose efficien-
cies have started to decline at a certain range, replacements
of the electric motors that have been chosen at high power
with electric motors that have suitable power, usage of high
efficiency electric motors and elimination of cavitations
problems.
ð3Þ 5.1. The replacements of the existing low efficient pumps
It has been determined that the pump efficiencies are
between 46% and 56% from the measurements that have
been performed at operation conditions on number 1 and
2 boiler feeding pumps, number 1 and 2 high furnace boos-
ter pumps and seaside pumps. New pump offers have been
received from the producer firms for these mentioned
pumps that have the same pressure and capacities. To
assure the flow rate and pressure values at measurements
conditions, the electric motor power and pump efficiency
value have been determined by using the offered pump effi-
ciency, power, pressure and flow rate diagrams. For the
existing low efficiency pumps that are being replaced by
new ones, the calculated efficient values before and after
the replacements, the saving potentials, the required invest-
ment amounts and the payback periods are given in Table
5.
As given above, number 1 and 2 boiler pumps, 1st high
furnace number 2 pump and 2nd high furnace number 1
pump are operated 4320 h per year and seaside number 4
pump is operated 4748 h per year. Instead of this, the same
calculations have been performed for the replacements in
this plant at the condition of one each pump and its new
pump being operated continuously (one is a spare) are
given in Table 6.
As it can be seen above, when the replacement of the
existing pumps has been realized, the efficiencies are
improved 12–14%.
As it can be seen in Table 6, when we changed pump
number 1 and ran it always, without changing pump num-
ber 2, the payback period of the investment is 14 months.
Reversal of this change method yields a payback period
1668 D. Kaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673

of the investment as 16.1 months. This result indicates that

2 and 4 pumps
water number
Seaside salted
changing pump number 1 is more effective than changing

Number 4
the second. Also, after 14 months, the enterprise will save

206.67

371.98

55.56
6200
money.

1.2
1.2
0
2 and 4 pumps
5.2. The improvement of the existing pumps efficiencies
water number
Seaside salted

Number 2

5.2.1. Number 5 boiler feeding B pump

375.1

53.32
6000

At number 5 boiler feeding B pump, the efficiency mea-

200
1.2
1.2
0

surement has been determined as between 60% and 62% at

booster pumps

the operation conditions. The new pump offers have been

high furnace

taken from the producer firms for this mentioned pump

Number 2

Number 1

that has the same pressure and flow rate capacities. To

219.04
92.36

42.17 assure the flow rate and pressure values at the measure-
950
0.7
4.2
3.5

ments conditions, the electric motor power and pump effi-

1 High furnace

ciency value have been determined by using the new pump

efficiency, power, pressure and flow rate diagrams. The cal-
Number 2
booster

culations that have been made for the existing and the
pumps

165.37

51.4

offered pump are showed in Table 7.

900
0.7
4.1
3.4
85

As it can be seen above, the existing pump has been

boiler pump

operated approximately 9% less efficiently compared with

Number 7

Number 1
number 1

the new pump. The efficiency rate can be increased about

30.33

34.27

5% by maintenances like renovating the existing pump,

88.5
84

15
13
2

blade coating, maintenance of bearing etc. In this condi-

boiler pump

tion, the calculations have been performed for the annual

Number 6

Number 2
number 2

money saving, the cost of investment and payback period

29.61

86.67

34.17

of the investment cost, and the results are given in Table 8.

82

15
13
2

5.3. The replacement of the high powered electric motors

Number

Pump B
B pump
5 boiler

252.8

61.96

with suitable powered ones

63.2
144

408
1.8
65

5.3.1. Number 6 and 7 waste heat boilers medium pressure

and 4 boiler
Number 3

pumps
Pump C
pumps

291.11

It has been determined that the pump efficiencies are

545.4

53.38
65.5
160
1.5
67

between 34% and 35% in the measurements that have been

performed in the operating condition in numbers 6 and 7
Number 2

waste heat boilers medium pressure pumps. As a result of

127.29

261.8

48.62

the calculations, for operation of the pumps in the condi-

71.6
1.4
64

73
feeding pumps
1 and 2 boiler

tion of maximum flow rate and pressure, the fluid power

Number 1

has been calculated as 52 kW. If these pumps efficiencies

127.05

are chosen as 57%, the required power of the motor will

46.88
62.6

271
1.4

be 90 kW. Consequently, replacement of the existing

63

74

110 kW electric motor with 90 kW ones carries an assured

The calculation results of the efficiency for pumps

The power that has been transferred to the pump

saving of a certain amount. New pump offers have been

taken from the producer firms that have the same pressure
The power that has been given to the fluid

and capacities. To assure the flow rate and pressure values

General efficiency (Pf/Pe or Pf/Pt, %)

at the measurements conditions, the electric motor power

Pressure difference (P2  P1, Bar)

and pump efficiency value have been determined by using

Fluid outlet pressure (P2, Bar)

the new pump efficiency, power, pressure and flow rate dia-
(Pf = Q*(P2  P1)/36, kW)
Fluid inlet pressure (P1, Bar)

(Pe, Electrical power, kW)

grams. The calculations that have been made for the exist-
ing and new pumps are showed in Table 9.
Flow rate (Q, tone/h)
Name of the pumps

As it can be seen above, for the condition of replacement

of the existing electric motors, to obtain the same fluid
Usage purposes

power, approximately 18 kW less power will be used. For

this condition, the annual monetary saving, the cost of
Table 4

investment and payback period of the investment cost are

calculated and given in Table 10.
 D. Kaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673 1669

Table 5
The efficiency values that have been obtained from existing and as a result of the saving, saving potentials, required investment cost and payback periods of
the investment cost in the condition that replacing of low efficient pumps with new pumps for the same conditions
Name of the station Name of Existing pump Offered pump Energy saving Annual money Cost of Payback
the pump efficiency (%) efficiency (%) per hour (kW) saving (USD) investment period
(USD) (month)
Number 1 and 2 boiler Number 1 46.88 60.98 71.00 21,470.40 50,000.00 27.9
Number 2 48.62 62.76 61.80 18,688.32 50,000.00 32.1
Number 1 and 2 high furnace Number 1. H.F. 2 51.40 71.72 43.37 13,115.25 50,000.00 45.7
Number 2. H.F. 1 42.17 71.49 83.04 50,221.66 60,000.00 14.3
Seaside Number 2 53.32 71.11 125.14 73,074.17 200,000.00 32.8
Number 4 55.56 71.11 104.97 34,888.80 200,000.00 68.8

Table 6
The efficiency values that have been obtained from existing and the as a result of the saving, saving potentials, required investment cost and payback
periods of the investment cost in the condition that replacing of only one pump that is operated continuously for the same conditions
Name of the station Name of Existing pump Offered pump Energy saving Annual money Cost of Payback
the pump efficiency (%) efficiency (%) per hour (kW) saving (USD) investment period
(USD) (month)
Number 1 and 2 boiler Number 1 46.88 60.98 71.00 42,940.8 50,000.00 14.0
Number 2 48.62 62.76 61.80 37,376.6 50,000.00 16.1
Number 1 and 2 high furnace Number 1. H.F. 2 51.40 71.72 43.37 26,230.5 50,000.00 22.9
Number 2. H.F. 1 42.17 71.49 83.04 50,221.6 60,000.00 14.3
Seaside Number 4 55.56 71.11 104.97 61,297.9 200,000.00 39.2
Note: 1 kWh = 7 cent (USD).

Table 7
The pressure, flow rate, efficiency and electric motor power values of existing and new pumps
Name of the pump Transferred power to the pump (kW) Power of the Fluid (kW) Pump efficiency (%)
B Pump Existing pump 408.00 252.80 61.96
New pump 440.00 312.80 71.09

Table 8
The annual money saving, the cost of investment and payback period of the investment cost in the condition that revision of the existing pump
Name of Existing electric Electric motor power Energy saving Annual operating Annual money Cost of Payback period
the pump motor power (kW) after the revision (kW) per hour (kW) period (h) saving (USD) investment (USD) (month)
Pump B 408.00 387.60 20.40 7200 10,281.60 200,000.0 23.3

5.4. High efficiency electric motor usage and energy saving
The energy saving amount has been calculated for the
condition of replacing the electric motor driven pump
motors with high efficiency motors. How much energy can
be saved has been examined for the condition of only replac-
ing the driven motor with the high efficiency motor consider-
ing the pump and existing operating conditions are the same.
Economic life spans have been established in the factory
considering replacement because of their failure or as a
result of big revisions at the facility. When purchasing a
new compressor, HVAC and pump systems, ‘‘high effi-
ciency electric motors” are preferred instead of the existing
standard electric motors to assure obtaining more efficient
energy usage and, therefore, energy saving.
The energy that will be saved upon replacement of a
standard motor with a high efficiency motor can be calcu-
lated with the help of this formula:
Energy saving ¼ MN  Nominal power  OP  LC
 UF  ð1=gstandard  =ghigh efficiency Þ ð4Þ
where MN is motor number in the same power, OP is oper-
ating period, LC is loading coefficient, UF isusage factor
(for motors that run continuously in the circuit UF = 1),
gstandard is standard type motor efficiency and ghigh efficient
is high efficiency type motor efficiency.
The comparison of the efficiencies of standard and high
efficiency motors are given in Table 11. As it can be seen
from this table, for nameplate power bigger than 224 kW
1670 D. Kaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673

Table 9
The calculation of the existing and new electric motors
Name of the pump Transferred power to the pump (kW) Power of the fluid (kW) Pump efficiency (%)
Number 6 boiler Existing electric motor 86.67 29.61 34.17
number 2 New electric motor 68.00 29.61 43.54
Number 7 boiler Existing electric motor 88.50 30.33 34.27
number 1 New electric motor 70.00 30.33 43.33

Table 10
The annual money saving, the cost of investment and payback period of the investment cost in the condition that replacing of the existing electric motor
Name of the pump Existing electric New electric Energy saving Annual Annual money Cost of Payback
motor power motor power per hour operating saving investment period
(kW) (kW) (kW) period (h) (USD) (USD) (month)
Number 6 boiler number 2 86.67 68.00 18.67 4320 5645.85 3800.00 8.1
Number 7 boiler number 1 88.50 70.00 18.50 4320 5594.40 3800.00 8.2

(300 HP), the high efficiency motor efficiencies are not
known.
Note: these average values that belong to eight firms are
validated in the condition when the motor is at full load.
With the establishment of high efficiency motors, the
monthly demand power saving for the motors, ‘‘DS”,
and the monthly kWh energy usage saving, ‘‘US”, can be
calculated as demonstrated below:
As an example, in a facility having the unit price of its elec-
tricity as 0.075 $/kWh, operating at full load continuously
7000 h/year, for the condition of replacing 36 motors of
nominal power 45 kW with high efficiency motors, the de-
mand energy saving (DS) is
DS ¼ ð45 kW  36  1Þ  ½ð1:0=0:936Þ  ð1:0=0:954Þ
DS ¼ 32:656 kW=month

DS ¼ Nominal power  MN  LC  ð1=gstandard  1=ghigh efficient Þ Usage saving (US):

ð5Þ US ¼ ð32; 656 kW=monthÞ  ð7000 h=yearÞ
US ¼ DS  OP  UF ð6Þ US ¼ 228; 592 kWh=year

Table 11
The comparison of the motor efficiencies
Rated motor power (hp) Rated motor power (kW) Mean efficiency of standard type motors Mean efficiency of high efficient motors
1 0.746 0.825 0.865
1.5 1.119 0.840 0.894
2 1.492 0.840 0.888
2.5 1.865 0.812 0.870
3 2.238 0.875 0.895
4 2.984 0.827 0.889
5 3.73 0.875 0.902
7.5 5.595 0.895 0.917
10 7.46 0.895 0.917
15 11.19 0.910 0.930
18 13.428 0.878 0.924
20 14.92 0.910 0.936
25 18.65 0.924 0.941
30 22.38 0.924 0.941
40 29.84 0.930 0.945
50 37.3 0.930 0.950
60 44.76 0.936 0.954
75 55.95 0.941 0.954
100 74.6 0.945 0.958
125 93.25 0.945 0.954
150 111.9 0.950 0.958
200 149.2 0.950 0.958
250 186.5 0.954 0.962
300 223.8 0.954 0.962
 D. Kaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673 1671

The money equal of the saving resources annual usage
(AUS):
AUS ¼ US  ðthe price of the average electricity unit usageÞ
AUS ¼ 228; 592 kWh=year  0:075 $=kWh
AUS ¼ 17144:4$=year
The nameplate power of the electric driven pump motors
(kW), annual operating periods (OP), loading coefficient
(LC) and usage factor (UF) are given in Table 12. When
the nameplate powers of the motors that belong to the
pumps are examined, there are only three pump motors
that have powers smaller than 224 kW. Because the high
efficiency motors efficiency values are not known for pow-
ers bigger than this, the calculations can only be made for
these three electric motors if their powers are smaller than
224 kW.
For the condition of replacing these motors with high
efficiency motors, the monthly demand saving (DS), usage
saving (US) and the money equal of the saving resource
annual usage (AUS) are given in Table 13. As it is given
in the table, the monthly demand saving (DS) is 2.47 kW
and the annual energy usage saving (total energy saving)
is 10,662 kWh. When eplacement of the three motors has
been examined by accepting the unit price of energy as
0.07 $/kWh, with high efficiency motors, the money equal
of the total saving amount that will be obtained in every
year is 746 $/year.
The payback period of the price difference that will be
paid when purchasing high efficiency motors instead of
standard motors can be found from the price difference
of the high efficiency motor from the standard motor.
The price difference has been taken as approximately
600 $ for the motor of 110 kW.
Payback period
¼ ðThe cost of investmentÞ=ðAnnual money savingÞ
Payback period ¼ ð1800$Þ=ð746$=yearÞ  12 month=year
Payback period ¼ 28:9month ð7Þ
After the payback period, 10,662 kWh/year energy saving
or 746 $/year money saving will be obtained in every year.
5.5. Cavitation
Cavitation is the phenomenon where small and largely
empty cavities are generated in a fluid that expand to a
large size and then rapidly collapse, producing a sharp
sound. Cavitation occurs in pumps, propellers, impellers
etc. A liquid, when it is subjected to a low pressure below
a threshold, ruptures and forms vaporous cavities. This
phenomenon is termed cavitation. When the local ambient

Table 12
The operating periods of the electric motors
Name of the motor Number of Label Nameplate power Operating Loading Usage
the motor power that the motor period coefficient factor
(MN) (kW) draws (kW) (OP) (LC) (UF)a
Number 1 and 2 boiler feeding electric motor of number 1 pump 1 335 289.8 4320 80.92 1
Number 1 and 2 boiler feeding electric motor of number 2 pump 1 335 279.9 4320 78.17 1
1. High furnace number 2 electrical booster pump motor 1 186 179.7 4320 88.91 1
2. High furnace number 1 electrical booster pump motor 1 250 242.6 4320 87.62 1
Number 3 and 4 boiler feeding, electric motor of C pump 1 590 570.0 7200 92.44 1
Number 5 boiler, electric motor of B pump 1 500 459.9 7200 81.61 1
Seaside electric motor of number 2 pump 1 447 423.5 8342 83.92 1
Seaside electric motor of number 4 pump 1 447 420.0 8342 83.22 1
Number 6 waste heat boiler, electric motor of number 2 medium 1 110 94.2 4320 78.79 1
pressure pump
Number 6 waste heat boiler, electric motor of number 4 high 1 110 105.0 4320 96.00 1
pressure pump
Number 7 waste heat boiler, electric motor of number 1 medium 1 110 95.7 4320 80.46 1
pressure pump
a
UF = 1 (for the reason of all motors in the circuit continually).

Table 13
Energy efficiency with high efficient motor usage
Name of the motor DS (kW/month) US (kWh) AUS ($/year) Cost of investment ($)
Number 6 waste heat boiler, medium pressure number 2 pump electric 0.762 3291 230.38 600
Motor
Number 6 waste heat boiler, number 4 high pressure pump electric motor 0.928 4010 280.70 600
Number 7 waste heat boiler, medium pressure number 1 pump electric 0.778 3361 235.26 600
motor
Total 2.468 10,662 746 1800
1672 D. Kaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673

Table 14
The pumps cavitations calculations that have been measured at the facility
Name of the pump Pa (Pa) Pb (Pa) Q (tone/h) n (rpm) Dy (m) he (m) Pe (bar) Pinlet(P1) Cavitation
(bar) results
Number 1 and 2 boiler feeding pumps 101,325 143,270 113 2950 5.30 10.57 1.04 1.40 Not exist
Number 3 and 4 boiler feeding A pump 101,325 174,954 211 2970 5.40 13.91 1.36 1.50 Not exist
Number 3 and 4 boiler feeding C–D pumps 101,325 174,954 211 2982 5.27 13.78 1.35 1.50 Not exist
Number 5 boiler feeding pump 101,325 174,954 203 2954 5.07 13.58 1.33 1.80 Not exist
Number 6 and 7 boiler feeding pumps 101,325 198,540 144 2976 6.30 17.21 1.69 2.00 Not exist
Number 1 high furnace booster pumps 101,325 3171 1000 1480 9.04 0.03 0.00 0.70 Not exist
Number 2 high furnace booster pumps 101,325 3171 1100 1450 9.37 0.36 0.04 0.70 Not exist
Brine station pumps 101,325 3171 6300 735 12.12 3.12 0.31 0.30 Exist

pressure at a point in the liquid falls below the liquid’s
vapor pressure at the local ambient temperature, the liquid
can undergo a phase change, creating largely empty voids
termed cavitation bubbles. When the cavitation bubbles
collapse, they focus the liquid energy on very small vol-
umes. Thereby, they create spots of high temperature and
emit shock waves, which are the source of the noise. The
noise created by cavitation is a particular problem in
pumps. The collapse of cavities involves very high energies,
and can cause major damage. Cavitation can damage
almost any substance. The pitting caused by the collapse
of cavities produces great wear on the components and
can dramatically shorten a propeller or pump’s lifetime.
As a result, cavitation is, in many cases, an undesirable
occurrence. In pumps and propellers, cavitation causes a
great deal of noise, damage to components, vibrations
and a loss of efficiency [20].
According to the operating conditions of the pumps and
fluid temperatures that have been measured at the facility,
cavitation calculations and their related results are given in
Table 14.
Pm P sat
he max ¼   NPSH  hloss
qg qg
P s ¼ q  g  he max
The formulae, which are given above, have been used for
calculation of cavitation. In these formulae; Pm is the med-
ium pressure of the pump established in the region (N/m2),
Psat is the saturation pressure of the pump that is related to
the inlet water temperature (N/m2), Ps is the pressure suc-
tion NPSH (net positive suction head) (m), hloss is the pres-
sure losses in the suction pipes and local components (m)
and hemax is the maximum head of the suction line (m).
The Ps value should be smaller than the Pinlet (P1) value
for the pump operation without cavitation. Otherwise, the
pump will operate with cavitation.
When the table results of the pumps that have been
operating at the seaside brine plant are examined, it can
be clearly seen that Ps = 0.31 bar, which is over the (P1)
inlet pressure value. Therefore, the cavitation possibility
is more than likely for these pumps. Even if it is operating
at the limit, especially with the increase of the sea water
temperature in summer, the cavitation problem will
increase more. For the examination that has been con-
ducted at the facility, a picture of a water pump that has
been dismantled at the seaside is given in Fig. 6.
The pump has been operated at the cavitation limit as it
can be understood by this picture. Because of this reason,
the impeller and casing of the pump have been worn out
by cavitation.
As it can be seen by the calculations for the pumps from
the seaside brine pump plant, for their operation without
any cavitation, the pump impeller should be operated at
ð8Þ
least 3.5 m under sea level.
ð9Þ
6. Results
This is a study of the energy efficiency of pumps that has
been performed in a big industrial manufacturing facility.
By using measured data; the existing pump and electric
motor efficiencies have been calculated.

Fig. 6. The pump picture which has been dismantled from the seaside brine plant.
 D. Kaya et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1662–1673
As a result of this study, the main saving opportunities
are: replacements of existing low efficiency pumps, mainte-
nance of pumps whose efficiencies have started to decline at
certain ranges, replacements of electric motors that have
been chosen at high power with electric motors that have
suitable power, usage of high efficiency electric motors
and elimination of cavitation problems. For each saving
opportunity that is mentioned above, their investment
costs and payback periods are given.
We hope that these results will be helpful for manufac-
turers and engineers and to motivate them for investment.
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