CHAPTER |, TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELLING 14a INTRODUCTION 142 CURVATURE AND REFRACTION DU said emt cfecacen Telacegnar toe gue 42 craton ti canner pe cy supp exc eee Ss rc al brome ofa webe A? = ays +28) =Fg OO Rextbook af Surveying wenanee Pan, ‘ne linear measure. Ute smgulse meas. itis “a ae ny nine tee cannon pec teren see ‘Smindelsrri idm Dra be trans cnieee en sae a mean ea evel, De i ve by “eee (ef) M9 = 30057 -anesnyr, on a en ik scape ad a orem et ST ean See ts ne met ase is 0.08, "ser lke the 203. so the coefficien af es oie a al sirmisretioe atdiare Se ee a ie pect he ttc etm Soe yt eminee ~ a8, (430 ‘Deng the eight of te signal the tured staon A an a height fhe suche sien nym enim he 5 thst bb sey ney Then SBR Pan fom ange IK R= BH (0 ape at a [ sei ra} | ats A a er 4 2a ZAA = ‘oe tangy ae XH_ BlesY(a +0) _ (hae "AH “AFoatg7a) Del522 Textbook of Surveying ‘The angle 0 is usually small, only a few minutes of arc, so cos (6/2) can be considered equal. | ‘We then get (s2 — hu) cos? tan = D (14.15) Similarly, for an observation from B to A, (s1 — hi) cos?8 14.16) tan = Cb eee Gey fan ¥2, D The axis-signal, correction is negative for an angle of elevation, and positive for an angle ae pression, provided the difference between the height of signal at the observed station and that of instrument at the observing station is positive, which is most often the case. Usually, the axis-sig™ correction is first applied to the observed vertical angle, followed by the combined correction for vature and refraction with the appropriate si; igns.Tigomnerizal oberon sere taken fom sation A toa station B andthe following obey were recorded, The horizontal distance from A to B was 27 km: the angle of elevation fom & 5 was 0°51’ 33”; the height ofthe instrument at A was 1.640 m; the height of the signal B was 3449, the RL of station A was 1251.000 m; the coefficient of refraction was 0.07; and sin 1” where Ris the mean radius ofthe earth, Determine the reduced level of station B. Solution ‘This may be treated asa single observation ftom A to B over a very large distance. ‘The central angle is D__ 27000 Resin” ~ 30.960 ‘The axis-signal correction is a 872.1" = 1432.1", -1 (8.440 ~ 1.640) cos? (51'33" + 14'32.1") = ten! iz ™ 27000 c0s7'16.05" ad ‘This should be taken as negative for an elevation, so that a; = a —y y 51/33" 13.95" =0 5119.25". Therefore, D 27000 sin Jou + (1-3) 2 in [51'19.25" 4 11 - a i [ aR aroag oe [E1228 + 1-200 ae D cos [ota-m3] os |51'19.25" + (1 ~ 007 ae = 452.220 m, Hence the RL of sation Bis 1251000 + 452.220 = 103.220 m Example 14.2 ‘The observations taken in atigonometic survey areas fol anee from A108 , lows. The horizontal dis i527 ka the angle of depression from A to Bis 0°51'33; the height of inaument it Ais 10 the height of signal at B is 3.440 m; the RL of station A ig 1251 000 m; the coeicient of rfrto®a is 0.07; and R sin 1” Trigonometric Levelling $33 = 30.960 m, where R is the mean radius of the earth, Determine the RL of station B Solution ‘This isa single observation over avery large distance. The central angle is D___ 27000 So = oe = 872.1" = 1430.1", Ren! = 000) eo ‘The axis-signal correction is (3.440 — 1.640) cos? (51'33"" + 14’32.1") 27000 cos 716.05" 1 = tan“ = 13.75", ‘Treating this as positive for a depression, we have (y = 9+ = 0° 51'334 13, 75" =0° 51'46.75", so that 1-2 Z sin [a hat wa sin [51'46.75" - 2 = 2(0.07))}"2700 4 : 2(30.96) 5 : Dy = 27000 Tecan. (1 —0.07)"27000) cos | - 1) aC a = 357.597 m. Hence the RL of station B is 1251,000 — 357.597 = 893.403 m.(Other and Modern Methods tds of Sura ne 639 1g7 ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT (EDM) J iavention and practical application of the technique of eletonie distance measurement (ED Tmt it posit Meas direc, tan aco acura, testa een ay to jgersisible points in a survey system. Its thus posible, though not common practice, to determine geometry ofa survey by simply measuring only the distances. This techniques called rlateration sist tiangulation—both of which have already been discussed in Chapter 13, The technique of pM eliminates the need for chaining or taping. This canbe a great advantage unde certain circum sore 1874. Principles of EDM sonic distance measurement includes electroprical (light waves) and elerromagnetic (mi- cqoenes) methods. The basic principle isthe indirect determination ofthe time required fr a light team otal betseen vo stations. The use of electromagnetic waves forthe measurement of distance degendso a Knowledge oftheir velocity which should have been determined tothe requisite degree fay. "RADAR? (io dtetin and ranging) the ealiest form of elestomugnei distance ‘surement gives an accurtcy acceptable for defence and other such purposes Te greater accu ingcodec surveying bas do he we ofconiniisware nebo. ‘he velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves is constant and is given by © = (2997925, +4) ka in vacuum. The relationship between frequency f, wavelength 3, and velocity of light, isgieaby pr Litas one typeof electromagnetic radiation, oes ae the radio waves used for taasmiting segs and television programmes. nthe ada stem, pulses of radiation are seat ot rom a ans ‘Siteran are detected wien they rtum aftr rellectin by a physical object. The wavelengths used inthe various EDM systems cover ful wide ange ofthe spectum—from 40m down to 450 nanometres. Certain frequencies ae unsuitable fr direct transmission overlong dane 5 hey are subject to interference, reflection, and fading. To make these suitable for EDM, 2 tro known a ‘modulation is used. This can be amplitude modulation (AM), fequency moduls- ‘an(FM, polarisation modulation, or pulse modulation. “The measuring wave is superimposed ona higher frequency wave which at sa medium fr tans- poring the former. Atte receiver the reverse proces of demodltion separates the measuring Wave fomthe caer wae, andthe phase ofthe recived wave i converted into distance Carer waes ar of two types (1) Visible and infared light with wavelengths ranging beveen 450 £24100 nanometees (6.7 10° 13 x 10® GH), and (2) radio waves with wavelengts frm 81010 "mn 35103 GHa also known s microwaves. Although same principles of measurement apply 10 oth (1828) lin of aser waves, their realisation takes different forms, andthe terms, ‘learo-opica distance eastement” (EODM) and “microwave distance measurement” (MDND, are used to distinguish the wosysems Hp requncy carer waves used in mirowave distance measurement (MDM ae ot subject © ‘smission and reception problems associated with low-frequency waves bu, in this case, as iene “Sepoelcf ndywh Snan cas he wbe cco ina ron imposes retietion onthe conditions ofthe line of sight between the ends. With misoysh® ‘iow fequnces mewearement ean be made chrough coud; ist Hight showers, ocasions PAS ‘ag, at ot hr sold cbsirvctions ke bulldigs Cer waves cannot, Bowers ‘ mesurng waves without modulation (it is dificul to measure a args comer628 eo of Sei seo nang yom i ci se on See ei ga motor Soin ach uae em nes “nephew mt t op ne ee hii na ye mt a ea seat Thestap or EDM sen pone cate ec inet hil orca nhich pays ee aT sss ge 18.16 Carman ps sawn ng 1815 oS denne gt a ee perc OT mgr snring wenger ncn a ey. Ts insiedy ong cane Pr 1816 sent a wen So sas A and Bd an be emesis soon fence fs foes Dard ths sebeting 18.30 fom 183 Iy— tant) ovine sumed hada fe ee insach ya de orem um pt otetet ete fy My ltt oa gee t838- Theron tgp el ao uentas Price sininating ai mei hn, La = 2 = ny = (10/1), sii fn By 8388 Te nh = 1M ta~ tn) a9 Suing a, 18.34 in, 1820, Pandan) +h Ree dion erin’ iting eet -plbsdnunce pio meaner dren Oa ae a difecne f 050 miseptes orscneTASR Seite eas cit eng emo wenn Sources herent tommimme | ‘880M eve parm he ovine tse = keen carr at megs RE eee ete nat aipiyete eatvorinemesecoc owe te soit nen eo vcs be STE ca eg do cay mae dese Heb ep eosin thedistance tobe mest THe —640 Texbook of Surveying emg nrass xenon cacy feof Ne mb mesg intel oy pe non tte sen yh slo el eg sinter te een of eT ite quant tas a mes! yg ote Hoes te in mf te pV wie ne act eof eal ought he naramen Te diane a ely knowing V ht fe aan um nd og dna tse ies of oot 1 her ‘sources of eror may be more prominent. 18.7.2. EDM instruments “Tes alin hrs mn categvies: a ein which a beam of ight is acader and it refed from a ind of minor. They ae Ta ng te diane equi nsrveying telescope aims the eam te strane can be measured by using a aser a a cae, 8 hia avery small ingle of pe Bet yn aa cenit There aie sme an an operator Pa rth dial i eransited on another caer wave back othe ogi od of the Foe go cas 1c spread of beam 5° 10°) Its generally used for long fistanoes eid first-order angulation. 4 Radio systems widely ued for navigational svave, ei heavier euipment and ares ado i th postion se in elton to fie points 8 land ‘A Geotnetr sae eneration leeto-oticl instrument, devised by Prof, Bergstand of Sweden aaah ued me reverse ole of finding the sped of Tight by measuring the te taken totem long known godecally measured distances ‘Vaile gat om atngsen lament is sed to provide the carr wae, It is modulate by a Ke ell ma cole by guna ers to provide a measuring frequency of 10 MHz. Thus, poltied Sighs retested tnd tb ansmiter by th instrument atthe remote sation by mean of ingle ot reli pin. Tis eed ight isconeted nto eletcal pulses by photocell. Phase comparson it mae dtweca he wensmied and reflected pulses. This rely alibated to read the distance om 2 dipay panel. A T2-olt ater source is essential "The ages up oS kn in day ight with tongsten lamp and upc 25 km at ight witha mete lamp. Since ler lin of ight is seta the range is severly reduced by Bist sunshine, 0 mt The fist generation of EDM dvies were bulky and heavy. However, in the 1960s, the iat sation of electronics allowed the design of second generation EDM instruments, which were small lighter, needed less power, bt hal substantially shoe rnge—0°2 m to 5 km (with a standard de vation of + 2 o +10 mm). The incorporation of coherent laser light into the device gave ci 12 tégncatn DM sen Th hs gd pri, ow power regen, tl easy read-out, and with longer range of 15 m to 60 km (& $ mm + I ppm). The latest geodimete (Model 8) sing htiom-neon ae belongs to his category. my, The latest god A Metometer isan eero-opticalnstunent invented tnveted by Dr KD. Froome ofthe Naina Physi aber, Landon rg 3k and ie mathe su or le of high accuracy at 1 mm 3: 2 ppm. Ths is achieved by mean I Se aha Iso fall essentially under EDM. They use longer ‘curate than other instruments. They are manly South tenn 985 nent ani’ ne Te wa_ Other and Modern Methods of Surveying 641 tet we menue The WO Orato can speak each ote, using telephone sets comet othe totes. The waster Wats a Serie of microwaves that are picked up by the remot nd are reevansmitted 10 the Master which measures the time required. Distances are computed on the basis ‘ripe welt of radio wave. An unobstructed measuring path between dhe two instruments noes i eve nter-vsiblity isnot required. Hence, measurement canbe made een inunavurale ‘eae conditions. Model MRA 3 uses a cartier wave frequency of 10 x 10° Hz (\ = 3 em) and its frequeney is salted to give a ine measuring pattem of 10 MHz. The accuracy is 10 mm + 3 ppm. This is ‘erated directly fo give the distance. The measurement may be checked by reversing the roles of the inaer and the remote. Model MA 100 uses a cartier frequency close tothe infrared and 330 x 108? Hz (A = 0.92 am) sndameasring frequency of 75 MH, Instead of the remote instrument, its provided with a reflector. ‘Thsis designed for short-range use up to 3 km (accuracy + 5 mm +2 ppm). Wild Distomat-D1 60 and DI 10 models have been marketed by M/s. Wild Heerburg Co. 18,73 Electronic theodolite and Total Station Modem theadolites contain encoders which sense the rotation ofthe spindles and the telescope, con- vert them into horizontal and vertical angles (or zenith angles) electronically, and provide a digital Aiplyof the values on & monitor using LCDs (liquid erystal display). At the touch ofa single keys the ‘mgls and distances are measured and recorded directly. They are then stored in some kind of solid sate memory device. The data can be processed by a computer. Examples ofthese are wild theomats, -mnufatured by M/s Wild Heerburg Company. ‘Tia Staion or an Electronic Tacheometer is a combination of an electronic theadolite and an data, so thatthe DM inrment. A microprocessor is also included for reduction ofthe observed itanent can display the sloping distance te vertical distance, the horizontal distance, difeence ‘oto, nd he coos, Te aa cans be sre in th meray of computations using a digital computer. esol sts eens te eld of serine nut pine ait of evi engineering jobs Flas: 18.1-18,6 (se also Figure 18.17 and 18.18). rage device for6.10 Distomats Distomats are latest in the series of EDM instruments. These instruments measure distances by using amplitude modulated infrared waves. Two identical instruments are used, one at each end of line to be measured. The master unit sends the signals to the remote unit, which receives and reflects back the signals. The instrument can automatically send each of the signals and calculates the phase-shift in each case. The distance is then automatically displayed.onsets Tetons 6.10.1. Distomat DI 1000 eis very sll compact EDM, pacully soiling construction ‘another CailEnginsering works, whore distance measirements are ss han 500m tis an EDM that makes the meaning tape reundantTo measure the stance, nc has to simply pointe instrument othe reflector, touchakey ant readthe eu,