Journal of Food Engineering 265 (2020) 109691

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Journal of Food Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

3D printing of egg yolk and white with rice flour blends T

T. Anukiruthika, J.A. Moses, C. Anandharamakrishnan
⁎

Computational Modeling and Nanoscale Processing Unit, Indian Institute of Food Processing Technology (IIFPT), Ministry of Food Processing Industries, Govt. of India,
Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: 3D printing of foods is an emerging technique for customized fabrication of food matrices. Importantly, a well
3D printing optimized formulation can be an excellent channel to deliver macro and micro nutrients. Egg is packed with
Customized food fabrication nutrients and has several functional properties. This work presents a comparative study on the printability of egg
Egg yolk (EY) and egg white (EW) with blends of rice flour, focusing on optimization of various extrusion printing
Nutrient delivery
parameters including printing composition, nozzle height, nozzle diameter, printing speed, extrusion motor
Printability
Rheological properties
speed and extrusion rate. In addition, different physical, mechanical and rheological properties of the material
supply were studied. Results showed that the addition of filler agent (rice flour at 1:1 and 1:2 w/w) had a
significant effect on the improvement of stability and strength of printed EY and EW. EY at 1:2 (EY: rice flour)
could be 3D printed with fine precision and higher layer definition at 600 and 800 mm/min printing speeds at
180 rpm motor speed using a 0.84 mm nozzle at 0.005 cm3/s extrusion rate with minimal changes in colour. This
work provides insights on the suitability of EY as a promising material for 3D food printing applications.

1. Introduction
Three-dimensional (3D) printing is an emerging technique involving
layer by layer fabrication of foods. As an additive manufacturing
technique, 3D printing can be used to customize foods according to
individual preferences. With changing lifestyles, consumer attitude to-
wards food is drastically changing in terms of preferences in taste,
eating experience, nutrition, cost and convenience (Dankar et al., 2018;
Sun et al., 2018). Printing of foods is an integration of 3D printing and
digital gastronomy, with the capability to transform food manu-
facturing approaches (Fuh et al., 2015). Here, digital gastronomy refers
to a culinary culture that focuses on personalizing taste by linking
traditional cooking with digital capabilities. Thus, 3D printing can help
in providing foods in attractive shapes and designs, with precise control
over nutrition (Nachal et al., 2019). This approach can be accomplished
by a synergistic combination of various macro and micro nutrients
considering their intrinsic properties to help in binding and deposition
of layers. These aspects have increased the market potential for 3D
printed food products owing to its unique ability to fabricate foods
based on an individual's age, diet and health conditions (Sun et al.,
2018).
Various 3D food printing technologies are available. Extrusion-
based food printing is the most commonly used method, involving
ingredient/material supply either in a paste or slurry form. The semi-
solid food material is extruded as a fine thread through the printing
nozzle which can be moved in X, Y and Z directions (Liu et al., 2018).
Foods can be natively printable, or may be non-printable and may
require appropriate pre-processing (such as addition of hydro-
colloids) to make them printable. Alternative food ingredients such as
insect protein, algae and others can also be printed. Warner, Norton,
and Mills (2019) studied the rheological behaviour of printing mix-
ture pre-processed with the addition of gelatin and kappa-carra-
geenan and investigated the suitability of this mixture for printing
applications. In another study, the printability of taro paste with
different food additives such as sodium alginate, carboxymethyl cel-
lulose, whey protein, guar gum and xanthan gum were reported by
Huang et al. (2019). Similarly, printability and texture of 3D printed
geometries were enhanced by the addition of soy protein isolate (SPI)
mixtures with sodium alginate and gelatin (Chen et al., 2019a,
2019b). The effect of starch from different sources such as rice, po-
tato, corn on extrusion-based 3D printing is also reported (Chen et al.,
2019a, 2019b; Dong et al., 2019; Martínez-Monzó et al., 2019). Stu-
dies have explained extrusion-based 3D printing of lemon juice gel
(Yang et al., 2018), vegetable puree (Severini et al., 2018), fish surmi
gel (Wang et al., 2018a), mashed potato (Liu et al., 2018), chocolates
(Hao et al., 2010), cheese (Le et al., 2018), ground meat (Dick et al.,
2019) and dairy products (Ross et al., 2019). Understanding in-
gredient composition and the complexity of food structure is crucial

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: anandharamakrishnan@iifpt.edu.in (C. Anandharamakrishnan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2019.109691
Received 2 April 2019; Received in revised form 2 August 2019; Accepted 9 August 2019
Available online 10 August 2019
0260-8774/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T. Anukiruthika, et al.
in 3D food printing.
Till date, no study reports 3D printing of egg yolk (EY) and egg
white (EW) fractions. This study investigates the printability of EY and
EW with rice flour blends and optimization of the printing process.
Here, printability refers to the ability of material to withstand shape
and dimensional stability (Kim et al., 2018). Egg as a whole food is
consumed in its boiled, scrambled or fried forms. Egg is also a key in-
gredient in various baked foods as it possesses several functional
properties, including emulsifying, foaming, coagulating and gelling
behaviour (Xu et al., 2019). Conventionally, handling of whole egg is a
challenge as it is prone to mechanical damage and other losses. Im-
portantly, food 3D printing allows customization of sensory and nutri-
tional attributes according to individual needs and preferences. This
work provides an overall understanding on delivering egg in a printable
form by analysing several process variables so as to explain 3D extru-
sion printability of egg fractions. Printed egg fractions can be post-
processed by steaming, baking or frying, each involving multiple pro-
cess variables that would have implications on the nutritional and
sensorial quality of the product. In this work, the effect of EY and EW
constituents on extrusion printing is explained considering the addition
of rice flour.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Hen eggs were procured from local market in Thanjavur, India.
Maltodextrin (MD) with dextrose equivalent (DE) 20 was obtained
from HiMedia Laboratories Pvt. Ltd (India) and rice flour (80.58 g/
100 g of carbohydrates, 8.94 g/100 g of protein, 0.48 g/100 g of fat,
and 2.96 g/100 g of dietary fibre) was also procured from the local
market.
2.2. Preparation of 3D printing material supply
Fresh eggs were broken manually and white and yolk fractions
were carefully separated. Refractance window drying (RWD) drying
was used for obtaining powders, as this method of drying helps in
retaining most of functional and nutritional properties of egg with
less changes in sensory properties (Moses et al., 2014; Raghavi et al.,
2018). EW mix was homogenized for 10 min at 6000 rpm using T18
digital Ultra-Turrax homogenizer (IKA, Germany) for thorough
blending of chalaza and albumen without any nodes. The homo-
genized EW was dried in the RW dryer with water bath temperature
at 45 °C. Similarly, EY mix was prepared by adding 5% MD (DE 20)
before homogenization. Addition of MD enhances the denaturation
temperature (Td) and shifts the glass transition temperature (Tg) of
EY. This has a significant effect in preserving new texture and pre-
vents stickiness and structural collapse during RWD (Ma et al., 2019;
Mounir and Allaf, 2018). This is attributed to prevention of protein
denaturation by polysaccharides. MD was added only to EY in order
to improve powder characteristics by acting as a filler agent to reduce
stickiness and drying losses (Rajam and Anandharamakrishnan,
2015). The homogenized yolk mix was dried in the RW dryer with
water bath temperature at 70 °C. Temperature is a critical factor in
drying and has to be considered carefully as denaturation of egg
proteins results in modification of functional and rheological prop-
erties, which in-turn affect printability (Lai et al., 2010). The effects
2
Journal of Food Engineering 265 (2020) 109691
of temperature on structuring of egg globular proteins have been
reported by several researchers (Campbell et al., 2003; Gharbi and
Labbafi, 2018). In this work, drying temperatures were selected based
on preliminary trials in consideration with the Td of egg proteins. Td
of ovalbumin of EW is around 60 °C and, that of phosvitin and livetin
of EY is around 83.3 °C and 90 °C, respectively (Chalamaiah et al.,
2017; Duan et al., 2017; Llave et al., 2018). As a general principle, the
product temperature is significantly lower than the temperature of
the water bath in a RWD system (Yoha et al., 2019). Thus, drying was
performed below denaturation temperatures of EY and EW proteins.
After proper drying, the RWD EW powder (moisture content of
7.577 ± 0.03% w.b.) and yolk powder (moisture content of
0.422 ± 0.05% w.b.) were collected and stored for further studies.
Proximate analysis of collected egg powder was carried out as per
AOAC methods (AOAC, 2016). Results showed that protein content of
EY and EW powder were 34.054 ± 0.470% and 83.333 ± 0.536%,
respectively; while, fat contents were 37.63 ± 1.411% and
0.892 ± 0.3% for EY and EW powders, respectively. Using Anthrone
reagent method (Sadasivam and Manickam, 2008), it was determined
that rice flour (moisture of 8.255 ± 0.053% w.b.) used for the printing
process contained 54.3 ± 0.23 g of starch/100 g.
The material supply for 3D printing was prepared with two different
ratios of egg powder (EY/EW) and rice flour (1:1 and 1:2 w/w). EY and
EW powders were completely dissolved (separately) in optimal
amounts of distilled water. Then, the appropriate proportion of rice
flour was added. The mixture was mixed adequately without any lump
formation, producing a paste which was taken as the printing material
supply.
2.3. 3D printer
An extrusion-based delta type 3D food printer CARK - Controlled
Additive-manufacturing Robotic Kit was developed and used in this
study (Fig. 1). It consists of an extrusion assembly, printing head, XYZ
movement arms with stepper motor, syringe barrel set-up and com-
pressor unit. The 3D printer CARK is an in-house paste-extrusion
system developed for semi-solid food materials. This delta model 3D
printer system works on linear motion guideway with simultaneous
movement along X, Y and Z axes and can be operated at 110 V/230 V
AC, 50/60 Hz. After several preliminary trials, based on requirement,
the dimensions and overall design of the printer was finalized. With a
build size of 120 mm (diameter) x 300 mm (height), the printer could
provide layer resolution ranging between 0.3 and 1 mm. Material
supply is fed manually into the syringe barrel assembly. The geometry
to be printed is loaded in the printing software as the input in STL
format (i.e. stereolithography file format, native to the stereo-
lithography computer aided design software), and gets sliced into
machine codes (G-codes and M-codes). A compressor unit (0.2 hp) is
attached with the food printer, facilitating the continuous flow of
material supply under pneumatic assistance to force the material to
flow through the printing nozzle. The extrusion printing process in-
volves application of pressure (up to 4 bar) to push the material
through the nozzle. The gap between the printing platform and the
nozzle could be manually controlled. Movement of three arms were
automatically controlled with specifically designed micro controller
unit.
T. Anukiruthika, et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of 3D food printer CARK.
2.4. Effect of pre-processing on the physical and mechanical properties of
the material supply
In this study pre-processing of material supply was done by adding a
natively printable material (i.e. rice starch in the form of rice flour).
2.4.1. Analysis of flow behaviour
The flow behaviour of the printing material supply was studied
using parallel plate rheometer (MCR 102 series, Anton Paar Co. Ltd.,
Austria) of diameter 50 mm at 25 °C. The gap between the two plates
was set at 2 mm. For analysing the steady shear viscosities of material
supplies, shear rate was ramped from 0.1 to 100 s−1. Shear stress, shear
rate and apparent viscosity were also recorded for the printing material
supply. Rheological data were fitted to power model (Eq. (1)) (Rao,
2014).
=k n
(1)
where, is the shear stress (Pa), is the shear rate (s−1), k is the
consistency index (Pa.sn) and n is the flow behaviour index (di-
mensionless).
2.4.2. Pasting viscosity measurements
Since different raw materials were taken for preparing the printing
material supply, viscosity was measured using rotational mode rhe-
ometer (MCR 52 series, Anton Paar Co. Ltd., Austria), following AACC
method 61-02 (AACC 2000) as reported by Saleh (2018). Solid-liquid
phase interactions of printing material supply reveals information
about the texture, stability and handling of material supply. The tem-
perature was increased from 50 to 100 °C and lowered again from 100
to 50 °C over time. Pasting profile can be expressed in terms of peak
viscosity, pasting temperature, holding strength, breakdown viscosity,
final viscosity and setback viscosity (Prabhakaran and Moses, 2016).
2.4.3. Textural analysis
The strength of the mixture was studied by performing a texture
profile analysis of the prepared material supply using a cylinder mea-
suring probe (P/5) attached to a texture analyser (TA-HD plus, Stable
Micro Systems Ltd., UK).
2.4.4. Colour measurement
Material supply was prepared with different proportion of rice flour
which greatly affects the colour of the material supply. Colour is an
essential factor that determines the acceptability of printed samples.
Hence, colour of the printing composition was determined using
ColorFlex EZ spectrophotometer (ColorFlex EZ 45/0-LAV, Hunter
Associates Laboratory Inc., Virginia, USA) and readings were denoted
using L*, a*, b* colour scale. The colour change (ΔE) value for different
material supply is given by (Eq. (2)).
3
Journal of Food Engineering 265 (2020) 109691
E= ( L2+ a 2 + b 2) (2)
2.4.5. Water activity
It was essential to maintain adequate amount of moisture in mate-
rial supply for obtaining proper flow and shape precision during
printing process. Water activity (aw) of the prepared material supply
was determined using dew point water activity meter Aqua Lab 4 TE
(Decagon Devices, Inc. Pullman, WA, USA) with ± 0.001 sensitivity.
2.5. Printability of material supply
Line test was performed for determining the quality and suitability
of the prepared paste for printing. This test can reveal whether the
material is extruded properly, categorising the process as either under
extrusion, over extrusion or optimal (desired) extrusion (Huang, 2018).
Under extrusion is one in which the material has discontinuous flow
and the printed line get broken due to higher printing speed with in-
adequate flow of food ink. On the other hand, over extrusion involves
excess flow of ink from the nozzle making the line thickness much
higher than nozzle diameter. Printing condition in which the thickness
of the printed line is equal or slightly greater than nozzle diameter is
said to be optimal (desired) extrusion. Flowability of material supply
(EY and EW) at 1:1 and 1:2 (EY/EW: rice flour) were analysed at five
different printing speeds (400, 600, 800, 1000 and 1200 mm/min)
using two different nozzle sizes of 0.84 mm and 1.22 mm at 180 rpm
motor (extrusion) speed. Similarly, cylinder test was carried out to
determine the stability of material to withstand successive printing of
layers. For this, a cylindrical bowl (STL format) of 43.31 mm diameter
with 15 mm height was printed for similar printing conditions as per-
formed for line test. The stability of the 3D structure was analysed and
the point at which the layers collapse was recorded. Extrusion test was
conducted for determining the steady extrusion rate, as essential for
proper printing. The volume of material extruded in a given time in-
terval (extrusion rate, cm3/s) was recorded. Extrusion rates at 180 rpm
motor (extrusion) speed for EY and EW (EY/EW: rice flour at 1:1 and
1:2 w/w) material supply were analysed.
2.6. Optimization of the 3D printing process
Various printing parameters were analysed for proper printing and
optimization of 3D constructs using EY and EW with different propor-
tions of rice flour. For optimization process, a simple model ‘kitty nury’
(43.74 mm * 31.45 mm * 5.60 mm) was selected. The process variables
tested include extrusion rate, critical nozzle height, nozzle size, extru-
sion motor speed and composition of the prepared printing material
supply. The study investigated the printability of the material supply EY
and EW (EY/EW: rice flour at 1:1 and 1:2 w/w) at five different printing
T. Anukiruthika, et al. Journal of Food Engineering 265 (2020) 109691

17.66
19.43

11.17

0.994
0.985
0.998
0.958
0.962
0.987
0.92
ΔE

R2
–

145.26 ± 1.29d

136.62 ± 0.22b
293.38 ± 2.15e

142.43 ± 0.13c
14.42 ± 0.15a

362.4 ± 0.31f
43.32 ± 0.17d

k (Pa.sn)
a

52.83 ± 0.11e
52.75 ± 0.07e
35.92 ± 0.24c
28.73 ± 1.12

33.3 ± 0.05b

Power law fitting

0.004ab
0.001b
0.004a
0.005c
b*

0.01d
0.02c
±
±
±
±
±
±
0.65
0.75
0.65
0.39
0.41
0.43
−0.45 ± 0.16b
a

−0.22 ± 0.03c

Data are presented as mean values ± SD (n = 3) and lowercase superscripted letter in same column means significantly different between various material supply (p < 0.05).
−0.72 ± 0.17

6.39 ± 0.12d
7.26 ± 0.10e
7.49 ± 0.02f

Water activity (aw)

0.001b
0.001b
0.004a

0.002c
0.001c
0.001c
Fig. 2. Apparent viscosity curve of different material supplies.

a*

±
±
±
±
±
±
0.951
0.992
0.992
0.997
0.996
0.996
speeds (400, 600, 800, 1000 and 1200 mm/min) using two different
nozzles of diameter 1.22 and 0.84 mm at 180 rpm motor speed. X/Y

70.53 ± 0.08d

67.29 ± 0.16b
73.28 ± 0.13e
68.18 ± 0.24c

73.99 ± 0.04f
axis movement speed was at 6000 mm/min and Z axis movement speed

a
54.4 ± 0.26
Colour scale

2951.33 ± 630.30c
was at 1000 mm/min. Maximum pressure of 4 bar was maintained

483.70 ± 67.67a
610.97 ± 89.96a
Setback viscosity

1780 ± 233.96b

1352 ± 119.89b
527.2 ± 68.17a
throughout of experiment to aid continuous material delivery. The
whole experiment was performed at ambient temperature (25°C) using

L*
the extrusion-based 3D printer.

(mPa.s)
2.7. Statistical analysis

0.001ab
0.003d
0.003b

Final viscosity (mPa.s)

a

0.004a
0.001

0.01c

1926.33 ± 237.73b

1778.67 ± 247.15b
3596.33 ± 752.64c
Resilience

714.93 ± 86.07a
549.33 ± 73.99a
797.47 ± 93.99a
The differences among different printing material supply, 1:1 and

±
±
±
±
±
±
1:2 (EW/EY: rice flour) against control i.e. material supply without rice
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.08
0.05
0.01
flour (EWC and EYC) samples were analysed using one-way ANOVA
with Duncan's multiple range test by SPSS software (ver. 22.0); p
value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
0.06b
0.05b
0.12b
0.08b
a

0.01a
Cohesiveness

0.13

3. Results and discussion

Breakdown viscosity
±
±
±
±
±
±

129.07 ± 16.06a
241.77 ± 72.29a
2226 ± 522.53b
0.25
0.61
0.56
0.59
0.50
0.35

81.76 ± 18.64a
17.74 ± 5.67a
3.1. Effect of starch on the physical and mechanical properties of the

77 ± 14.43a
material supply
(mPa.s)
3.1.1. Analysis of flow behaviour of material supply
Physio-chemical properties of material supplies with different proportions of rice flour.

0.07b
0.04b
0.07b
0.07b
0.06b
a
0.11

Non-Newtonian shear thinning characteristics best suit 3D printing

Springiness

by extrusion. Factors that influence these rheological properties include

±
±
±
±
±
±

particle size, degree of crystallinity, melting behaviour, and material

0.37
0.90
0.92
0.92
0.98
0.92

645.03 ± 163.77c

426.7 ± 128.41b
187.73 ± 18.98a
Holding strength

composition (Lanaro et al., 2017). Further, these effects are in-turn

146.5 ± 9.14a

65.64 ± 6.78a
186.5 ± 4.13a

related with biochemical, functional and textural properties. Hence,

understanding the flow behaviour is important for studying the print-
(mPa.s)

ability of the material supply as it was taken in semi-solid state for the
Adhesiveness (N.s)

c
0.007
0.14b

0.04b
0.06a

0.07a
0.07c

printing process. In extrusion 3D food printing, rheological behaviour

of the material supply is the critical parameter that explains its vis-
±
±
±
±
±
±

Pasting temperature

coelasticity. Also, printability is a function of material flow rate, visc-

−0.02
−0.42
−0.63
−0.14
−0.35
−0.69

62.74 ± 10.62a

osity, concentration, nozzle diameter, and printing speed. Thus, the

69.11 ± 5.39a

58.35 ± 3.57a

70.28 ± 2.15a
69.36 ± 4.0a

62.9 ± 9.61a

effect of addition of rice flour on steady shear rheological properties of

Textural profile analysis

egg fractions is explained using variations in viscosity and shear rate of

the material supply. Apparent viscosity curves of material supply with
(°C)
bc

different proportions of rice starch is shown in Fig. 2. An ideal material

0.01ab
0.003

0.02d
0.01a
0.01c
0.01c
Hardness (N)

Peak viscosity (mPa.s)

suitable for extrusion-based 3D food printing should possess viscosity,

2871.33 ± 538.89c

269.47 ± 30.54ab

low enough for easy flow of material supply and high enough to be
668.43 ± 193.7b
315.6 ± 12.01ab
±
±
±
±
±
±

223.50 ± 9.9ab

83.38 ± 9.97a
Pasting profile

cohesive, so as to remain stable without deformation of previous layers

0.04
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.05
0.13

during deposition of material (Liu et al., 2018). Results showed that

apparent viscosity of material supply decreases with increase in shear
rate because of disruption of aggregates of particles that are directly
related to shear rate (Polachini et al., 2017). This clearly depicts that
Material supply

the material supply exhibits pseudoplastic behaviour (n < 1; shear

thinning fluid) (Amin et al., 2017), which can flow easily through the
Material
EW 1:1
EW 1:2

EW 1:1
EW 1:2
Table 1

EY 1:1
EY 1:2

EY 1:1
EY 1:2
supply

printing nozzle (Liu et al., 2019a). The shear thinning nature of mate-
EWC

EWC
EYC

EYC

rial supply clearly shows that particles are greatly disturbed when

4
T. Anukiruthika, et al.
subjected to shear stress and the force between particles decrease with
increase in flow rate of the material supply (Yang et al., 2019a). It was
confirmed from these results that the shear thinning behaviour of egg
fractions, as well its post-printing stability makes it suitable for extru-
sion-based 3D printing.
Power law well explained the flow behaviour of all EW and EY
formulations with R2 > 0.95 (Table 1). Non-Newtonian pseudoplastic
behaviour was evident in all cases (Fig. 2). The shear thinning beha-
viour of the formulations explain its flowability through the nozzle
(Rani and Bhattacharya, 1989) and in this case, in comparison with EW
formulations, EY formulations showed lower n values. This is due to the
presence of high- and low-density lipoproteins in EY. Lipid fractions of
EY act as a plasticizing agent, greatly enhancing the fluidity of the
material by providing flowability and improving printing behaviour
(Anvari and Joyner, 2019). Considering k values, it was observed that
EWC was not in the printable consistency; with addition of rice flour
(EW 1:1), k values increased to around 293.38, further affecting
printability. Addition of rice flour as in case of EW 1:2 and EY 1:2 (as
compared to EW 1:1 and EY 1:1, respectively), also results in incre-
mental increase in the water holding capacity of the material supply.
Addition of water (10 ml as in case of EW 1:2 as compared to 5 ml as in
case of EW 1:1) in proportion to the level of rice flour added, EW 1:2
formulation was printable with k value of around 145.26. These results
are in close agreement with those obtained by Liu et al. (2018) for
studies conducted on mashed potatoes. Similar case was observed in EY
formulations, with the best printing consistency and post-printing sta-
bility for EY 1:2.
3.1.2. Pasting properties of material supply
Properties like flow behaviour and pasting characteristics provide
information about the nature of material supply with respect to time,
temperature, water content and composition (Saikrishna et al., 2018).
During the first cycle, the temperature is increased from 50 °C to 95 °C
during which viscosity get increased for all material supply. The tem-
perature remains constant for certain period of time and cooling cycle
starts with decrease in temperature from 95 °C to 50 °C. During which
viscosity keeps increasing irrespective of change in temperature
(Table 1). The pasting profile of EW and EY material supply helps to
understand the thermal behaviour of macromolecules (Dalbhagat et al.,
2019). On comparing EW and EY material supply (1:1 and 1:2), the
pasting values increases with addition of starch except final and setback
viscosity of EW material supply. This is due to effect of percentage of
protein in material composition (Wang et al., 2018a). EWC has higher
protein than EYC and with addition of starch, the protein content of EW
material supply gradually decreases with no significant difference
(p > 0.05) in peak viscosity values of EW (1:1 and 1:2). Similarly, the
peak viscosity values of EY material supply (1:1 and 1:2) increases with
no significant difference (p > 0.05) due to combination of protein and
lipid matrix of yolk, forming a complex polymer matrix with starch
(Saleh, 2018). Higher peak viscosity value (668.43 ± 193.7 mPa s) of
EY 1:2 material supply represents greater fraction of ungelatinized
starch with maximum pasting temperature attained at 70 °C. This effect
was due to the varying extent of depolymerization and molecular en-
tanglement that result due to processing conditions associated with
shear stress and temperature (Dalbhagat et al., 2019).
During holding period, the material supply is subjected to high
temperature and mechanical shear that leads to breakdown of poly-
meric chains with relative drop in viscosity from peak values causing
denaturation of egg proteins and gelatinization of rice starch. Stability
of material supply can be represented by its breakdown viscosity.
Although EWC possess higher breakdown viscosity, it possesses weak
structure. With addition of starch, the strength of material supply got
increased as with EY 1:2 material supply that corresponds to higher
breakdown viscosity of 241.77 ± 72.29 mPa s among EY material
supplies. Recovery of material supply during cooling is given by setback
viscosity which is a measure of syneresis of cooked starch. EY material
5
Journal of Food Engineering 265 (2020) 109691
supply with higher proportion of starch (EY 1:2) possess higher setback
viscosity with greater tendency of retrogradation (Dalbhagat et al.,
2019). Although globular proteins of egg do not provide required
support for pasting, the relative combination of rice starch improves the
pasting properties of material supply. Thus, formation of denatured
protein gel with starch and lipid polymeric matrix provides strength
and integrity for EY 1:2 printing material supply.
3.1.3. Textural analysis of material supply
Analysis of textural profile of material supply helps in under-
standing the behaviour of the material when subjected to mechanical
force. The precision of the printed thread is determined by textural
properties of material supply. The effect of different proportions of
starch on printing material supply of EY and EW are summarised in
Table 1. Hardness of the material supply helps in determining the
amount of extrusion force required for pushing the material through the
nozzle. Although hardness value for EYC was higher than EWC, statis-
tically there was no significant difference (p > 0.05). The higher value
of EYC is due to dense structure and higher solids content of EY (52%)
than EW (11%). Plasma and granules protein of EY possess higher
strength and dense network than albumen protein of EW. However,
these results are in contrast with Zhang et al. (2019) who stated that
hardness of heat induced EW gel was higher compared to EY gel due to
lower protein solubility of EY. Hardness of EY material supply (EY 1:1
and EY 1:2) was higher than corresponding EW material supply (EW 1:1
and EW 1:2) with significant difference (p < 0.05). The increased
hardness of EY 1:2 material supply was due to higher proportion of
starch and results are in agreement with those of Huang et al. (2007)
who reported that combination of proteins and polysaccharides possess
an undivided network which was responsible for significant changes in
hardness of rice starch mixture.
There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) seen among the
adhesiveness of corresponding EW and EY material supply i.e. EWC and
EYC; EW and EY at same proportions. Although the addition of starch to
material supply improved the strength of protein rich material supply,
it does not change the adhesiveness of material supply significantly
(Hosseini-Parvar et al., 2015). But with increase in proportion of starch,
there was significant difference (p < 0.05) in adhesiveness of material
supply for EW (1:1 and 1:2) and EY (1:1 and 1:2), respectively. In case
of EY (EYC, EY 1:1 and EY 1:2), there was a significant decrease in
adhesive value due to higher fat content of EY which smoothens the
dough surface, making it easily flow through the nozzle. Further, it has
significant impact on printing quality of 3D objects (Liu et al., 2019b).
As the material extrudes through the nozzle, it undergoes a pressure
as it transits from higher to lower cross-sectional area and undergoes
extruder swell phenomenon. Springiness of material supply determines
the degree of this phenomenon. Springiness of EYC (0.919 ± 0.073)
was higher than that of EWC (0.366 ± 0.11) showing that structure of
EY was deformed into few larger pieces during the first compression of
TPA with significant difference (p < 0.05). Also, the value of EY ma-
terial supply (EY 1:2) dropped due to the fact that structure was further
deformed and broken down into too many small pieces during com-
pression with no significant change (p > 0.05) with addition of starch
into EY material supply (1:1 and 1:2) (Ai et al., 2018; Nguyen Doan
et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019). Springiness values of EY are com-
parable to that of natively printable material (cheese: 0.88; Kim et al.,
2018). This is a crucial factor explaining the accuracy of fabricating 3D
constructs from EY.
On comparing cohesiveness, EYC possess significantly higher value
(0.585 ± 0.122) than that of EWC (0.245 ± 0.126) (p < 0.05). Also,
there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) for material supply EW
1:1 and EY 1:1 with addition of starch (p > 0.05) (Hosseini-Parvar
et al., 2015). On the other hand, there was a significant difference
(p < 0.05) in cohesiveness values among EW 1:2 and EY 1:2. This was
due to strong cohesive behaviour of EW material supply due to vis-
coelastic nature of EW albumen (Nishijima et al., 2018). Higher values
T. Anukiruthika, et al.
of springiness and cohesiveness of EYC than that of EWC indicates
better strength of yolk with intact network of granules and plasma
(Yang et al., 2019b).
With regard to resilience, there was a significant change (p < 0.05)
with addition of starch to printing material supply of EY with higher
value obtained for EYC (0.078 ± 0.003). Meanwhile, there was no
significant difference in resilience values among EW material supply
(1:1 and 1:2) with increased proportion of starch (p > 0.05).
Complementing rheological data, higher resilience value of EYC than
EWC reveals its elastic nature and this helps in assessing the suitability
of the material supply for 3D printing. Resilience values of EY material
supply decreases with increase in proportion of starch because of in-
creased solids content of EY 1:2 than EY 1:1 resulting in a denser matrix
(Baixauli et al., 2008).
3.1.4. Colour analysis and water activity of material supply
Results of colour measurements of material supply showed that
there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in colour scale among all
material supply (EWC, EW 1:1, EW 1:2 and EYC, EY 1:1 and EY 1:2)
except b* value for EYC and EY 1:1 (Table 1). With addition of starch to
EW material supply, lightness (L*) value increases from 54.4 ± 0.257
(EWC) to 73.28 ± 0.128 (EW 1:2) with increase in greenness (a*) from
−0.72 ± 0.1687 to −0.22 ± 0.025 and initial increase
(35.92 ± 0.235) and then slight decrease (33.30 ± 0.050) in yel-
lowness (b*) value which is due to the transparency of EW material
supply contributed by egg albumen and starch (Handa et al., 1998). On
the other hand, EY material supply showed increase in lightness (L*)
value from 68.18 ± 0.237 to 73.99 ± 0.043 and decrease in redness
(a*) and yellowness value (b*). Higher b* value of EYC is due to pre-
sence of plasmatic fractions that contains most of fat-soluble pigments,
carotenoids and xanthophyll including zeaxanthin, cryptoxanthin and
trace amounts of β carotene which are responsible for bright yellow
colour of EYC (Laca et al., 2010; Marcet et al., 2015). These results
clearly depict that addition of starch greatly affects the yellowness of
EY. These differences were showed by ΔE whose values for EW 1:2 and
EY 1:2 material supply appearing to be identical to each other.
Considering aw (Table 1), there was significant difference among
EWC and EYC with higher value (0.997 ± 0.002) for EYC (p < 0.05)
due to higher solids fractions of fat 65% and proteins 31% (Guilmineau
et al., 2005). Presence of more hydrophobic groups in EY than EW is
responsible for its higher aw (Zhang et al., 2019). Although, there was
no significant difference in aw of EY (1:1 and 1:2) and EW (1:1 and 1:2)
material supply (p > 0.05). A slight decrease in aw value of EY with
addition of starch from EYC is due to water trapping ability of mixture
of proteins and polysaccharides than protein itself (Mirarab Razi et al.,
2018).
3.2. Printability of material supply
Based on results of rheological and textural analysis, it was found
that material supply of EY and EW with added starch possess good
strength and smooth flowability that are suitable for 3D food printing.
Both material supply of 1:1 and 1:2 (EY and EW) are tested for its
printability by performing line and cylinder test (Table 2). Results in-
dicate that proportion of total solids in material supply is a key factor
that significantly affects the layer deposition. On comparing EY and
EW, EY material supply with higher proportion of starch i.e. EY 1:2
withstands shape with better structural stability because of viscoelastic
behaviour (shear-thinning) of EY that aids in better binding with starch
(Chen et al., 2019b; Sun et al., 2011). Although material supply of 1:1
proportion is printable, slight inconsistency and structural deformation
was observed in printed objects evident with broken extrudate fila-
ments with lesser binding ability of the material supply. In accordance
with results of textural analysis, 3D objects printed with EY possess
more strength than that of EW due to the difference in functionality and
binding properties of globular proteins of EW (ovalbumin) and EY
6
Journal of Food Engineering 265 (2020) 109691
(plasma and granules) respectively (Mirarab Razi et al., 2018; Zhang
et al., 2019).
3.3. Optimization of the 3D printing process
3.3.1. Optimization of material supply
Based on preliminary studies of line and cylinder tests, printing
process was carried out with two different material supply of EY and
EW at two different starch proportions using two different nozzle size of
0.84 and 1.22 mm at 180 rpm motor speed with five different printing
speeds (400, 600, 800, 1000 and 1200 mm/min). The ‘kitty nury’ model
was printed and results showed that 3D printed objects with EY forms a
stable structure due to complex dense network of lipoprotein fractions
of EY with polysaccharides (Wang et al., 2018a). While lower solid
contents of EW are responsible for weak constructs of 3D structures
(Mirarab Razi et al., 2018). The amount of starch to be added is a
critical parameter that assists printing process. Too high the starch
content, makes material supply more viscous and leads to poor fluidity
while lesser amount of starch leads to suboptimal material with too low
viscosity (Chaisawang and Suphantharika, 2006; Yang et al., 2018).
Thus, EY material supply with 1:2 ratio resulting in a desired extrusion
with good fluidity and more liquid like behaviour. On comparing EY
and EW, 3D printing with EY 1:2 material supply exhibits better re-
solution, smooth surface finish and lesser defects (Table 3).
3.3.2. Optimization of nozzle height
A proper nozzle height has to be maintained throughout printing
process for achieving proper targeted geometry of 3D constructs
(Attalla et al., 2016). The distance of printed layer from nozzle tip
significantly affects the resolution of the 3D constructs. For printing of
different material supply, a critical nozzle height has to be maintained
for desired printing process as given in Eq. (3) (Wang and Shaw, 2005;
Wang et al., 2018b).
Vd
hc =
vn Dn (3)
where, hc is the critical nozzle height (mm), Vd is the volume of material
extruded (cm3/s), vn is the nozzle moving speed (mm/s) and Dn is the
nozzle diameter (mm). Thus, critical nozzle height was calculated at
maximum process conditions (extrusion rate and printing speed) for
two different nozzle sizes (Table 4). For desired printing, it was es-
sential that nozzle height should not be greater than critical nozzle
height. In general, diameter of extruded filament should be same as that
of nozzle considering no shrinkage or swelling under ideal printing
conditions (Yang et al., 2018). But there was a discrepancy in practical
situations eveident with lesser diameter of thread than that of actual
nozzle size, possibly due to differences in density of EW and EY material
supplies.
3.3.3. Optimization of nozzle diameter size
Precision and surface finishing of the 3D printed objects depends on
size of the printing nozzles (Liu et al., 2019a). Effects of nozzle dia-
meters (0.84 and 1.22 mm) on layer height and printing quality was
evaluated (Table 3). With larger nozzle size, the flow rate was found to
be higher resulting in poor dimensional resolution and surface quality.
On comparing two nozzle sizes, printed samples with 0.84 mm nozzle
had more layer details with good finishing than that of 1.22 mm nozzle.
Printing of EY material supply (EY 1:2) with 0.84 mm nozzle possess
higher precision with good surface pattern than that with 1.22 mm
nozzle.
3.3.4. Optimization of printing speed
The effect of nozzle movement speed on printing process was ana-
lysed for establishing the dynamic work range of the 3D printer for
different material supply of EW and EY (Wang et al., 2018b). Among
the considered printing speeds (400, 600, 800, 1000 and 1200 mm/
T. Anukiruthika, et al. Journal of Food Engineering 265 (2020) 109691

Table 2
Cylinder test for EW and EY material supplies with different proportions of rice flour using 0.84 mm and 1.22 mm nozzle diameters at 180 rpm motor speed.

min), lower printing speed (400 mm/min) resulted in overflow of ma-
terial while higher printing speed (1200 mm/min) resulted in under-
flow of material with dragging of extruded filaments causes breaking of
printing layers irrespective of EY and EW material supply (Table 3).
Desired material flow with optimum printing speed was essential for
proper printing process (Liu et al., 2019a). Thus, optimum printing
speed was found to 600 and 800 mm/min, irrespective of material
supply. However, EY material supply with higher solids content was
considered to be optimum for printing at 600 and 800 mm/min with
fine layer details thereby maintaining printed shape.
3.3.5. Optimization of extrusion rate
There was a linear relation between extrusion rate and thickness of
extruded filament (Fig. 3). Since motor speed was proportional to the

7
T. Anukiruthika, et al. Journal of Food Engineering 265 (2020) 109691

Table 3
Optimization of EW and EY material supply at different proportions of rice flour using 0.84 mm and 1.22 mm nozzle diameter at 180 rpm motor speed.

8
T. Anukiruthika, et al.
Table 4
Estimation of critical nozzle height and extrusion rate for EW and EY material supplies wtih different proportions of rice flour.
Printing variable Nozzle diameter (mm) Material supply
EW 1:1
3
Density (g/cm ) – 1.237 ± 0.005
Critical nozzle height, hc (mm) 0.84 0.32 ± 0.02
1.22 0.34 ± 0.01
Extrusion rate (cm3/s) 0.84 0.0033 ± 0.0002
1.22 0.0049 ± 0.0001
Data are presented as mean values ± SD (n = 3).
Fig. 3. Optimisation of extrusion rate for egg fractions. (a) EW 1:1, b) EW 1:2, c) EY 1:1 and d) EY 1:2 (images are not to the scale); e) Relationship between extrusion
rate and thread thickness.
extrusion rate, with increase in motor speed, more amount of material
was extruded. At higher extrusion rates, thickness of printed material
was higher than nozzle outlet resulting in spreading of the material over
a wider area than the actual design (Wang et al., 2018b). This is due to
the fact that greater volume of material is extruded at higher extrusion
rate with increased diameter and pressure resulted in poor resolution of
printed structure. On the other hand, there was a discontinuous strand
with lower extrusion rate resulting in lower thickness of printed line
with insufficient material flow and structural integrity. Thus, optimum
extrusion rate was found to be around 0.005 cm3/s and 0.004 cm3/s for
EY material supply (EY 1:2) and EW material supply (EW 1:2) irre-
spective of nozzle size (Table 4). It was evident that addition of rice
starch (as rice flour) had significant effects on the printability of the
material supply, as compared to the addition of MD.
4. Conclusions
This work presented a comparative study on the effect of 3D
printing on EY and EW and application of its physio-chemical proper-
ties in additive layer manufacturing. It was found that addition of rice
flour had a significant effect on textural and rheological characteristics
of printing material supply that aids in printing process. Both EY and
EW in its natural form are not printable. But EY and EW in combination
with rice flour (starch), forms a smooth paste possessing pseudoplastic
behaviour that makes the material to be printable. Based on results, it
was found that printed objects from EY material supply were structu-
rally stable and possess less deformation than that of EW. This is due to
complex interaction of starch and protein fractions that result in higher
9
Journal of Food Engineering 265 (2020) 109691
EW 1:2 EY 1:1 EY 1:2
1.3 ± 0.15 1.133 ± 0.0002 1.139 ± 0.003
0.39 ± 0.08 0.03 ± 0.001 0.49 ± 0.01
0.31 ± 0.06 0.06 ± 0.003 0.4 ± 0.01
0.0039 ± 0.001 0.0031 ± 0.00001 0.0049 ± 0.0001
0.0046 ± 0.001 0.0047 ± 0.01 0.0058 ± 0.0001
binding ability of EY material supply, thereby withstanding the shape.
Various printing parameters like material composition, nozzle dia-
meter, nozzle height, extrusion rate and printing speed have been op-
timised. Among the EY printing material supplies (EY 1:1 and EY 1:2),
EY 1:2 was found to possess better strength and stability due to higher
solids content which in turn aids in extrusion and successive deposition
of layers. Optimized conditions for achieving desired printing of EY
material supply (EY 1:2) was found to be 600 and 800 mm/min printing
speed at 180 rpm motor speed using 0.84 mm diameter nozzle at an
extrusion rate of 0.005 cm3/s. At these optimized conditions, the
printing process yields 3D objects of good precision and high resolution
with adequate bonding between the layers. Although rice flour was
added the colour of printed sample (EW 1:2), remains to be visually
acceptable. This work provides an idea about properties of material
supply for printing of EW and EY which will be helpful for further
studies on the printability of egg fractions. Further, the material supply
formulations involve interactions between starch, lipids and proteins
with varying levels of water. This shows light on the need for future
works to explain the underlying physics, particularly because highly
nutritive food products such as eggs could form a key ingredient in
future 3D printing material supplies.
Acknowlegdement
The authors acknowledge the funding received from the Ministry of
Food Processing Industries, Govt. of India.
T. Anukiruthika, et al.
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