Section 2.

3: Set Theory
1. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false. If it is false, explain
why.

(a) {a, b} ⊆ {b, a}. TRUE

(b) {a, b} = {b, a}. TRUE
(c) b ⊆ {a, b}. FALSE – b is an element of {a, b}, not a subset.
(d) b ∈ {a, b}. TRUE
(e) {a, b} ⊆ {{a}, {a, b}}. FALSE – a and b are elements of the set {a, b}, but neither
of these is an element of the set {{a}, {a, b}}.
(f) ∅ ∈ ∅. FALSE – ∅ has no elements.
(g) ∅ ⊆ ∅. TRUE – ∅ is a subset of every set, including itself.
(h) ∅ ⊆ {a, b}. TRUE
(i) ∅ ∈ {∅}. TRUE – the set {∅} has exactly one element, and that element is ∅.

2. Let A = {1, 5, 7}, B = {2, 4, 5, 6}, and C = {3, 6, 7} be subsets of the universal set
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. List the elements of the following sets.

(a) A ∪ B = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7}
(b) A ∪ A = {1, 5, 7}
(c) B ∩ C = {6}
(d) (A ∩ B) ∪ C = {3, 5, 6, 7}
(e) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = {5, 7}
(f) A ∩ B c = {1, 7}
(g) Ac ∪ C c = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

3. Let A, B, and C be sets. Prove each of the following theorems.

(a) (A ∩ B) ⊆ (A ∪ B).

Proof. Let x ∈ (A ∩ B). We must prove x ∈ (A ∪ B).

By the definition of intersection, x ∈ A and x ∈ B. But then clearly x ∈ A or
x ∈ B, so x ∈ (A ∪ B) by the definition of union.

(b) (A ∩ B) = B if and only if B ⊆ A.

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 Proof. Since the theorem is biconditional, we must prove two things: first, we will
suppose (A ∩ B) = B and prove B ⊆ A, and next we will suppose B ⊆ A and
prove (A ∩ B) = B.
(⇒) Suppose (A ∩ B) = B, and let x ∈ B. Then, since x ∈ B and B = (A ∩ B),
we know x ∈ (A ∩ B). But that implies x ∈ A, proving B ⊆ A.
(⇐) Conversely, suppose B ⊆ A. To prove (A ∩ B) = B, we have to show each
of these sets is a subset of the other. But half of that – namely that (A ∩ B) is
a subset of B – was already proven in the text (Theorem 2.20). So we just have
to prove, under the assumption B ⊆ A, that B ⊆ (A ∩ B). So let x ∈ B. Since
B ⊆ A, we see x ∈ A. Then, since x ∈ B and x ∈ A, we have x ∈ (A ∩ B),
proving B ⊆ (A ∩ B).

(c) (A ∪ B) = (A ∩ B) if and only if A = B.

Proof. Since the theorem is biconditional, we must prove two things: first we will
suppose (A ∪ B) = (A ∩ B) and prove A = B, and next we will suppose A = B
and prove (A ∪ B) = (A ∩ B).
(⇒) Suppose (A ∪ B) = (A ∩ B). To prove A = B we must prove A ⊆ B and
B ⊆ A. First let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ A or x ∈ B, so by definition x ∈ (A ∪ B). But
by hypothesis (A ∪ B) = (A ∩ B), so we have x ∈ (A ∩ B). This means x ∈ A
(which we already knew), and that x ∈ B, which is what we needed to prove
A ⊆ B. The proof that B ⊆ A similar. Thus A = B.
(⇐) Now suppose A = B. To prove (A ∪ B) = (A ∩ B), we must prove each of
these sets is a subset of the other. But we know (A ∩ B) ⊆ (A ∪ B) is always true
(we proved it already!). We still must prove that if A = B, then (A∪B) ⊆ (A∩B),
so let x ∈ A ∪ B. Then either x ∈ A or x ∈ B. But if x ∈ A then since A = B we
know x ∈ B also. And if x ∈ B then x ∈ A for the same reason. In either case, if
x ∈ A ∪ B, then x ∈ A and x ∈ B, hence x ∈ A ∩ B, proving that when A = B,
then (A ∪ B) ⊆ (A ∩ B)

(d) A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

Proof. To prove these sets are equal, we must prove each is a subset of the other.
First we’ll prove A ∪ (B ∪ C) is a subset of (A ∪ B) ∪ C, so let x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C).
Then x ∈ A or x ∈ (B ∪ C). We consider both cases:
• If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A or x ∈ B, hence x ∈ (A ∪ B). And since x ∈ (A ∪ B),
then x ∈ (A ∪ B) or x ∈ C, hence x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.
• But if x ∈ (B ∪ C), then x ∈ B or x ∈ C. We must consider both of these
subcases:

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 – If x ∈ B, then x ∈ A or x ∈ B, so x ∈ (A ∪ B). And since x ∈ (A ∪ B),
then x ∈ (A ∪ B) or x ∈ C, so x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.
– The argument for when x ∈ C is similar.
In all cases, we’ve proven that whenever x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C), we also have
x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C, which proves A ∪ (B ∪ C) is a subset of (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

Next we must prove (A ∪ B) ∪ C is a subset of A ∪ (B ∪ C), so let x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.

This half of the proof will be a lot like the last part – it’s a good exercise to follow
it through, but I hope you can fill in the blanks yourself.

(e) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).

Proof. We must prove A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊆ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) and (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) ⊆

A ∩ (B ∪ C).
For the first half, suppose x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C). We must prove x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
Since x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C), we know x ∈ A and x ∈ (B ∪ C) by the definition of
intersection. So either x ∈ A and x ∈ B, or else x ∈ A and x ∈ C. In the first
case we see x ∈ (A ∩ B), hence x ∈ (A ∩ B) or x ∈ (A ∩ C). In the second case
we see x ∈ (A ∩ C), hence x ∈ (A ∩ B) or x ∈ (A ∩ C). In either case we conclude
x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) by the definition of union.
For the second half, suppose x ∈ (A∩B)∪(A∩C). We must prove x ∈ A∩(B ∪C).
Since x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C), we have either x ∈ (A ∩ B) or x ∈ (A ∩ C). In the
first case we see x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Note x ∈ B implies x ∈ B or x ∈ C, hence
x ∈ (B ∪ C). And since we also know x ∈ A, this means x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C). The
second case, where x ∈ (A ∩ C), is similar (you can fill in the details).

(f) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

Proof. We must prove A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) and (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⊆

A ∪ (B ∩ C).
For the first half, suppose x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C). We must prove x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
Since x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C), we know x ∈ A or x ∈ (B ∩ C).
• Suppose x ∈ A. Then x ∈ A or x ∈ B, hence x ∈ (A ∪ B). Similarly, x ∈ A
or x ∈ C, hence x ∈ (A ∪ C). Thus x ∈ (A ∪ B) and x ∈ (A ∪ C), so
x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).
• Now suppose x ∈ (B ∩ C). Then x ∈ B and x ∈ C. Since x ∈ B, we see
x ∈ A or x ∈ B, hence x ∈ (A ∪ B). And since x ∈ C, we see x ∈ A or x ∈ C,
hence x ∈ (A ∪ C). Since x is in both (A ∪ B) and (A ∪ C), we conclude
x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

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 For the second half, suppose x ∈ (A∪B)∩(A∪C). We must prove x ∈ A∪(B ∩C).
Since x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C), we know x ∈ (A ∪ B) and x ∈ (A ∪ C). Note either
x ∈ A or x ∈/ A. We now show both cases lead to the desired conclusion.
• If x ∈ A, then x ∈ A or x ∈ (B ∩ C), hence x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C).
• If x ∈/ A, then since x ∈ (A ∪ B) by hypothesis, we must have x ∈ B.
Similarly, since by hypothesis x ∈
/ A and x ∈ (A ∪ C), we must have x ∈ C.
Thus x ∈ B and x ∈ C, so x ∈ (B ∩ C). Finally, since x ∈ (B ∩ C), we see
x ∈ A or x ∈ (B ∩ C), hence x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C).

4. The following statements are false. Demonstrate each is false by exhibiting a coun-
terexample.

(a) If A ⊆ C and B ⊆ C, then A = B.

Solution. Let A = {1}, B = {2}, and C = {1, 2}. Then A ⊆ C and B ⊆ C, but
A 6= B.

(b) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ C.

Solution. Let A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 4}, and C = {5, 6}. Then

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = {1, 2} ∩ {3, 4, 5, 6} = ∅,

but
(A ∩ B) ∪ C = ∅ ∪ {5, 6} = {5, 6}.
Thus in general A ∩ (B ∪ C) 6= (A ∩ B) ∪ C.

(c) (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∪ B c

Solution. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4}, A = {1, 2}, and B = {3, 4}. Then

(A ∪ B)c = {1, 2, 3, 4}c = ∅,

but
Ac ∪ B c = {3, 4} ∪ {1, 2} = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
So in general, (A ∪ B)c 6= Ac ∪ B c .

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5. Suppose A and B are sets within some universal set U . Prove the following theorems.

(a) A ⊆ B if and only if B c ⊆ Ac .

Proof. We must prove that if A ⊆ B then B c ⊆ Ac , and that if B c ⊆ Ac then

A ⊆ B.
First suppose A ⊆ B. We must prove B c ⊆ Ac , so let x ∈ B c . That means x ∈
/ B.
c
But since A ⊆ B and x ∈
/ B, we must have x ∈/ A. In other words, x ∈ A , hence
B c ⊆ Ac .
Now suppose B c ⊆ Ac . We must prove A ⊆ B, so let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ / Ac . But
since B c ⊆ Ac and x ∈
/ Ac , we must have x ∈
/ B c . In other words, x ∈ B, which
proves A ⊂ B.

(b) (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c .

Proof. We must prove (A ∩ B)c ⊆ Ac ∪ B c and that Ac ∪ B c ⊆ (A ∩ B)c .

For the first part, suppose x ∈ (A ∩ B)c . That means x ∈
/ (A ∩ B), so either x ∈
/A
/ B. In the first case we get x ∈ A , while the second case leads to x ∈ B c .
or x ∈ c

In both cases we conclude x ∈ Ac or x ∈ B c , hence x ∈ Ac ∪ B c .

Now for the second part, suppose x ∈ Ac ∪ B c . Then either x ∈ Ac or x ∈ B c .
If x ∈ Ac , then x ∈
/ A, hence x ∈/ (A ∩ B). If x ∈ B c , then x ∈
/ B, and again we
have x ∈/ (A ∩ B). In either case we conclude x ∈ (A ∩ B)c .

(c) A ⊆ B c if and only if A ∩ B = ∅.

Proof. We must prove that if A ⊆ B c then A ∩ B = ∅, and if A ∩ B = ∅, then

A ⊆ Bc.
First suppose A ⊆ B c , and to the contrary, suppose A ∩ B is nonempty; that is,
suppose there exists some x ∈ (A ∩ B). Then x ∈ A and x ∈ B. And since x ∈ A
and A ⊆ B c by hypothesis, we also have x ∈ B c . But then we have x ∈ B and
x ∈ B c , which is a contradiction. Hence no such x is possible, and we conclude
A ∩ B = ∅.
Now suppose A ∩ B = ∅. We must prove A ⊆ B c , so let x ∈ A. Since we are
assuming A ∩ B = ∅, no object can be an element of both A and B. And since
/ B. But then x ∈ B c , proving A ⊆ B c .
x ∈ A, we deduce x ∈

5
6.

U A
1

2 4
3
B C
5 7
6

Solution. These regions can be described using only intersections and complements as
follows:

1: A ∩ B c ∩ C c
2: A ∩ B ∩ C c
3: A ∩ B ∩ C
4: A ∩ B c ∩ C
5: Ac ∩ B ∩ C c
6: Ac ∩ B ∩ C
7: Ac ∩ B c ∩ C
8: Ac ∩ B c ∩ C c

7. If set X has n elements, then X has 2n different subsets. Remember to include the
empty set when you list or count all the subsets of a given set!
8. Prove that for any set A, the number of subsets of A is always greater than the number
of elements in A.

Proof. Proving this is much harder than it sounds, because you have to consider the
possibility that A has infinitely many elements (and then you’re back to arguing about
different “levels of infinity”). Ask me if you’re curious, otherwise don’t worry about
this one!