See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/258173330

Orchestra rehearsal strategies: Conductor and performer views

Article  in  Musicae Scientiae · March 2013

DOI: 10.1177/1029864912467634

CITATIONS READS

35 4,000

1 author:

Michele Biasutti
University of Padova
81 PUBLICATIONS   1,582 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Music learning strategies View project

Assessing virtual learning environments View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Michele Biasutti on 25 September 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

467634
2012
MSX17110.1177/1029864912467634Musicae ScientiaeBiasutti

Article

Musicae Scientiae
17(1) 57­–71
Orchestra rehearsal strategies: © The Author(s) 2012
Reprints and permissions:
Conductor and performer views sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1029864912467634
msx.sagepub.com

Michele Biasutti
FISPPA Department, University of Padova, Italy

Abstract
This article is a qualitative study of conductor and performer views of orchestra rehearsal strategies.
Twenty professional musicians (10 conductors and 10 performers) participated in a research survey
studying orchestra rehearsal strategies including organisation, rehearsal methods, rehearsal priorities
and conductor/player rehearsal skills. A qualitative analysis of the answers given by participants
was undertaken using an inductive method and two main themes emerged: social issues of collective
study, and strategies for collective study. Analysis of this study provides evidence of orchestra rehearsal
strategies employed by conductors and performers, who all showed a common orientation in the use
of metacognition strategies; they also shared a goal-oriented practice approach, and awareness of
rehearsal organisation. The research reveals the relationship between cognitive and social dimensions
and that the ability to develop a coherent rehearsal plan was related to the importance of creating a
friendly environment considering the performers’ needs. Also, management and problem solving skills
were considered of great significance for a conductor as professional rehearsals are inevitably subject to
restrictive time constraints.

Keywords
conductor, group study, orchestral performer, performance preparation, rehearsal strategy

Introduction
It is hard to determine what secrets lead conductors and orchestral performers to the highest
level of performance. Little attention is given in the literature to the way orchestral musicians
practise and study, and little is known about their skills (Brodsky, 2006). It is widely accepted
that conductors have a special role and skills – they are usually regarded as extraordinarily
gifted people able to lead an orchestra in the complex and compelling task of reanimating the
composer’s sound world. However, conductors and orchestral performers are usually thought
of separately without merging their perspectives.
In order to explore these twin perspectives, the current study aims to connect conductor and
performer realities in a holistic approach by analysing and comparing the conductors’ and per-
formers’ views about practice. The objective is to qualitatively research the complexity of

Corresponding author:
Michele Biasutti, Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, University of Padova,Via Beato
Pellegrino 28, 35139 Padova, Italy.
Email: michele.biasutti@unipd.it
58 Musicae Scientiae 17(1)

orchestra rehearsal strategies of both conductors and performers of classical music. More pre-
cisely, the study focuses on how conductors and performers view rehearsals, taking into
account the learning strategies and skills involved, and conductor and performer priorities.

Background
There is a growing interest in research that considers the strategies for group music practice
and rehearsal (Davidson & King, 2004; Price & Byo, 2002) and for symphony orchestra musi-
cians (Brodsky, 2011). Prior research in this area has focused on how social understanding and
sharing facilitate musical rehearsals and performances, considering issues of social and musi-
cal coordination, members’ roles, and gesture. In a detailed literature review of ensemble prac-
tice, Davidson and King (2004) considered issues such as rehearsal situation, group dynamics,
and verbal and nonverbal communication, from which they noted there is no single best strat-
egy for rehearsing orchestra repertoire. They also presented a case study of two cello duos in
which the rehearsal method, communication and social interaction were considered.
Much of the prior research about ensemble practice has investigated these issues within
small groups of musicians from duos to sextets, but less research has focused on larger groups
such as chamber or symphony orchestras. Other research has concentrated on relatively inex-
perienced participants in educational settings, and some orchestra research has examined the
conductor’s role when rehearsing an orchestra, especially in terms of leadership issues (Boerner
& Freiherr von Streit, 2006; Marotto, Roos, & Bart, 2007), but this research has been carried
out primarily for management feedback purposes. Previous research also considered the social
environment of orchestras, analysing the connections between emotions and cognitions
(Brodsky, 2006) and several other issues in relation to rehearsing and conducting behaviours
(Price & Byo, 2002). Brodsky (2006) carried out a study involving interviews with 54 sym-
phony orchestra musicians examining their emotions and cognitions in relation to their career
ambitions, vocational motivations, occupational development and performance experiences.
The results were in contrast to previous research, as participants considered that orchestra
work, teamwork, solidarity, friendship, motivation and commitments were based on a passion
for music and music performance. Marotto, Roos, and Bart (2007, p. 397) noted that the con-
ductor has to have a variety of skills that are not just confined to music: ‘an orchestra conduc-
tor must therefore be equipped not only with musical knowledge, but also be a proficient
pedagogue, communicator and diplomat.’ Price and Byo (2002) addressed several issues related
to rehearsing and conducting, considering atmosphere, feedback, pacing, performance error
detection, conductor demeanour and rehearsal structure. The conductor has a key role in
structuring orchestra rehearsals which could be considered a process of diagnosis, prescrip-
tion, presentation, monitoring and feedback. Rehearsals are a way of striving to achieve perfor-
mance goals and involve detailed programming aspects, such as rehearsal goals, prioritization
of rehearsal material, task-related and contingent feedback (Price & Byo, 2002, p. 341).
Other recent research examined the assessment of rehearsal effectiveness (Bergee, 1992),
the interaction between conductor leadership style and the mood of orchestral musicians, its
impact on performance (Boerner & Freiherr von Streit, 2006) and how rehearsal time was sub-
divided for symphonic bands by both expert and novice conductors (Goolsby, 1996). Bergee
(1992) defined the following indicator factors for assessing music student teacher rehearsal
effectiveness: conducting technique, teacher–student rapport and instructional skills. Goolsby
(1996) studied the use of rehearsal time by experienced teachers, novice teachers and student
teachers in a school context. Results demonstrated behavioural differences between trainee
Biasutti 59

and experienced teachers: trainee teachers tend to talk more whereas experienced teachers use
more nonverbal modelling during rehearsals and allocate rehearsal time more coherently
between various sections.
Several aspects emerged from the reviewed literature, although it is quite difficult to com-
pare the results since different aims and methods were used. Rehearsing and conducting
characteristics and aspects such as communication during rehearsals and performance
were studied. Several orchestra research studies involved participants in educational envi-
ronments and differences between experienced, novice and trainee teachers were observed
during orchestra rehearsals (Goolsby, 1996). In the current research, the participant per-
spective on orchestra rehearsal and performance strategies was researched through surveys
of both professional conductors and orchestral players, examining how these strategies dif-
fer or agree.

Research aims
The research presented in this article focuses on the participant perspective of orchestra prac-
tice. Twenty professional performers (10 conductors and 10 orchestral players) answered a
survey on rehearsal practising strategies employed by conductors and performers. Based on the
findings of prior research on rehearsing and conducting (Barry & Hallam, 2002; Price & Byo,
2002), the aim was to investigate the processes involved in practising and shaping the perfor-
mance, revealing the participant view of these processes. The qualitative approach of the cur-
rent research involved broadly stated questions about orchestra practice experiences, as viewed
by both conductors and orchestral players, with the aim of producing a rich and descriptive
data set to understand the participants’ experiences and attitudes. The following research ques-
tions were considered:

What are the orchestra practising strategies employed by conductors during rehearsal?
What are the orchestra practising strategies employed by performers during rehearsal?

Method
Participants’ profiles
Twenty professional performers of classical music (10 conductors and 10 players) participated
in the study. The criterion used when recruiting the participants was they should have had at
least 10 years’ experience of orchestra conducting/performing. Performer participants were
recruited through personal contacts and had 10–28 years of professional experience in per-
forming in a chamber or symphonic orchestra. They were aged from 31 to 55 and had all
gained a diploma in their respective field at a music conservatory; their instruments included
strings, woodwind instruments and brass, and the style of music ranged from baroque to clas-
sical, romantic and sometimes contemporary music.
Conductor participants had 10–31 years of professional orchestra experience, and their
ages ranged from 35 to 60. All had a diploma in a musical instrument and/or composition,
while two of them had a conservatory diploma in conducting. The style of music performed
by the conductors also ranged from baroque to classical, romantic and contemporary
music; however, two conductors indicated that they had mainly conducted contemporary
music.
60 Musicae Scientiae 17(1)

The survey
The survey included eight questions about rehearsal organisation, rehearsing method, the pur-
pose of rehearsals and conductor/player abilities involved in rehearsing. The full survey is
reported in the Appendix. The questions described below were drawn up on the basis of theo-
retical models described in the literature on ensemble practice and rehearsing.

Questions 1 and 3 (‘What methods do you use during orchestra rehearsals?’ and ‘What are
the different styles in conducting/performing in orchestra during rehearsal?’) were drawn
from Davidson and King (2004), who considered rehearsal styles and methods in ensemble
practice. The response to these questions was expected to provide information about the con-
ductor/performer approach to rehearsing.
Question 2 (‘What kind of priorities does a conductor/performer have during the organisa-
tion of rehearsals?’) was drawn from Price and Byo (2002, p. 341), who reported the ‘priori-
tization of rehearsal material’ as a fundamental process of rehearsing. This question was
expected to provide information about learning strategies for making decisions about priori-
ties during rehearsals.
Question 4 (‘How do different styles of music – classical, contemporary, romantic, etc. –
affect the organisation of rehearsals?’) was drawn from Davidson and King (2004), who
pointed out that there is no single best strategy for rehearsing repertoire.
Question 5 (‘How do you change your conducting/performing style during rehearsals in
relation to different orchestras?’) was drawn from Allmendinger, Hackman, and Lehman
(1996), who reported several management and organisational differences between orches-
tras when exploring conducting and performing style during rehearsals.
Question 6 (‘What are the rehearsal functions in relation to the aims and the method in
which the work is organised?’) was drawn from Price and Byo (2002, p. 340), who reported:
‘rehearsing music is typically a process of successive approximations or small steps towards
performance objectives.’ This question provided information about the rehearsal structure
and the relationship between aims, methods and rehearsal organisation.
Question 7 (‘What kind of musical abilities are you using when you are conducting/per-
forming in an orchestra?’) was drawn from Hallam (2001), who highlighted the technical,
cognitive and performance skills involved in high level performance, in order to collect par-
ticipants’ perspectives on the musical skills involved in orchestra rehearsals.
Question 8 (‘What kind of differences are there between individual study and orchestra
study?’) was a synthesis question aimed at collecting information about the analogies and
differences between the two.

Procedure
Participants were assured of their anonymity and encouraged to give accurate answers, which
would be used for research purposes only. The research aim of eliciting and studying their opin-
ions about several aspects of the processes involved in orchestra rehearsals was made clear to
them. The survey collection was carried out on an individual basis.

Analysis
A qualitative approach based on grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) was used as a theo-
retical framework for analysing the data. An inductive method based on the constant compara-
tive method (CCM) (Strauss & Corbin, 1998) was employed to analyse and categorize the
Biasutti 61

answers to the survey. One of the main characteristics of this inductive approach is that the
categories emerge from the data by use of inductive analysis rather than coding the data accord-
ing to prearranged categories (Charmaz & Henwood, 2008).
The following CCM five phases were used: (1) immersion, in which all the discernibly differ-
ent answers are recognised; (2) categorization, in which categories appear from the discernibly
different answers; (3) phenomenological reduction, in which themes emerge from the catego-
ries; (4) triangulation, in which supplementary elements were used for sustaining the researcher
interpretations; and (5) interpretation, the final step in which a complete explanation of out-
comes is carried out in connection to previous research and/or models. CCM analysis was vali-
dated involving another researcher who independently analysed the coding of the answers,
and the two analyses were compared. On the occasions that inconsistencies occurred, a con-
sensus was found. This method of analysis has been fruitfully adopted in earlier research on
musical communication (Seddon & Biasutti, 2009a, 2009b) and online participants’ perspec-
tive (Biasutti, 2011; Seddon & Biasutti, 2009c). For further clarification, a diagram of the first
three steps of data analysis is reported in Figure 1.
In the immersion phase, the researcher was involved in reading through the data several
times in order to acquire a high degree of familiarity with them. In this phase, the discernibly
different units were identified. In the categorization phase, similar behaviours were sorted and
the categories emerged. In the phenomenological reduction phase, two themes were formed
out of the categories and were subsequently interpreted as: social issues of collective study,
and strategies for collective study. In the triangulation phase, quotations extracted from the
answers of the conductors and performers were used to support the themes. The quotes are
reported in Table 1.

Results – the themes

The themes (social issues of collective study, strategies for collective study) described below
report on a synthesis of the conductor view (research question 1), and the performer view
(research question 2).

Figure 1.  Diagram of the first three steps of the survey data analysis.
62 Musicae Scientiae 17(1)

Table 1. Triangulation phase: Supporting quotations for the themes extracted from the answers of the
conductors and performers.

Themes Supporting quotations Interpretation

Social issues of “During rehearsing all your skills are in These quotations support
collective study service of the group.” (performer) explanations of ‘social issues of
“Group study is more difficult because collective study’ in which the
several personalities are involved and new participants reported social details
ideas appear and you have to mix and about rehearsing.
merge them.” (conductor)
“ […] an orchestra is a single
organism and not just the sum of
individuals.”(performer)
“For me it is important to maintain a good
relationship with the conductor and the
musicians.” (performer)
Strategies for “All the rehearsals are important, but in These quotations support
collective study different ways […]” (conductor) explanations of ‘strategies for
“It is important to set out and to collective study’ in which the
communicate your objectives.” participants reported details about
(conductor) the way in which the rehearsals
“I usually write down the main things the were organised.
conductor asks, for example dynamics,
repetitions, phrasing […]” (performer)
“If a conductor is good, he/she organises
the time well and knows what he/she
wants from the orchestra rationally and in
a short time.” (performer)

1.  Social issues of collective study

This theme covers the social aspects in which orchestra rehearsals take place: social environ-
ment, performer role and group dynamics are considered. These categories include team work,
affiliation, roles, respect, communication, social environment and responsibility.

1.1 Team work.  During rehearsals, group dynamics are activated. One performer asserted: “In
a group you do work that you cannot do individually.” This statement points out that team
work is considered valuable and that group work activates particular synergies and dynamics.
During group study, new things are discovered that do not emerge in individual study. One
conductor said: “Group study is more difficult because several personalities are involved and
new ideas appear and you have to mix and merge them.” This statement indicates that there is
a continuous mediation and adaptation of different points of view. In the group, new ideas,
stimuli and difficulties arise and all the members have to collaborate and participate actively.
For this reason, players must be prepared to work collaboratively and team work is a funda-
mental issue. One performer asserted: “During rehearsing all your skills are in service to the
group.” This statement highlights how, during rehearsals, individual knowledge has to be
shared within the group and all personal resources have to be a function of the entire group.

1.2 Affiliation.  The performer has to feel that he or she is a member of a community sharing
aims and musical conceptions. One performer asserted: “You have to be tuned to each other to
reach the same musical idea.” This statement means that the orchestra sound has to be
Biasutti 63

perceived as one sound and, in this context, performers have to blend their sounds, whether
they are soloists or accompanying other musicians. Players have to be prepared to follow the
conductor’s instructions and share assignments and objectives with the rest of the orchestra.
One performer said:

The most important thing is to realise that an orchestra is a single organism and not just the sum of
individuals. So, I think it is important to listen to the others, to adapt my sound to the rest of the or-
chestra trying to make the overall sound as close as possible to the sound imagined by the composer.

This statement demonstrates that the individual bears the final orchestra product in mind. The
individual contribution is framed in an overall shared design at a group level which cannot be
reduced to merely the sum of the individuals.

1.3 Roles.  With regard to roles, the hierarchical orchestra structure is evident, but sometimes
there are gaps between performer aims and reality. One conductor demonstrated awareness
that performer aspirations sometimes do not correspond to his or her actual work:

Some musicians have dreams about playing the instrument, being solo musicians, and so on … Some-
times they have to play a tempo they don’t like, or don’t understand in principle … They have to start
where the conductor says and all of that is not so easy … their individuality is being somewhat reduced.

This statement shows how the conductor has the performer dimension in mind. The con-
ductor has to run the orchestra and this is a complex task to be developed in collaboration
with the performers who have to follow the conductor’s directions. One fundamental issue
is to gain performer confidence and collaboration, which is a process based on implicit
rules.

1.4 Respect.  In general, conductors in this survey asserted that they were keen to have good
empathy with the players, based on mutual respect. One conductor stressed the bi-polar nature
of the relationship with the performers:

When I come to an orchestra rehearsal, the first five minutes are the most important … the orchestra
has to have the feeling, the players have to have the feeling, they are autonomous, they are free, they
are respected. On the other hand, they have to do what I say.

Here the conductor demonstrated that it is important to establish direct contact with the play-
ers based on respect, and the nature of this contact is mostly nonverbal. However, the conduc-
tor showed cognisance of the two-way nature of the relationship in that he or she has to achieve
a balance in working through this dichotomy. In developing this process, performers acknowl-
edge the conductor’s competences such as charisma, determination and clarity of purpose. A
conductor, conversely, has to be able to win over the orchestra with social skills and musicality.
With regard to authority, an implicit level of respect was asserted by one conductor:

If an orchestra respects the conductor's authority, then of course the orchestra immediately notice
that and the rules are clear. If this balance is not perfect, there may be some problems … If the conduc-
tor has authority, is well prepared, has personality, and knows what he or she wants, then it’s not so
problematic.

In this statement, the implicit process in the conductor/orchestra relationship is described.

There is an implicit acceptance of the conductor’s human competences by performers and the
64 Musicae Scientiae 17(1)

conductor has to acknowledge these competences and respect the performers. It seems that
having a good feeling and respecting each other are the first important steps for developing a
good level of communication during rehearsing and performing.

1.5 Communication.  Conducting abilities require advanced skills in nonverbal communication.

One conductor asserted:

It’s also a certain talent to be able to transmit the idea of a certain piece without using words … I mean,
if I want a certain sound from the orchestra, I cannot say ‘play this or that and in such a way,’ without
explanation. They must feel it, and then they play it and of course if one is a guest conductor it takes a
bit of time, not even that much, before it comes and then, one develops. But the talent of a conductor
is exactly that, in my opinion. It has nothing to do with technique.

This quote points out some characteristics of the conductor’s job which is based on transferring
his or her conceptions, ideas and feelings about the music to the performers. It is a complex
process that includes nonverbal communication in addition to instinct and a basic level of tech-
nique. The most effective communication is nonverbal and there are several ways of using this.
One conductor stated:

Much more important than words are contact, gesture and eye contact … language without words;
they simply understand. Sometimes one can talk a bit, but the orchestra doesn’t like that, and it’s not
necessary. The orchestra doesn’t like long stories … they fall asleep. During rehearsals I never, almost
never, speak; it’s not necessary.

This quote demonstrates the variety of nonverbal communication and how it is usually pre-
ferred by conductors. They tend to sing or play a particular passage instead of explaining ver-
bally what they are looking for. There is also the issue of pacing: speaking too much breaks
down the rehearsal rhythm, it interrupts the music flow and the players’ concentration, result-
ing in lower efficiency. However, short and precise instructions were considered efficacious dur-
ing rehearsing. Giving clear and ordered instructions is one of the main benefits for time
management and obtaining steady group improvement. Conductors must have a clear and
logical way of thinking and communicate their conception of the music in a simple way. There
can be a high degree of complexity in the music content, which needs clearly translating into
effective instructions to the players, and requires a steady and coherent pace.

1.6 Social environment.  A sympathetic social environment was considered an important condi-
tion by performers. One player said: “Sensing a friendly environment allows you to feel comfort-
able. The work is facilitated.” This statement points out the links between cognitive and
emotional dimensions, and how attention to emotional and social issues facilitates the creation
of a good working environment. The relationship issue is significant for performers: “For me it
is important to maintain a good relationship with the conductor and the musicians” was one
performer’s reply. In a friendly social environment the conductor understands and takes care of
the needs and problems of orchestral players, helping them to play their best. One conductor
asserted: “You have to know very well what you can obtain from the performers.” The conduc-
tor has to appreciate to a fine degree the skills the performers can contribute and find a way of
continuously helping them to take responsibility for performance characteristics, even in other
respects such as the choice of the music. One conductor asserted: “I choose a repertoire that is
carefully adapted to the group possibilities.” This quote shows how performers have to be
Biasutti 65

encouraged and feel that their abilities are appreciated in order to create a friendly and cohesive
environment which will best achieve the desired result.

1.7 Responsibility.  A considerable sense of responsibility was mentioned by some players: “In
addition, I make sure to be fresh for rehearsals, so as not to get tired or distracted,” “I arrive
early to warm up at the venue,” “Sometimes I use part of the breaks to practise some passages,
if necessary.” In these statements, participants express their high level of professionalism.

2. Strategies for collective study

This section covers the strategies used during orchestra rehearsals: how the rehearsals are
structured, how many there are, their different functions (between the first and last rehearsal)
and what approaches are used. The categories include planning, functions, approaches, inter-
pretation, musical skills, management and variables.

2.1 Planning.  During group rehearsal, all instruments are amalgamated, giving importance to
the sound fusion, the balance between the various parts and the synchrony between instru-
ments. This is the conductor’s task – identifying all the potential problems and difficulties the
players may encounter. He or she has to set expressive and technical objectives and plan a
coherent schedule in order to organise the rehearsals effectively. One conductor mentioned: “I
try to develop a coherent plan of how to organise the rehearsals, which helps me a lot.” This
quote points out that planning is a fundamental process in organising the rehearsal. Another
conductor asserted: “It is important to set out and to communicate your objectives”, demon-
strating how the process of planning has to be shared with the performers. Planning is a
dynamic process rather than a fixed process, as recognised by one conductor: “In organising
the work load, you have to adjust the schedule and the plan day per day in relation to how the
rehearsals are going and the results obtained.” This statement highlights the dynamic interac-
tion between the conductor and the players in that the rehearsals are always different: day after
day as the work is reorganised to meet any challenges that might occur.

2.2 Functions.  During collective practising, different functions were identified for each rehearsal.
One conductor said:

All the rehearsals are important, but in different ways: during the first rehearsal you understand the
piece and the proposed musical ideas, the following rehearsals have the function of merging each sec-
tion and fusing the sounds into one sole instrument.

This statement highlights the rehearsal progression and mechanisms involved since each
rehearsal has a specific aim linked to a general plan. This process is also recognised by per-
formers, as one player asserted: “At the beginning you have to understand your own part and
to memorize it, then you have to have continuity and blend your musical discourse with the
others.” This quote shows how the first step for performers is to understand their role inside
the music, what their contribution could be and then develop a general view and apply these
ideas throughout the piece. The conductor has a more general perspective that addresses the
characteristics of the whole orchestra. One conductor described the following progression:

During the first readings, you verify the programme size and how it could be carried out in relation to
the orchestra characteristics. In this phase you have to understand the potential difficulties and the
66 Musicae Scientiae 17(1)

limits the orchestra cannot be pushed across. During the middle phase the difficult passages are stud-
ied, the problems of piece synchronisation and interpretation are resolved, and at the end the choices
and found solutions are reinforced.

This extract shows how each rehearsal moment has a specific function in a general framework
and that it is important to have an overview of the rehearsal process at all levels. Conductor
awareness of the rehearsing progression and objectives are important. For the dress rehearsal,
a specific function was mentioned by one conductor: “The dress rehearsal is the moment to
verify the work and often influences the approach to the concert.” In other words, the dress
rehearsal is the final act in which the conductor assesses the performance objectives. This
assessment process may give the final input about how to shape the performance, confirming
that rehearsing is a dynamic process and that the conductor has to take decisions moment by
moment.

2.3 Approach.  With regard to the approach towards conducting and the different ways of man-
aging the orchestra, each conductor claimed to have his or her own technique, which depends
on many aspects of his or her preparation and background, such as practice, culture, previous
experience, music style preferred, etc. but also on other external factors such as the orchestra
with which he or she is working, the repertoire and the psychological pressure caused by the
limited time available. Several approaches were mentioned by conductors. During rehearsals, a
conductor will try to involve the players to develop their level of confidence about the music,
arriving at the dress rehearsal with as much confidence as possible. The conductor considers
basic steps such as a collective reading of the piece, rehearsals with specific orchestra sections,
rehearsals in which more sections are grouped, rehearsals with the full orchestra, rehearsals
with the soloists (if any). Another approach was considering large score segments, stopping the
orchestra only for important reasons. However, sometimes single fragments are repeated with
the whole orchestra or with instrumental sections. In the approach during the collective study,
some priorities were considered. Two conductors asserted: “The first priority of a conductor is
about technical aspects: notes, rhythm, tempo, precision, dynamics. Then, musical aspects
such as phrasing, sound quality, balance, interpretation arise;” “I face the problems that arise
in order of priority: playing together, intonation, dynamics and sound quality. After the first or
second run, I start to address the tuning in the various orchestra sections.” These quotes dem-
onstrate that, for conductors, shaping the piece is the basic process in which they have to take
care of all the details. This process is driven by the characteristics of the music. One conductor
asserted the importance of “giving absolute importance to musical aspects, such as the rela-
tionship between the sounds, the phrase shape, the balance, the deep consciousness of the
inner structure of the piece.” This quote points out that the technical issues are solved in the
context of the underlying framework of the music.

2.4 Interpretation.  The rehearsal is the place where the interpretation is put into practice. The
conductor has to enter into the expressive composer dimension and develop a personal vision,
which is an inner metacognitive process. For a conductor, the rehearsal is a creative moment in
which he or she can communicate to the players all his or her orchestra experience, preparation,
conceptions and vision relating to the music. A conductor has to take care of the sound and
communicate his or her points of view about the music, informing the performers about the
musical functions within the score: all the musical aspects must be clarified to the performers
and each performer has to know his or her part in relationship to the whole piece. Commu-
nicating the mood of the piece was also mentioned. One conductor asserted: “The most impor-
tant thing is to understand and to explain to the others the right tempo, I mean the nature of the
Biasutti 67

piece, its gait, its internal rhythm.” This quote demonstrates how the conductor has to transmit
to the performers the musical atmosphere, the underlying design and the inner rhythm.
Shaping the interpretation is a dynamic process involving the contribution of the orchestral
players since it could happen that an issue is raised by the performers that changes the conduc-
tor’s opinion and could actually alter something quite fundamental. One conductor asserted:

After preparation, my ideas are clear, but then when I face the orchestra’s reaction, I may want to
modify the sound in my mind somewhat. And also tempo and dynamics can be discussed, they are not
necessarily set from the beginning of the rehearsals.

This statement indicates that the ideas proposed by the players are recognised as valuable by a
conductor and that there is an interaction in the shaping of the musical construction of the
interpretation.

2.5 Musical skills.  Very good listening abilities (to detect performance mistakes), sight reading,
knowledge of harmony and counterpoint, and also the ability to provide feedback are regarded
as crucial conductor skills. The conductor also has a monitoring task: he or she has to overview
and verify the performance in relation to the music’s conception, giving feedback to the per-
formers. Receiving feedback (negative as well as constructive) from conductors was seen as
positive by players since it is a way of establishing effective communication and mutual
understanding.
The indispensable performer skills needed to work in an orchestra include key elements such
as instrumental technique, memory, sense of rhythm, listening to each other and feedback
since the performer has to detect and adjust to pitch changes around him or her, as well as
phrasing. Other abilities are sight reading, musicality, pitch, having a good sound and interpre-
tation of musical atmosphere. While the work of a conductor during rehearsals is focused on
organisational and interpretative issues, the performer is always focusing on technical and
expressive issues. He or she has to follow the conductor’s intentions and at the same time take
care of technical issues – e.g. a violinist has to follow the style, bowing and additional dynamics
suggested by the leader, and write it on the score. One violinist asserted:

I usually write down the main things the conductor asks, for example dynamics, repetitions, phrasing.
I also write bowing (or I copy them when I’m not leader) and some fingerings, in the difficult spots.

This statement shows how performers are aware that they have to follow the section leader.
There are also other music skills as one performer stated:

You have to know your part very well, never lose sight of the conductor’s gesture, listen to the instru-
ments or melodic lines near you, manage your pitch according to the situation around you and try to
be one body with the rest of the orchestra, if you do not have any solos.

This quote demonstrates the range of performer abilities during rehearsing and performing which
involve performing and listening skills. Deep concentration is necessary to coordinate all these skills.

2.6 Management.  Another important issue during rehearsing is managing time efficiently. The
conductor needs the ability to take care of organisational issues linking musical and manage-
ment dimensions. Due to budget constraints, rehearsals are often few and it is important to
have a constant improvement of the performance level. Management skills were indeed also
mentioned by performers: “If a conductor is good, he or she organises the time well and knows
68 Musicae Scientiae 17(1)

what he or she wants from the orchestra rationally and in a short time.” Problems have to be
detected and solved immediately, prioritising the objectives and rescheduling the rehearsals
when necessary. Unexpected events could happen at any time and the conductor has to be
ready to detect and address them.

2.7 Variables.  Conductors and performers all agreed that rehearsal organisation is influenced
by many variables such as level of orchestra preparation (students, professionals), available
economic resources (number of rehearsals available), level of familiarity/confidence between
conductor and orchestra, the kind of orchestra engaged (chamber orchestra, symphonic
orchestra, etc.), score difficulties for the individual sections (the first violins, for example, may
need more independent rehearsal time), the repertoire (classical, romantic or contemporary),
music familiarity (tonal music is more familiar than atonal music) and nationality.

Discussion
Several differences and analogies between conductors and orchestral performers emerged in
this study, which are in agreement with the literature (Allmendinger, Hackman, & Lehman,
1996; Barry & Hallam, 2002; Bergee, 1992; Boerner & Freiherr von Streit, 2006; Brodsky,
2006; Davidson & King, 2004; Goolsby, 1996; Price & Byo, 2002). In the current research,
both conductors and performers stated that they approached rehearsals in a goal-oriented way,
demonstrating complex strategies and specific objectives. Also, the employment of metacogni-
tion strategies was reported since conductors demonstrated awareness about their task,
rehearsal organisation and the objectives to be reached. These findings concur with Barry and
Hallam (2002), who reported metacognition and an organised approach to rehearsing as key
factors for effective practice.
In the current study, some music abilities required for working in an orchestra differed from
conductors to performers and the following results were found. The conductor needs a good
memory, listening skills, clear gestures, a suitable choice of repertoire; he or she must be able to
project his or her musical interpretation, respect compositional ideas and understand the musi-
cal character and style of the piece. The conductor has a holistic approach which combines tech-
nical, expressive and interpretation issues with consideration of the music as a whole. High-level
instrumental technique, listening and feedback are important aspects for orchestral players, but
also social skills since players have to work collaboratively, following the conductor’s instructions
and sharing the assignments with other members of the orchestra. These findings confirm the
relevance of technical and social skills in previous research by Brodsky (2006).
In the current research, management skills were considered fundamental for conductors,
for example drawing up a coherent rehearsal schedule, setting realistic objectives (Price & Byo,
2002), revising plans according to problems as they occur, using rehearsal time effectively and
anticipating problems. The study also confirmed that the demand for management skills in a
conductor may be due to budget problems, time constraints and other organisational issues. To
understand, manage, monitor and provide feedback are also features needed during rehearsals,
based on a systematic approach. Determination, charisma and leadership were mentioned by
participants as other important factors for conductors. These findings are coherent with
Marotto, Roos, and Bart (2007), who considered conductor role and skills. The importance of
nonverbal communication was also confirmed as the most effective way for communicating
during rehearsals as reported by current research participants. These findings confirm
analogue research by Goodman (2002), Goolsby (1996) and Price and Byo (2002). Some
Biasutti 69

aspects for successful rehearsing were found to be in agreement with Bergee (1992) who con-
sidered an educational context.
One of the most interesting aspects of the current research regarding the relationship
between conductor and orchestral players is the mutual development of a friendly environ-
ment, which is in agreement with the literature (Price & Byo, 2002). According to conductors
and performers, it is essential to build a relationship based on confidence in which mutual
respect seems to be an essential aspect for successful conductor–performer collaboration and
for developing group cohesion (Brodsky, 2006). This collaboration is based on implicit nonver-
bal communication: the orchestra is a social group with its own unwritten rules, which con-
tribute to a definition of the group identity.
In the current research, conductors stressed the need to establish a good relationship with the
orchestra, gladly accepting advice and suggestions from players, displaying what Gardner (1993)
defined as ‘interpersonal intelligence’. This is the ability to react appropriately to the emotive needs,
temperament and motivations of other people and includes the skill to organise and coordinate a
network of people, to mediate, solve problems and develop empathy (Hatch & Gardner, 1989).

Conclusions
This research merges two research areas that are usually treated separately – conducting and
orchestral playing – despite and because of their very close relationship in terms of employ-
ment. The application of CCM when analysing the survey answers provided evidence of the fol-
lowing two themes: social issues of collective study, and strategies for collective study. The social
issues categories were team work, affiliation, roles, respect, communication, social environment
and responsibility. The strategies for collective study were planning, functions, approach, inter-
pretation, musical skills, management and variables. This allowed a comparison between con-
ductors and players, and highlighted similarities and differences in rehearsal methods.
One of the main results of this study is that the social dimension of playing in an orchestra,
shared by conductors and performers, was outlined. The social dimension was evident also if
there were no specific questions relating social issues. Conductors and performers largely share
the same aims and work collaboratively to achieve them during rehearsal time. Participants in
both groups expressed awareness of the importance of working towards the same aims. Both
conductors and performers asserted a goal-oriented approach to rehearsing, in which specific
strategies were accomplished. Conductors and performers showed a common orientation in the
use of metacognition strategies: they demonstrated awareness of their task, rehearsal organ-
isation and the objectives to be reached.
With regard to the differences, various music abilities were stressed by participants for con-
ductors and performers: conducting involves a good memory, listening skills, clear gestures, a
suitable choice of repertoire, proposing interpretation, respecting compositional ideas and
understanding the musical character of the piece and the music style. The conductor takes a
holistic approach considering both technical, expressive and interpretation issues. Conversely,
performing in an orchestra involves very good instrumental technique, listening and feedback
as well as social skills, such as working collaboratively, sharing assignments and being aware
that each performer is working in the context of a group.
Results provide insights into the social dimension and strategies used by conductors and
players in orchestra work, with implications for education. Playing effectively in an orchestra is
commonly learned in a work environment and implicit rules are respected. To reflect on the
implicit level of these processes is very important in order to develop a learning strategy, and
educational activities could be designed using this framework. Awareness about the rules and
70 Musicae Scientiae 17(1)

tasks for conductors and performers is crucial for the development of metacognition strategies
(Biasutti, 2010, 2012; Biasutti & Frezza, 2009).
The results of this study have implications for research into orchestra preparation and
rehearsal, and support the need for further study in this field. A first point regards a possible gap
between participants’ opinions, their convictions and what really happens during orchestra
rehearsals. It would be interesting to verify in follow-up research if the ideas expressed by par-
ticipants exactly correspond to what they concretely do during a rehearsal, comparing the
declared intentions and actual behaviours of musicians during rehearsals. The second point
regards a possible quantitative development of the research. The survey provided a rich and
comprehensive maze of how participants considered the processes involved in orchestra work,
offering an overview of the different perspectives of players and conductors. This research is a
first step based on a qualitative approach and could be used as a platform for developing quan-
titative research (involving a considerably larger number of participants) and developing a
quantitative questionnaire using a Likert scale for a detailed evaluation of characteristics such
as the differences between professional and student conductors and performers.

Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-
profit sector.

References
Allmendinger, J., Hackman, J. R., & Lehman, E. V. (1996). Life and work in symphony orchestras. Musical
Quarterly, 80(2), 194–219.
Barry, N.H., & Hallam, S. (2002). Practice. In R. Parncutt & G. E. McPherson (Eds.), The science and psychol-
ogy of music performance (pp. 151–165). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bergee, M. J. (1992). A scale assessing music student teachers’ rehearsal effectiveness. Journal of Research in
Music Education, 40(1), 5–13.
Biasutti, M. (2010). Investigating trainee music teachers’ beliefs on musical abilities and learning: A
quantitative study. Music Education Research, 12(1), 47–69.
Biasutti, M. (2011). The student experience of a collaborative e-learning university module. Computers &
Education, 57(3), 1865–1875.
Biasutti, M. (2012). Beliefs about teaching music: A comparison between primary and secondary trainee
teachers. Journal of Education for Teaching, 38(3), 231–244.
Biasutti, M., & Frezza, L. (2009). The dimensions of music improvisation. Creativity Research Journal,
21(2/3), 232–242.
Boerner, S., & Freiherr von Streit, C. (2006). Teamgeist im Orchester: Das Zusammenspiel zwischen Flow
und Führung. Musicae Scientiae, 10(2), 245–263.
Brodsky, W. (2006). In the wings of British orchestras: A multi-episode interview study among symphony
players. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79(4), 673–690.
Brodsky, W. (2011). Rationale behind investigating positive aging among symphony orchestra musicians.
A call for a new arena of empirical study. Musicae Scientiae, 15(1), 3–15.
Charmaz, K., & Henwood, K. (2008). Grounded theory. In C. Willig & W. Stainton-Rogers (Eds.), The Sage
handbook of qualitative research in psychology (pp. 240–259). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Davidson, J. W., & King, E. C. (2004). Strategies for ensemble practice. In A. Williamon (Ed.), Musical excel-
lence: Strategies and techniques to enhance performance (pp. 105–122). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic Books.
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research.
Chicago, IL: Aldine.
Goodman, E. (2002). Ensemble performance. In J. Rink (Ed.), Musical performance: A guide to understanding
(pp. 153–167). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Biasutti 71

Goolsby, T. W. (1996). Time-use in instrumental rehearsals: A comparison of experienced, novice, and

student teachers. Journal of Research in Music Education, 44(4), 286–303.
Hallam, S. (2001). The development of metacognition in musicians: Implications for education. British
Journal of Music Education, 18(1), 27–39.
Hatch, T., & Gardner, H. (1989). Multiple intelligences go to school. Educational Researcher, 18(8), 4–9.
Marotto, M., Roos, J., & Bart, V. (2007). Collective virtuosity in organizations: A study of peak perfor-
mance in an orchestra. Journal of Management Studies, 44(3), 388–413.
Price, H. E., & Byo, J. L. (2002). Rehearsing and conducting. In R. Parncutt & G. E. McPherson (Eds.), The
science and psychology of music performance: Creative strategies for teaching and learning (pp. 335–351).
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Seddon, F. A., & Biasutti, M. (2009a). A comparison of modes of communication between members of a
string quartet and a jazz sextet. Psychology of Music, 37(4), 395–415.
Seddon, F. A., & Biasutti, M. (2009b). Modes of communication between members of a string quartet.
Small Group Research, 40(2), 115–137.
Seddon, F. A., & Biasutti, M. (2009c). Evaluating a music e-learning resource: The participants’ perspec-
tive. Computers & Education, 53(3), 541–549.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques, 2nd
edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Appendix:The survey
Survey for conductor/orchestral players
1st Part: General information
Age _________
Conservatory diploma in (instrument): _____________________
Other instruments played: ____________________
Styles of music usually performed in order of importance: _______________________________
Years of professional experience in orchestra conducting ____
Years of professional experience in orchestra performing ____

2nd Part : Survey for conductor/orchestral players

1. What methods do you use during orchestral rehearsals?
2. What kind of priorities does a conductor/performer have during the organisation of
rehearsals?
3. What are the different styles in conducting/performing in orchestra during rehearsal?
4. How do different styles of music (classical, contemporary, romantic, etc.) affect the rehears-
als’ organisation?
5. How do you change your conducting/performing style during rehearsals in relation to dif-
ferent orchestras?
6. What are the rehearsals’ functions in relation to the aims and the method in which the work
is organised?
7. What kind of musical abilities are you using when you are conducting/performing in an
orchestra?
8. What kind of differences are there between individual study and orchestral study?

View publication stats