Chapter 1 – Brain Basics

1. Nerve center of human body is called __________

2. The largest part of the human brain is called______
3. The largest part of the human brain and It is divided into two large, separate hemispheres, one on the left side,
the other on the right.
4. The hemispheres are connected by bundles of nerve fibers that carry information from one side of your brain to
the other. The largest of these bundles forms a bridge between the cerebral hemispheres and is called the
_________
5. The surface of the cerebrum is a deeply folded layer of nerve tissue called the _______
6. _______ deep folds increase the area of the _________, creating space in this surface layer for more neurons,
which increase the brain’s processing power
7. Neuroscientists use the deepest divisions of the ______to identify regions of each hemisphere as separate lobes
— distinct regions that have characteristic functions
8. The ________ lobes are at the front of the brain, immediately above the eyes.
9. Which lobe coordinate voluntary movements and speech, memory and emotion, higher cognitive skills like
planning and problem-solving, and many aspects of personality?
10. Which lobe coordinate voluntary movements and speech
11. Which lobe coordinate memory and emotion
12. Which lobe coordinate higher cognitive skills like planning and problem-solving
13. Which lobe coordinate many aspects of personality
14. The _______ lobes are located at the top of the brain, immediately behind the frontal lobes
15. Which lobe integrate sensory signals from the skin, process taste, and process some types of visual information.
16. Which lobe integrate sensory signals from the skin, process taste?
17. Which lobe integrate sensory signals and process some types of visual information.
18. The back of the brain houses the _____ lobes.
19. which lobe process visual information and are responsible for recognizing colors and shapes and integrating
them into complex visual understanding.
20. The ______ lobes lie on the sides of the brain, at and below the level of the eyes.
21. Which lobe carry out some visual processing and interpret auditory information.
22. Which lobe interpret auditory information
23. Which lobe carry out some visual processing?
24. The _________ consists of curved structures lying beneath the cerebral cortex
25. The hippocampus consists of curved structures lying beneath the _______
26. _________ is a region of the temporal lobes that encodes new memories.
27. Hippocampus is a region of the _______lobes that encodes new memories. (
28. Another deep structure within each temporal lobe, the______, integrates memory and emotion
29. Another deep structure within each ______lobe, the amygdala, integrates memory and emotion.
30. The hippocampus and amygdala are part of the_________, a group of structures deep within the brain that help
regulate our emotion and motivation.
31. The _________ and _____ are part of the limbic system, a group of structures deep within the brain that help
regulate our emotion and motivation.
32. Limbic system includes the_______, which integrates sensory information and relays it to other parts of the
brain
33. ______ system include the thalamus, which integrates sensory information and relays it to other parts of the
brain
34. Limbic system includes the_______, which sends hormonal signals to the rest of the body through the pituitary
gland.

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35. Limbic system includes the hypothalamus, which sends hormonal signals to the rest of the body through the
__________
36. Which structures, together with the cerebral cortex, make up the forebrain.
37. Limbic system includes structures hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus. Pituitary gland together
with the cerebral cortex, make up the _____
38. The _______ sits beneath the thalamus.
39. The midbrain sits beneath the ______.
40. Which part of the brain’s other region sits beneath the thalamus?
41. Which part of the brain’s other region includes distinct groups of neurons that coordinate eye movements like
blinking and focusing
42. Which part of the brain’s other region includes distinct groups of neurons that trigger reflexes to sounds.
43. Which part of the brain triggers the example - startled jump when you are surprised by a loud noise
44. Which part of the brain’s other regions inhibit unwanted body movements?
45. Which part of the brain’s other regions help coordinate sensory input and motor output to manage the fine
motor control that enables you to write with a pen or play a musical instrument.
46. Some of brain regions along with parts of the forebrain form a collection of structures called _____
47. ________ helps regulate complex body movements.
48. Which part of brain’s other region plays roles in glucose regulation and sleep and includes several regions that
help control movement.
49. Which part of brain’s other region plays roles in glucose regulation and sleep
50. Which part of brain’s other region includes several regions that help control movement.
51. ______ tucked underneath the occipital lobe at the very back of the brain, is the second-largest part of the brain
in volume, containing over half the brain’s neurons.
52. ______ tucked underneath the occipital lobe at the very back of the brain
53. ______ is the second-largest part of the brain in volume, containing over half the brain’s neurons.
54. _______ is deeply folded, divided into two hemispheres, and carries out a variety of functions.
55. _________ coordinates voluntary movements and helps the brain learn new motor skills
56. _________ has roles in spatial and temporal perception.
57. A patient with ______ damage might have a jerky, arrhythmic gait or might be unable to accurately touch his
finger to his nose.
58. Below the cerebellum is the______, which influences breathing and posture
59. _______ influences breathing and posture
60. Another part of the hindbrain, the________, carries nerve pathways connecting the brain to the spinal cord and
contains neural networks that help control basic functions like swallowing, heart rate, and breathing.
61. Another part of the hindbrain, the________, carries nerve pathways connecting the brain to the spinal cord
62. Another part of the hindbrain, the________, contains neural networks that help control basic functions like
swallowing, heart rate, and breathing.
63. ________ carries nerve pathways connecting the brain to the spinal cord and contains neural networks that help
control basic functions like swallowing, heart rate, and breathing.
64. ________ carries nerve pathways connecting the brain to the spinal cord
65. ________ contains neural networks that help control basic functions like swallowing, heart rate, and breathing.
66. Together, the midbrain, pons, and medulla make up the_______.
67. Brainstem includes ______, _____, _____
68. Complex human brain evolved from a _____
69. In early vertebrates, the “brain” end of the nerve cord developed three distinct bulges as neurons were added,
improving processing in sensory and motor reflex regions. These bulges became ______, ____, _____
70. The _________ appeared as the hindbrain and expanded the regions that control escape movements and orient
the body in space. Both these functions are far more important to an actively swimming fish than to a sedentary
lancelet buried in the sand.

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71. Regions that could rapidly process visual and auditory information and trigger appropriate escape, feeding, or
mating behaviors also expanded in vertebrates. Over time, those new types of neurons made the forebrain
balloon out, forming the ________
72. When the nerve fibers of region-spanning neurons form distinct bundles, these are called _______
73. Examples of major nerve tracts include the ________, ________
74. Examples of major nerve tracts include the _______ thick bundle of neurons connecting your left and right
cerebral hemispheres) and the _______ that transmits signals between the left and right temporal lobes.
75. A group of nerve tracts connecting a series of regions in the brain is called a ______
76. ______ route signals through the brain along a linear pathway, analyzing and organizing different types of
information within fractions of a second.
77. Neurons in the ______ lobe recognize and identify objects
78. Neurons in the ______ lobe detect the spatial location of those objects
79. Your brain turns a panoply of moving shapes into recognizable characters and scenery. The process begins
with_______, cells in the _____ that trigger electrical signals in response to specific wavelengths of light. Once
those signals reach the _____, they travel through the _______ to the ______, where neurons respond to the
shape, color, or movement of objects on the screen and pass their signals to the _______ in the ________ lobe,
at the back of the brain. Neurons in the primary visual cortex, in turn, detect the edges of objects within the field
of vision and integrate the signals from each eye, creating a three-dimensional representation of the outside
world. The image is even further refined as signals are sent down two parallel processing streams. In one
stream, neurons in the temporal lobe recognize and identify objects; in the other, neurons in the ________ lobe
detect the spatial location of those objects. And that is only the visual input from the film.
80. Watching movie process begins with______, cells in the ____ that trigger electrical signals in response to
specific wavelengths of light
81. Cells in the retina that trigger electrical signals in response to specific wavelengths of light. these signals reach
the ______ they travel through the _______to the_______, where neurons respond to the shape, color, or
movement of objects on the screen and pass their signals to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe, at the
back of the brain
82. Neurons in the _______ lobe detect the spatial location of those objects
83. Visual cortex also sends signals back to the thalamus to become integrated with other sensory information; this
is an example of a _________ two-way circuit that connects the thalamus with parts of the cortex and back.
(thalamocortical loop)
84. Two-way circuit that connects the thalamus with parts of the cortex and back is called ________
85. As neuronal signals loop through the thalamus and cortex, they produce rhythmic, oscillating, electrical patterns
that can be detected with an electroencephalograph (EEG). These signals are commonly called _____
86. As neuronal signals loop through the thalamus and cortex, they produce rhythmic, oscillating, electrical patterns
that can be detected with an ________. These signals are commonly called
87. electroencephalograph
88. There are four distinct types of brain waves, each recognized by its characteristic shape on an EEG display or
printout. What are they?
89. Your awake brain typically produces waves called ____
90. _______ waves originate mainly in the parietal and occipital lobes when your brain is relaxed, and eyes are
closed and are characterized by frequencies between 8 and 13 Hz.
91. Alpha waves originate mainly in the ______ and ______ lobes when your brain is relaxed, and eyes are closed
and are characterized by frequencies between 8 and 13 Hz.
92. Alpha waves originate mainly in the parietal and occipital lobes when your brain is relaxed, and eyes are closed
and are characterized by frequencies between______.
93. The _____ is a measure of frequency
94. The hertz is a measure of ______
95. 1 Hz = ___ per second.

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96. Beta waves are somewhat faster, with frequencies ranging from _______
97. _____ waves are somewhat faster, with frequencies ranging from 14 to 30 Hz
98. Beta waves are typically produced by the _____ and _______ regions of your brain when it processes sensory
input or concentrates on a task.
99. Theta waves and delta waves are typical of ______
100. ______ waves and _____ waves are typical of sleep
101. Theta waves and delta waves are typical of _____
102. _______ waves are slower than alpha waves
103. ______ waves ranging from 4 to 7 Hz
103. Theta waves ranging from __ Hz
104. Theta waves are slower than _______ waves
105. _______ waves which occur during deep sleep
106. _______ waves which occur during deep sleep are very slow, with frequencies less than 3.5 Hz
107. Delta waves which occur during deep sleep are very slow, with frequencies less than ______ Hz
108. _____ and _____ waves are typically of higher amplitude (stronger) than beta or theta waves
109. Alpha and delta waves are typically of higher amplitude (stronger) than beta or theta waves but, when
measured with electrodes on your scalp, all these signals are in the microvolt range: _____ for alpha and delta
waves, and _______ for beta and theta waves. (20–200 μV, 5-10 μV).
110. Alpha and delta waves are typically of higher amplitude (stronger) than beta or theta waves but, when
measured with electrodes on your scalp, all these signals are in the microvolt range: 20–200 μV for ________ and
_______ waves and 5-10 μV for ______ waves.
111. Your brain and spinal cord contain many distinct neural networks which include_______ that chains of neurons
that pass signals through the brainstem and the spinal cord.
112. _________ are chains of neurons that pass signals through the brainstem and the spinal cord.
113. Spinal tracts are chains of neurons that pass signals through the ______ and ______ (brainstem, spinal cord.)
114. Signals travel upward from sensory receptors in ____ and ______ to the _____ and parts of the _____that
interpret touch and pressure; or they travel downward from brain regions that induce movement, passing through the
_______ and spinal cord before projecting to the body’s muscles. Other neural networks provide feedback that helps
integrate ______ and motor signals.
115. ______ are part of a feedback loop that takes information from _____ areas that elicit movement and produces
signals that feed back to the _______ to excite or inhibit specific movements.
116. Loops that connect the _______ and the _________ influence the timing and strength of motor signals; some of
these loops incorporate tracts from the ______ that enable environmental and emotional context to influence your
body’s movements.
117. Loops that connect the brainstem and cerebellum influence _____ and ________ of motor signals.
118. Loops that incorporates tracts from cerebral cortex will enable _____ and _______ to influence your body’s
movements.
119. Networks that loop the hippocampus into sensory cortex pathways help your brain analyze whether ______
signals are familiar or are part of a new situation.
120. Networks that loop the ________ into _____ pathways help your brain analyze whether environmental signals
are familiar or are part of a new situation
121. Related networks linking the ________ to the _______ and _______ allow your memory to influence conscious
behavior as well as unconscious physiological responses.
122. Related networks linking the hippocampus to the thalamus and hypothalamus allow your memory to influence
_______ as well as ________ responses.
123. ____ loops are circuits eliciting action well before thoughts; these actions are controlled locally by information
going in and out of the spinal cord or subcortical regions of the brain, and never reach the cortex.
124. Reflex loops are circuits eliciting action well before thoughts; these actions are controlled locally by
information going in and out of the ________ or ________ regions of the brain, and never reach the______.

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125. _______ is packed with neural circuits
126. ________ are arranged in columns, as each neuron forms connections with cells in the layers above and below
127. Individual neurons are either _______ or ______
128. 80% majority of neurons in brain are_____ sending signals that push their neighbors toward firing.
129. ______ neurons send signals that push their neighbors toward firing.
130. In many parts of the cerebral cortex, the most common type of excitatory neuron is the ______ cell, named for
its cone-shaped cell body
131. Most common type of excitatory neuron is ________
132. Each _______ has two sets of branched dendrites — one set at the apex and another set of shorter dendrites at
the base — that collect signals from neurons in every layer of the cortex
133. Each pyramidal cell has two sets of branched______ one set at the ______ and another set at the______ that
collect signals from neurons in every layer of the cortex
134. A multi-branched _______ sends a single electrical signal to multiple destinations.
135. The 20 percent of brain’s neurons that are _____ send signals that suppress the activity of neighboring neurons
and regulate the activity of a circuit
136. ________ signals that suppress the activity of neighboring neurons and regulate the activity of a circuit
137. Every neural circuit contains both _______ and _______ neurons
138. Neurons that pass signals forward through a circuit and eventually send outputs to other parts of the brain tend
to be__________
139. _______ neurons are typically local and often loop their responses back to earlier segments of a circuit
140. Interplay between excitatory & inhibitory neuron signals in circuit are important in ______, ______, ______
the signals sent to the body and other parts of the brain.
141. Seizure disorders like _____ could be caused by imbalances in the activity of excitatory and inhibitory neurons
142. In a _______ circuit, inhibitory interneurons connect neighboring neural circuits in such a way that excitatory
signals in one column simultaneously send inhibitory signals to adjacent columns, reducing their activity
143. In______, however, neurons send signals to their downstream excitatory neighbors and to interneurons that
reach back and inhibit preceding layers of the same circuit
144. _________ and ______ of recurrent neural networks, in which neurons inside interconnected circuits send
feedback signals to one another. (feed-forward inhibitory, feedback inhibition)
145. The functional unit of neural circuits and networks is the ________, a specialized cell that can transmit
electrical signals to other nerve cells, muscles, or glands.
146. Neurons come in a broad range of shapes and sizes, but all of them have a _____, _____, _______
147. The cell body, also called the _____, contains the neuron’s nucleus and most of its cytoplasm, along with
molecular machinery for building and transporting proteins critical to the cell’s function
148. ______ are branched projections that extend from the cell body and collect incoming signals from other
neurons.
149. The neuron’s electrical signals travel down its axon, another extension from the cell body that may branch
before ending in______, where the signal is passed across a synapse to other cells.
150. In some neurons, axons are only a fraction of a ____ long; in others, they may extend more than ___
151. Neuroscientists have long believed that glia outnumbers neurons by ____ (or more)
152. However, recent investigations suggest that in some regions of the brains of humans and other primates, that
ratio is closer to ___
153. The central nervous system contains four main types of glial cells: _____, _____, ____, ____
154. ______ form a network inside the brain that regulates ion concentrations around neurons, provides them with
nutrients, and helps regulate the formation of new connections between neurons
155. ______ are the main “immune cells” of the brain. They function mainly as_____ helping protect the brain from
infections and cellular damage — but can also regulate the formation of new neuronal connections
156. _____ cells make the cerebrospinal fluid that cushions the brain inside the skull
157. ______ improve neuron function by wrapping axons in a fatty sheath called _____

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158. Ions are electrically charged atoms that can only cross a neuron’s cell membrane through tunnel-like proteins
called ____
159. _____ tunnel-like proteins act like gates, allowing some ions to enter or leave the cell, but keeping others out
160. Ions that enter or leave the cell change the voltage difference across the membrane. This change in voltage
influences the neuron’s likelihood of generating an _______
161. In mammals, the voltage difference across the membrane of a resting neuron is around ____ millivolts (mV),
more negative inside the cell than on its outer surface
162. Membrane potential is affected by signals arriving from other neurons in its circuit, which can make the
membrane potential less negative _____ or more negative _____ by opening ion channels in the dendrites
163. If the sum of all the signals at the dendrites rises to match the membrane’s threshold voltage, a series of
voltage-sensitive ion channels opens automatically, triggering an electrical impulse called an ______, which moves
down the axon towards the next neuron in the circuit.
164. Signals are passed from one neuron to the next at junctions called _______
165. In most circuits, a synapse includes the end of an axon, the dendrite of an adjacent neuron, and a space between
the two called the______.
166. In most circuits, a synapse includes the end of an axon, the dendrite of an adjacent neuron, and a space between
the two called the synaptic cleft. This separation between neurons was only verified by
________ and in ____
167. The cleft is wide enough that electrical signals cannot directly impact the next neuron; rather, chemical signals
called ______ cross the synapse. This process is called ______
168. When an action potential arrives at the axon terminal, the voltage changes triggers ion channels in the
membrane to open, which lets calcium ions flow into the cell. When the calcium ions bind to packages of
neurotransmitter molecules called_____
169. ______ fuse with the cell membrane at the axon terminal and empty their contents into the ______. Afterwards,
pieces of axon terminal membrane cycle back into the soma as new vesicles, which are refilled with
neurotransmitter molecules.
170. Many substances act as neurotransmitters and some of them are ____, ____, ____, _____
171. ______ can synthesize small non-peptides like dopamine or acetylcholine inside the _____
172. Neurons can synthesize small non-peptides like _____ or _____ inside the axon terminal.
173. Axon terminal does not contain the molecular machinery for building proteins, so peptide-based
neurotransmitters are built in the _____ space of the cell body
174. ________ containing neurotransmitter “cargos” bud off from the wall of the _______, the cell’s protein-
packaging organelle, then bind to proteins called _____ that work their way down the axon along microtubules,
filamentous parts of the cellular skeleton.
175. _______ is the cell’s protein-packaging organelle
176. Vesicles containing neurotransmitter “cargos” bud off from the wall of the Golgi apparatus, the cell’s protein-
packaging organelle, then bind to proteins called _____
177. After neurotransmitters are released from an axon terminal, they drift across the synaptic cleft until they reach
the outer surface of the dendrite, a region that looks thick or dense in highly magnified images. This region,
the______, has a high concentration of neurotransmitter receptors.
178. _________, has a high concentration of neurotransmitter receptors
179. After neurotransmitters are released from an ______, they drift across the _____ until they reach the outer
surface of the______, a region that looks thick or dense in highly magnified images. This region, the______, has a
high concentration of neurotransmitter receptors.
180. Many different _____ act as neurotransmitters, and each one fits into specific receptors like a key fits a lock.
181. ______ are linked to ion channels in such a way that, when neurotransmitter molecules dock on their receptors,
they open those neurotransmitter binds directly to part of an ion channel. The channel is normally closed; the
receptor protein changes its shape when the neurotransmitter attaches, widening the tunnel in the center of the ion
channel so that ions can move through

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182. ______ receptors are more complex
183. The _____ and ______ are different proteins located at a distance from one another, but they are linked by a
cascade of biochemical steps that are triggered when a neurotransmitter binds to the receptor. This response is less
rapid and activates a series of events inside the_______. The result may be opening an ion channel some distance
away or activating other intracellular molecules
184. Neurotransmitter molecules only bind to their receptors for a short time. Once they detach, the ion channels
return to their resting state and stop altering the charge across their membrane. The neurotransmitters are either
broken down or reabsorbed by the axon terminal in a process called________
185. The neurotransmitters are either broken down or reabsorbed by the axon terminal in a process called________
186. Excitatory neurons make neurotransmitters that open ion channels that ____ the dendrite’s membrane
187. inhibitory neurons make neurotransmitters that _______ it
188. ______ neurons make neurotransmitters that open ion channels that depolarize the dendrite’s membrane
189. ____ neurons make neurotransmitters that hyperpolarize it.
190. The brain’s most common excitatory neurotransmitter is _____
191. The brain’s most common inhibitory neurotransmitter is _____
192. _____ is an amino acid used as a neurotransmitter by approximately half the excitatory synapses in the brain. It
can bind to several types of ionotropic receptors
193. Glutamate is an amino acid used as a neurotransmitter by approximately half the excitatory synapses in the
brain. It can bind to several types of ______ receptors
194. the most important of ionotropic receptors are _____ receptors and ____ receptors
195. When activated, the action of ______ receptors are fast and brief; _______ receptors activate more slowly,
particularly in response to waves of multiple action potentials
196. Interactions between ___ and ____ receptors appear to be important in learning and memory
197. _______ is the brain’s most important inhibitory neurotransmitter
198. _____ binds to two groups of receptors; one group is ionotropic, the other metabotropic
199. GABA binds to two groups of receptors; one group is______, the other _____
200. _______ GABA receptors open ion channels that release _____ ions. In both instances, ion movement pushes
membrane potential downward and inhibits a neuron from firing.
201. Neurons have receptors for many molecules that can change the way they function. These molecules
include____, which send the brain specific cues about the condition and activity of distant tissues in the body
202. _____ which send the brain specific cues about the condition and activity of distant tissues in the body
203. neuromodulators such as the _____, _____ like chemicals that seem to suppress neurotransmitter release
204. endocannabinoids, cannabis is ____
205. ______ are small lipids that change the brain’s response (increasing pain sensitivity) to pain and inflammation
206. If a molecule can diffuse through the cell membrane, as occurs with steroid hormones like_____, or ____, its
receptor might be a protein inside the neuron’s soma
207. estradiol or cortisol are ___
208. If a molecule can diffuse through the cell membrane — as occurs with steroid hormones like estradiol or
cortisol — its receptor might be a protein inside the neuron’s ____
209. When the hormone binds to its receptor, the complex can transform into a _______ that is capable of entering
the cell nucleus, binding to specific genes, and changing their activity.
210. Examples of hormones ____, ____, ____
211. Differences among your neurons result from differences in which genes direct cellular activities, a process
called ____
212. The mechanisms causing neurons to express some genes and not others are currently an area of intense
research. Many of these mechanisms depend on chemical changes to_____, the complex of protein and DNA that
compactly packages the long DNA molecule inside the nucleus.
213. ____ is the complex of protein and DNA that compactly packages the long DNA molecule inside the
nucleus

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214. ______, or ______reflect differences in the nucleotide sequences that make up a gene
215. ______ is a disease which is fatal degenerative neurological condition, is caused by mutations in a gene
that codes for part of a fat-metabolizing enzyme called beta-hexosaminidase A
216. Tay-Sachs is a disease which is fatal degenerative neurological condition, is caused by mutations in a gene
that codes for part of a fat-metabolizing enzyme called ____