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Constitutional Bodies in India
Constitutional Bodies in India
BODIES IN INDIA
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Constitutional body is the body that has its He is not a full time officer of the House, nor is
name mentioned in Indian Constitution. It derives he a member of a Cabinet, he is not barred from
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power directly from the Constitution. Any type of private practice except that he cannot advice or
hold briefs against the Government of India. He
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change in mechanism of this body needs
constitutional anedment. Example: UPSC, Finance should not defend accused persons for criminal
Commission, National Commission for SC/ST, etc. prosecution without the permissions of the
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Government of India. He is entitled to all privileges
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Immunities given to Constitutional bodies and immunities as a Member of the Parliament.
The Attorney General of India is assisted by two
1. They can be removed: only on proved Solicitor General and four assistant Solicitor
misbehavior. General.
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2. Their salary, powers and rights are mentioned The Attorney General is not paid salary but a
in the Constitution itself-and parliament can't retainer that is determined by the President. The
reduce it once they're appointed. It's charged retainer of the Attorney General of India is equal
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on the Consolidated Fund of India i.e. to the salary of a judge of the Supreme Court. As
Parliament can't vote on it during budget. a convention, after the change of the Government,
However, the salary can be reduced if President the Attorney General resigns and the new
declares a financial emergency. Government appoint a new Attorney General of
Such immunities are not enjoyed by statutory its own choice. The Attorney General holds office
bodies. during the pleasure of the President and receives
The constitutional bodies are discussed below: remuneration as determined by the President.
Chief Law Officer of the Government. The Attorney the Indian Audit and Account Department. At both
General of India advises the Government of India Central and State level the Comptroller and Auditor
on any legal matter. He performs any legal duties General of India controls the entire financial system
assigned to him by the President of India. He of the country.
discharges any functions conferred to him by the
Constitution or the President. Appointment of CAG
In the performance of his duties, the Attorney
General of India has right of audience in all courts The Comptroller and Auditor General of India
in the territory of India. The Attorney General is appointed by the President of India for a full
represents the Union and the States before the term of 6 years or 65 years of age whichever comes
Courts but is also allowed to take up private practice earlier. By writing a resignation letter to the
provided; the other party is not the State. He is not President, the Comptroller and Auditor General can
a member of the either House of the Parliament. resign at any time. The President can remove him
Still he enjoys the right to attend and speak in the from his past on the same ground and in the same
parliamentary deliberations and meetings (of both manner as a judge of the Supreme Court of India.
the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha), without a He can be removed by the President on the basis of
right to vote.
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a resolution passed in the both Houses of the responsibility for any action done by CAG. The
Parliament with special majority, either on the Comptroller and Auditor General of India is not
ground of proved misbehavior or incapacity. represented by any minister in the Parliament.
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The Parliament enacted the CAG's Act, 1971 Each State shall have an Advocate-General for
(duties, powers and conditions of service). This Act the State, an official corresponding to the Attorney-
was amended in 1976 to separate accounts from General of India, and having similar functions for
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audit in the Central Government. CAG audits the the State. He shall be appointed by the Governor
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accounts related to all expenditure from the of the State and shall hold office during the
Consolidated Fund of India, consolidated fund of pleasure of the Governor. Only a person who is
each state and consolidated fund of each union qualified to be a Judge of a High Court can be
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territory having Legislative Assembly. appointed Advocate-General. [Art. 165 (1)]
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He audits all expenditure from the Contingency It is the duty of the Advocate-General to give
Fund of India and the Public Account of India in advice to the Government of the State upon such
both Central and State level. He audits the receipts legal matters, and to perform such other duties of
and expenditure of all bodies and authorities a legal character, as may from time to time be
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substantially financed from the Central or State
revenues, Government companies and other
referred to him by the Governor, and to discharge
the functions conferred on him by this Constitution
corporations and bodies when so required by related or any other law for the time being in force.
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laws.
The Advocate-General shall hold office during
He advices the President with regard to the the pleasure of the Governor, and shall receive such
prescription of the form in which the accounts of remuneration as the Governor may determine. He
the center and the states shall be kept. He submits shall have the right to speak and to take part in
his audit reports relating to the accounts of the the proceedings of, but no right to vote in the
Center to President and relating to the accounts of Houses of the Legislature of the State.
a state to the Governor.
He audits all transactions of the Central and FINANCE COMMISSION
State governments related to debt, sinking funds,
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deposits, advances, suspense accounts and Although the Constitution has made an effort
remittance business. He audits the accounts of any to allocate every possible source of revenue either
other authority also on a request of President or to the Union or the States, but this allocation is
Governor. CAG acts as a guide, friend and quite broad based. For the purpose of allocation of
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philosopher of the Public Accounts Committee of certain sources of revenue, between the Union and
the Parliament. the State Governments, the Constitution provides
for the establishment of a Finance Commission
under Article 280. According to the Constitution,
Immunities enjoyed by the CAG
the President of India is authorized to set up a
Finance Commission every five years to make
CAG is appointed by the President, but he does
recommendation regarding distribution of financial
not hold office in accordance with Presidents'
resources between the Union and the States.
pleasure. However the President can remove him
after a resolution to this effect is passed by both
the Houses of the Parliament. Once, CAG ceases to Constitution
hold his office, he become ineligible for further
office. Finance Commission is to be constituted by the
President every 5 years. The Chairman must be a
The Parliament determines his salary and other person having 'experience in public affairs'. Other
service conditions. four members must be appointed from amongst
the following:-
The administrative expense of the office of CAG
is charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India. 1. A High Court Judge or one qualified to be
No minister can be called upon to take any appointed as High Court Judge;
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2. A person having knowledge of the finances the discretionary grants are also regulated by the
and accounts of the Government; Finance Ministry and the Planning Commission and
3. A person having work experience in the Finance Commission hardly play any role in
financial matters and administration; this respect.
4. A person having special knowledge of
economics. INTER-STATE COUNCILS
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Under Article 263 of the Constitution the
Functions
President is empowered to establish an inter-State
Council, at any time, if he satisfies that public
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The Finance Commission recommends to the
interest would be served thereby. Constitution
President as to:-
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outlines the duties and responsibilities of this
● the distribution between the Union and the Commission. These are:-
States of the net proceeds of taxes to be divided
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● To inquiry into and advising upon disputes
between them and the allocation between the which may have arisen between States
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States of respective shares of such proceeds;
● To investigate and discuss subject of common
● the principles which should govern the grants- interest between the Union and the States or
in-aid of the revenue of the States out of the between two or more States
Consolidated Fund of India; To make recommendation for co-ordination of
●
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the measures needed to augment the
●
policy and action relating to such subject
Consolidated Fund of a State to supplement
In exercise of this power the President has
the resources of the Panchayats and
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established a Central Council of Health, a Central
Municipalities in the State;
Council of Local Self-Government, and a Transport
● any other matter referred to the Commission Development Council.
by the President in the interest of sound finance.
However, the Sarkaria Commission on Center-
State relation has recommended the constitution of
Assessment of Finance Commission
a permanent Inter-State Council. Such a council
was set up in 1990 consisting six Union Cabinet
Ever since the inauguration of the Constitution,
Ministers and the Chief Ministers of all States. Prime
thirteen such Commissions have been set up. Year
Minister is the chairman of this council.
after year the terms of reference have been made
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of Finance Commissions. Further, the Union known as Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
Government has mostly accepted the and for the States it is known as State Public Service
recommendations of the Finance Commissions. Commission (SPSC). There is a provision for a joint
However, it has been alleged by critics that the SPSC for two or more states if the state legislatures
role assigned to the Finance Commission has been of the concerned states pass a resolution to this
greatly undermined to the creation of the Planning effect and acting on it Parliament enacts a law in
Commission which has tended to play increasing this regard.
role in determining the transfer of funds to the A Public Service Commission consists of a
states. According to a study, between 1951-74 more Chairman and a number of members. The number
funds were transferred to the states through the of members and the conditions of service shall be
Planning Commission and the Finance Ministry determined in the case of UPSC or a Joint
than the Finance Commission. Generally, the Commission by the President and in the case of a
Finance Commission is only required to plug the state PSC by the Governor. The conditions of service
non-development budgetary gaps in the finances of a member of a Commission shall not be varied
of the States only, while the plan outlays are to his disadvantage during his term of office (Art.
determined by the Planning Commission. Similarly 318).
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Appointment, term of office, etc: ● The member is adjudged an insolvent,
● The member engages in some other employment
The Chairman and members of the UPSC or a while in office,
Joint Commission are appointed by the President ● The member is unfit to continue in office by
while those of a State Commission are appointed reason of infirmity of mind or body.
by the Governor of the State. No qualifications are
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prescribed for being a member or chairman. The Whether the infirmity incapacitates the member
Constitution does not prescribe the number of from discharging his duties is for the President to
members of a Commission. But it is laid down in determine. Blindness may not cause such infirmity
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Art. 316 that at least half of the members of every in all cases.
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Commission shall be persons who have held office
under the Government of India or of a state for 10 Independence of UPSC and PSC members:
years. Under this clause officers belonging to IAS,
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IPS, IFS, and other Central Services serving the The Constitution seeks to maintain the
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Union and officers of the armed forces who have independence of members through the following
retired or are on the verge of superannuation's are provisions:
appointed members. This is to ensure that persons ● The Chairman and members do not hold office
who have a first hand experience of government
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service guide the policies to be adopted by the
● A member may be removed only by the
Commission. They are in a better position to
President and that too on the grounds and in
understand the needs of the government and the
the manner provided in the Constitution.
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qualities required of a candidate. Generally the
seniormost member is appointed as Chairman ● The conditions of service of a member shall not
though it is not a legal requirement. be varied to his disadvantage after his
appointment.
A member of a Commission holds office for a ● The expenses of the Commission are charged
term of 6 years from the date he enters upon his on the Consolidated Fund of India or of the
office or until he attains the age of 65 years in the State.
case of UPSC and 62 years in the case of a State
● A member on the expiration of his term is
Commission or a Joint Commission.
ineligible for reappointment.
Resignation: ● A member is prohibited from taking
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Article 320 lays down the function of a Public both for the state legislatures as well as for
Service Commission. Article 321 provides that the Parliament through exercising their right to vote
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Parliament or the legislature of a state may add to during periodic elections. Thus the success of
the list of functions. The functions are of two types: democracy depends on successful election
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(a) duties (b) advisory functions. mechanism. For a healthy and functioning
Duties: democracy it is essential that there is an
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independent institution to conduct and supervise
The duties of a Public Service Commission
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the election procedure. Realizing this importance,
enumerated in Art. 320 are:
the Constitution has provided for an independent
● To conduct examinations for appointment to Election Commission.
the services of the union and the services of the
State (in case of a State PSC).
●
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It is the duty of the UPSC if requested by two
Composition of the Election Commission:
or more States to assist those States in framing Art 324 provides for a Chief Election
and operating schemes of joint recruitment for
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Commissioner to be appointed by the President.
any Services requiring special qualifications. He can also appoint any number of Election
Commissioners. Since 1993, the Election
Advisory functions: Commission consists of a Chief Election
Commissioner and two Election Commissioners. If
A Commission has many advisory functions. the Election Commission is a multi-member body
It must be consulted then the Chief Election Commissioner acts as the
Chairman of the Election Commission. The decisions
● On all matters relating to method of recruitment are arrived at by either consensus or majority in a
to civil services and civil posts. multi-member Election Commission. There is a
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● On all disciplinary matter affecting a person in consultation with the Election Commission.
under the government (Central or State) in a
civil capacity. This includes memorandums and Removal of the CEC and Election
petitions relating to such matters. Commissioners:
● On any claim by or in respect of a person in
service under the government (Central or State) The CEC can be removed only on the same
that any costs incurred by him in defending grounds and in the same manner as a judge of the
any proceeding instituted against him for acts Supreme Court. An Election Commissioner or a
done in the execution of his duty should be Regional Commissioner can be removed by the
paid by the government. President only on the recommendation of the Chief
● On any claims of the award of a pension in Election Commissioner.
respect of injuries sustained by a person while
in government service in a civil service in a Functions of the Election Commission:
civil capacity.
The UPSC submits its annual report to the The Election Commission superintends, directs
President which is laid before Parliament. Similarly, and controls the elections to Parliament, State
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Legislatures and Union Territories, Presidential and of mind, conviction for crime, corrupt practice, at
Vice-Presidential elections. In this regard, it an election etc. They are contained in the
performs the following functions: Representation of People Act.
(a) Preparation of electoral rolls.
(b) Conduct of elections. Powers of legislatures with respect to
elections (Arts. 327 & 328):
(c) Counting of votes and declaration of results.
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(d) To advise the President in regard to the question The Parliament has the power to make laws
whether a Member of Parliament (Art. 103) or regarding all aspects of elections (Art. 327). The
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a State Legislature has become subject to any state legislature has a subordinate role. It can enact
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disqualification (Art. 192). a law in respect of election to state legislature only
(e) To advice the President in the appointment of to the extent that Parliament has not made any
Regional Commissioner. provisions. In other words it can supplement
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parliamentary legislation (Art. 328).
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The Constitution contains a bare outline of the
law of election and the powers and functions of Parliament has enacted the Representation of
the Election Commission. The detailed provisions People Act of 1950 and 1951 and the Delimitation
are contained in the following Acts: Commission Acts of 1962 and 1972 under this
provision.
●
●
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Act, 1950.
The Representation of People Act, 1950. Independence of the Election Commission:
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● The Representation of People Act, 1951.
The role of the Election Commission is pivotal.
● The Delimitation Act, 1972. Impartiality of elections is vitally linked to the
independence of the Commission. Other provisions
Secular basis for electoral rolls (Art. 326): dealing with CEC and Election Commissioners are
dealt within the Chief Election Commissioner and
The provisions discussed below are of general other Election Commissioners (conditions of service),
applications and apply to elections to the Act.
Parliament and the state legislatures.
For every territorial constituency there will be Election disputes (Art. 329):
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from more than one constituency at a time.
● Exit Polls and Opinion Polls: Various agencies conduct opinion polls prior to the poll on the likely
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voting pattern and publish the result of such surveys through different media. Similarly, on the date
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of poll, actual result of the election is sought to be predicted on the basis of Exit Polls. Such polls may
influence the voting pattern in the subsequent phases. The Opinion Polls and publishing results thereof,
should not be allowed from the day of issue of statutory notification calling the election and till the
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completion of the poll. The result of Exit Polls should not be allowed to be published until the completion
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of the poll in the last phase.
● During the election period, the name and address of the publisher should be given along with the
matter/advertisement in the print media. No surrogate advertisements should be allowed.
● Negative voting: In the ballot paper, there shall be a column "None of the above," to enable a voter
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to reject all the candidates, if he chooses so.
● Compulsory maintenance of accounts by political parties and audit thereof by agencies specified by the
Election Commission. The political parties must be required to publish their account annually for
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information and scrutiny of the general public.
● Government sponsored advertisements where any general election is due on the expiration of the term
of the House, advertisements of achievements of the governments, either Central or State, in any
manner, should be prohibited for a period of six months prior to the date of expiry of the term of the
House and in case of premature dissolution, the date of dissolution of the House. However,
advertisements/dissemination of information of poverty alleviation and health related schemes could be
exempted from the purview of such a ban.
● Ban on transfer of election officers on the eve of elections: No transfer shall be made, without the
concurrence of the Commission, of any Election Officer as soon as a general election/by-election becomes
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OFFICIAL LANGUAGE COMMISSION (e) Any other matter that may be referred to the
Commission by the President.
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Article 344 states that at the expiration of 5 The Official Language Commission constituted
years form the commencement of this Constitution in 1955 felt that the Central Government should
and later after 10 years from such commencement take concrete steps for its employees to learn and
the President shall appoint a commission. The become proficient in Hindi. Under opposition from
Commission will consist of a chairman and various groups, it was decided to replace English
members representing different languages specified by Hindi progressively and not suddenly.
in the 8th Schedule.
The duties of the commission will be to make NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR
recommendations to the president as to- SCHEDULED CASTES
(a) The progressive use of the Hindi language
The National Commission for Scheduled Castes,
(b) Restrictions on the use of English language
a Constitutional body monitors the safeguards
(c) The language to be used for the purposes provided for Scheduled Castes and also reviews
mentioned in Art. 348 issues concerning their welfare.
(d) The form of numerals
The SCs constitute 16.23% of India's population
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spread all over the country, with 80% of them living NATIONAL COMMISSION ON
in the rural areas. They constitute more than a SCHEDULED TRIBES
fifth of the population of UP, Punjab, Himachal
Pradesh and West Bengal. Punjab has the highest The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
proportion of SCs to the State population. More was first formed by the Government of India in
than half of the SC population is concentrated in 1978 as a Non-statutory Multi-Member
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the five States of Uttar Pradesh (35.1 million), west Commission. Initially, the Commission was set up
Bengal (18.4 million), Tamil Nadu (11.8 million), through a resolution for both the Scheduled Castes
Andhra Pradesh (12.3 million) and Bihar (13.0 and Scheduled Tribes. In the year 1987, the
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million). Government of India re-structured the duties of
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Due to their social disability and economic the Commission by authorizing it to advice on the
backwardness, they were grossly handicapped in Broad Policy Issues and Levels of Development of
SCs and STs. The National Commission for
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getting reasonable share in elected offices,
Government jobs and educational institutions and, Scheduled Tribes (NCST) was established by
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therefore, it was considered necessary to follow a amending Article 338 and inserting a new Article
policy of reservations in their favour to ensure their 338A in the Constitution through the Constitution
equitable participation in governance. (89th Amendment) Act, 2003. By this amendment,
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Castes and Scheduled Tribes was replaced by two
Functions and duties of the commission are:
separate Commissions namely- (i) the National
a) To investigate and monitor all matters relating Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC), and (ii)
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to the safeguards provided for the Scheduled the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes
Castes under this Constitution or under any (NCST) in 2004.
other law for the time being in force or under Scheduled Tribes live in contiguous areas unlike
any order of the Government and to evaluate other communities. It is, therefore, much simpler
the working of such safeguard; to have an area-approach for development activities
b) To inquire into specific complaints with respect and also regulatory provisions to protect their
to the deprivation of rights and safeguards of interests. In order to protect the interests of
the Scheduled Castes; Scheduled Tribes with regard to land alienation
c) To participate and advise on the planning and other social factors, provisions of "Fifth
Schedule" and "Sixth Schedule" have been
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been introduced by Article 323-A which provides
The term Scheduled Tribes is defined in the for exclusion of the jurisdiction of the High Courts
Constitution of India under Article 366(25) as such
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under Articles 226 and 227, notwithstanding any
tribes or tribal communities or parts of groups other provisions in the Constitution. The object of
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within such tribes or tribal communities as are this experiment is to lessen the backlog of cases
deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes pending before the High Courts and to provide an
for the purposes of this Constitution.
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expert and expeditious forum for disposal of
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According to the Article 342(1), the President disputes of Government servants relating to service
may, with respect to any State or Union Territory, matters.
and where it is State, after consultation with the
Governor thereof, notifies tribes or tribal Administrative Tribunals were established at
communities or parts thereof as Scheduled Tribes. Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta and Allahabad. Today,
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This confers on the tribe or part of it a Constitutional there are 17 Benches of the Tribunal located
status invoking the safeguards provided for in the throughout the country wherever the seat of a High
Constitution, to these communities in their Court is located, with 33 Division Benches. In
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respective States/UTs. addition, circuit sittings are held at Nagpur, Goa,
Aurangabad, Jammu, Shimla, Indore, Gwalior,
Thus only those communities who have been
declared as such by the President through an initial Bilaspur, Ranchi, Pondicherry, Gangtok, Port Blair,
public notification will be considered as Scheduled Shillong, Agartala, Kohima, Imphal, Itanagar,
Tribes. Parliament may, by law, include in or Aizwal and Nainital.
exclude from the list of Scheduled Tribes, any tribe
or tribal community or parts of thereof. The list of Constitution of CAT
Scheduled Tribes is State-specific. In other words,
a community declared as Scheduled Tribe in one ● A Chairman who has been a sitting or retired
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State need not be so in another State. Judge of a High Court heads the Central
The Commission presents an annual report to Administrative Tribunal. Besides the Chairman,
the President. The President places all the reports the authorized strength consists of 16 Vice-
before the Parliament along with memorandum Chairmen and 49 Members.
explaining the action taken on the
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Rules made there under. For this purpose, the
also to the process of recruitment also. Central Administrative Tribunal Rules of
● An application is not to be admitted unless the
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Practice, 1993 have been made.
applicant has exhausted all remedies available ● Parties to the dispute may appear in person or
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to him under the service rules. However this be represented by a lawyer before the Tribunal.
rule is not absolute and CAT may entertain an The Supreme Court has held in a case that the
application in extraordinary circumstances.
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CAT must confine itself to the limits of judicial
● A person is deemed to have availed of all the review.
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remedies available to him if a final order has ● No interim orders, whether by way of
been made by the Government or other injunction or stay shall be made on an
authority or the officer concerned rejecting the application unless copy of the application along
appeal or representation of the employee. OR with other documents are furnished to the
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even after 6 months from the date of the appeal
party against whom such application is made
and opportunity is given to such party to be
or representation. heard in the matter.
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● However ex-parte interim orders can be issued
Procedure of justice
in exceptional cases valid for 14 days. In this
● The Tribunal is not bound to follow the case the administration should approach CAT
procedures laid down in the Code of Civil within 14 days to put across their point of view
Procedure 1908 or Evidence Act, but shall be and try for vacation of such interim stay orders.
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