Game Playing: What?

Game playing holo akti multi-agent environment. Jekhane more than one agent
thake …..Akhne Cooperative and competitive multi-agent environments royese.
Games vs. Search
• Games – holo Multi-Player Game) and ata adversary problem .games er
vitore kmn movement hobe seta amra bolte pari na.
• Search holo (Single Player Game)--- – no adversary prolem .

Two Player Games

• Two players: MAX and MIN
• MAX moves first and they take turns until the game is over.
• MAX searches for the best move:

Min-Max Algorithm
Min-Max algorithm bebohar kora hoi ai game playing er jonno. Jemon tic-tac-toe,

Chess, Checkers,

Minimax holo akti backtracking algorithm ata bebohar kora hoi

decision making er jonno.
Minimaxholo akta  two player games. minmax algorithm er goal holo
find the optimal next move. minmax  algorithm, one player is call kore
maximizer, abong the other player called kore minimizer.
Min-Max Algorithm: Problem
• time limitations.
 minimax algorithm is that it gets really slow for complex games such as Chess,

Alpha-Beta Pruning (purning mane holo cete fela)

Alpha-beta pruning is a procedure to reduce the amount of computation and searching
during minimax..
Alpha–beta pruning is a search algorithm that seeks to decrease the number of nodes that are
evaluated by the minimax algorithm in its search tree
 Alpha- alpha holo max path e jeta thake
Beta- beta holo jeta min pathe tahke
Alpha-beta pruning is a procedure to reduce the amount of computation and searching
during minimax
summary

• State Space Search can be regarded as a single player game.

• Considered two player games: perfect & imperfect decision
• Min-Max algorithm is used to determine the best move at every turn.
• Min-Max ke improved kora jai alpha-beat pruning er maddome.
• Imperfect games cut-off search at a depth-limit to improve performance.
Knowledge Representation 
Knowledge Representation is a field of artificial intelligence that is concerned with
presenting real-world information in a form that the computer can 'understand' and use to 'solve'
real-life problems or 'handle' real-life tasks

জ্ঞান প্রতিনিধিত্ব হ'ল কৃ ত্রিম বুদ্ধিমত্তার ক্ষেত্র যা প্রকৃ ত বিশ্বের তথ্যগুলি এমন একটি ফর্মের সাথে উপস্থাপন kore
যা কম্পিউটার 'বুঝতে পারে' এবং বাস্তব জীবনের সমস্যাগুলি 'সমাধান' করতে বা বাস্তব জীবনের কার্যগুলি
'পরিচালনা করতে' করতে পারে |

What is Knowledge?
Knowledge mane holo jana .. jemon j kuno kisu niye akto reacearch kora.
 Knowledge is the body of facts and principles.
 Knowledge can be language, concepts, procedures, rules, ideas,
abstractions, places, customs, and so on. study of knowledge is
called Epistemology.
Four General Representation Types
1…..Logical Representations……2….Semantic Networks ………
3……Production Rules…………4…….Frames
Logical Representations
Logical representation is a language with some definite rules which deal with
propositions and has no ambiguity in representation .

Logic diye j kuno akta kisu representation kora holo Logical Representations

Syntax and Semantics

Syntax -(It refers to arranging words to make a sentence). ,,,,,It also involves
determining the structural role of words in the sentence and in phrases.
(এটি একটি বাক্য তৈরির জন্য শব্দের বিন্যাসকে বোঝায়)। ,,,,, এটি বাক্য এবং বাক্যাংশগুলিতে শব্দের
কাঠামোগত ভূ মিকা নির্ধারণের সাথেও জড়িত।

Semantics − It is concerned with the meaning of words and how to combine words
into meaningful phrases and sentences.
এটি শব্দের অর্থ এবং কীভাবে শব্দগুলিকে অর্থবোধক বাক্যাংশ এবং বাক্যগুলিতে একত্রিত করতে পারে তা

Propositional Logic
Propositional logic (PL) holo simplest form of logic jekhane all statements propositions দ্বারা
তৈরি করা হয়. Propositional logic  holo declarative statement যা সত্য বা মিথ্যা |

Predicate Logic
Predicate logic is an expression consisting of variables with a specified domain. It consists of
objects, relations and functions between the objects..

First-order logic 
First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. It is an
extension to propositional logic. FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language
statements in a concise way. First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-
order predicate logic.

Beyond True and False

 Multi-valued logics
– More than two truth values
– e.g., true, false & unknown
 – Fuzzy logic uses probabilities, truth value in [0,1]

 fuzzy logic is a form of many-valued logic in which the truth value of variables may be any real
number between 0 and 1 both inclusive

 Modal logics
– Modal operators define mode for propositions
– Epistemic logics (belief)
 e.g. p (necessarily p), p (possibly p), …
– Temporal logics (time)
 e.g. p (always p), p (eventually p),

Logic is a Good Representation

 Fairly easy to do the translation when possible
 Branches of mathematics devoted to it
 It enables us to do logical reasoning

Production Rules
 A set of Production Rules: A set of rules that operates on the global database.
Each rule consists of a precondition and postcondition that the global database either
meets or not. For example, IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action(get on the
bus)

Graphical Representation
Jekhne graph akare thake r seta dekhe amra akta knowlodge pai k kar 7a somporo r
atai holo Graphical Representation

semantic network 
A semantic network is a graphic notation for representing knowledge in patterns of
interconnected nodes

Frame Representation 
 Frame Representation A frame is a record like structure that consists of a collection of attributes
and values to describe an entity in the world. These are the AI data structure that divides knowledge
into substructures by representing stereotypes situations

Constraint Satisfaction Problems

Constraint satisfaction problems are mathematical questions defined as a set of objects whose state
must satisfy a number of constraints or limitations. বেশিরভাগ বাধা বা সীমাবদ্ধতা satisfy করতে পারে।

Ata most powerful algorithom ata theke amra besi thooto pabo abong sotik tottho pabo ai karone ata
besi powerful.

Standard search problem:

 state is a "black box“ – any data structure that supports successor function, heuristic
function, and goal test

Binary CSP: each constraint relates two variables

Constraint graph: nodes are variables, arcs are constraints
Higher-order constraints involve 3 or more variables

Cryptarithmetic Problem 
Cryptarithmetic Problem is a type of constraint satisfaction problem where the game is about
digits and its unique replacement either with alphabets or other symbols. In cryptarithmetic
problem, the digits (0-9) get substituted by some possible alphabets or symbols

Standard search formulation (incremental)

 Jetate thake Goal test: , Initial state: ,Successor function:

Backtracking search
Backtracking search: A depth-first search that chooses values for one variable at a time and
backtracks when a variable has no legal values left to assign. Backtracking
algorithm repeatedly chooses an unassigned variable, and then tries all values in the domain of
that variable in turn, trying to find a solution.

Improving backtracking efficiency

 General-purpose methods can give huge gains in speed:
Which variable should be assigned next? Dekte hbe kunta legal kun ta illegal ,,,,
In what order should its values be tried?

Can we detect inevitable failure early?

Forward checking
Forward checking er maddome kun kun jaiga faka asea tar maddome ta reacking e
rakhte hbe .tarpor jkhn se kuno legal value pabe na se search stop kore dibe/

Arc consistency
Arc consistency er maddome amra pasapsi jei value gula exchange korte
pari
Natural Language Processing 
Natural language processing (NLP) is the relationship between computers and
human language
Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a branch of Artificial Intelligence (AI) that studies
how machines understand human language. Its goal is to build systems that can make sense of
text and perform tasks like translation, grammar checking, or topic classification.