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Inter-Fırm Networks and Innovatıon
Inter-Fırm Networks and Innovatıon
Inter-Fırm Networks and Innovatıon
ınnovatıon
Muge ozman
Institut telecom
telecom & management sudparis
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One of the fields in which network research has grown at an impressive rate is
innovation and technological change, as it is now accepted that innovation
is most effectively undertaken as a collective process in which networks play a
central role.
These interactions take place through networks. Firms are the main actors in
the process of innovation and their interactions with each other shape
innovative activities through knowledge diffusion and learning.
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The Growth of Network Research –
Social Sciences and Arts and Humanities Index, Number of Publications with
“Network” in the title or abstract.
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Source: F. Deroian, Z. M’Chirgui and C. Milelli, Evidences on inter-Firm R&D partnerships in three
high-tech industries, GREQAM WorkinG Paper, 2007
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Source: F. Deroian, Z. M’Chirgui and C. Milelli, Evidences on inter-Firm R&D partnerships in three
high-tech industries, GREQAM WorkinG Paper, 2007
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Source: F. Deroian, Z. M’Chirgui and C. Milelli, Evidences on inter-Firm R&D partnerships in three
high-tech industries, GREQAM WorkinG Paper, 2007
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Think of inter firm relations, they can be in the form of informal relations, mergers,
acquisitions, R&D alliances, know-how trading, licensing, franchising, or other types
of interaction in a local or global context...
business groups (Granovetter, 1998) which refer to the group of firms that are
bound together in some formal or informal way, which is neither complete (like the
case where firms consolidated into a legal single entity) nor weak (like in short term
strategic alliances); the keiretsu in Japan, chaebol in Korea are the most prominent
examples. Powell et al. (1996) use the term "networks of learning", where their
emphasis is on the way networks facilitate organizational learning and act as the
locus of innovation. Ring and Van De Van (1994) and Oliver (1990) use the term
"cooperative inter-organizational relationships". Many other terms have also
been used, including "networks of innovators" (DeBresson and Amesse, 1991),
"network organization" (Miles and Snow, 1986), "strategic network" (Jarillo, 1988)
and "interfirm networks" (Grandori and Soda, 1995). A somewhat more general
term that incorporates not only firms but also other actors like public laboratories,
research centers and regulatory bodies has been used by Callon (1998) in his term
of "techno-economic networks".
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Network structure
Architecture of networks, stability,
efficiency Models of
Effect of network network
structure on evolution
performance
External
conditions Effect of
network
structure on
Firm performance Proximity formation
Capabilities, innovation, Knowledge base
etc.
Complexity
uncertainty
Effect of firm
characteristics
on formation
Origins of Networks
Why firms collaborate?
Which firms collaborate?
With whom do they collaborate?
Network Structure
Network Structure
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b)asymmetry
potential of an organization to exercise power or control over
another organization,
c) reciprocity
referring to the collaboration, cooperation rather than the exercise
of power (horizontal linkages rather than vertical)
d) efficiency
increasing the internal input-output ratio of the organization,
e) stability
as an adaptive response to environmental uncertainties,
f) legitimacy
to improve reputation, image, prestige.
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Interdependence in Resources
The earliest and the most widespread approach (Wernerfelt, 1984). Explains
collaborations among firms with respect to the complementarities in firm
resources.
The firm is a bundle of resources and the most common motive for collaborative
relations is the interdependence in resources.
This means that firms form alliances with other firms because they are not self-
sufficient, and they collaborate to reduce uncertainty as well as to access each
others resources (Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978)
This is the case when: complexity and interrelatedness is high (Hagedoorn, 93),
access to new markets, reduction in innovation period.
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Wang and Zajac (2007) Alliance or acquisition? a dyadic perspective on interfirm resource
combinations, SMJ
Eisenhardt and Schoonhaven (1996) biotech: firms in vulnerable conditions (emergent, growing)
Miotti and Sachwald (2003) : resource dependence when there are many actors like gov labs,
universities etc.
Mesquita, Anand, Brush (2008) resource based perspective n explaining performance of alliances
Arora and Gambardella, 1994 biotech: scientific capabilities (reduce) and technological capabilities
(increase).
Eva Dantas and Martin Bell (2009) Latecomer firms and the emergence and development of
knowledge networks: The case of Petrobras in Brazil Research Policy
Robin Cowan and Nicolas Jonard (2008) If the alliance fits …: Innovation and network dynamics
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Organizational Learning
Exploitation
Exploration
Refinement and extension of
Experimentation with
existing competencies,
new alternatives
technologies, paradigms
(March 1991)
Some examples:
Effect of
Embeddedness
Social Capital and
Structural Holes
GoegraphicalDistricts
Trust
Proximity and inno
Third parties
Others
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Result:
Ties composed of a mix of arms length and embedded ties are more conducive to increased
performance in the apparel industry. But contasting result by Shipilov (2005) who finds that the
combination of embedded and arms length ties is not beneficial in the Canadian investment
banks.
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Burt (1992) argues that the competitive advantage of firms rests on their
ability to fill structural holes between dense groups of firms. Low structural
holes, and therefore high level of redundancy in ties make information
exchange inefficient and thus not beneficial for competitive advantage.
Conversely, Coleman (1988) argues that taking place in a dense network with
cohesive ties confers competitive advantage to the firm, because coordination
is improved through repeated exchange with stable partners which facilitates
the transfer of tacit knowledge.
Social capital versus structural holes are analogous to the strong ties versus
weak ties conceptualization of Granovetter (1973), respectively. Strong ties
are usually associated with thick information exchange, efficient and effective
transfer of tacit knowledge, and connote trust among partners. In this sense,
strong ties are better to exploit existing knowledge, and to deepen the
knowledge of the firm in specific areas
On the other hand, weak ties are associated with exploration, that is access to
new areas of knowledge (Granovetter, 1973, Dyer and Nobeoka, 2000;
Rowley et al., 2000).
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Ahuja (2000) how the position of the firm within the network influences its innovative
output with a longitudinal study in the international chemicals industry. There are two
kinds of benefits that a firm acquires through networks: firms access the resources
(physical, skills, knowledge) of other firms, and second, networks enhance firms access
to outside developments, like a major technological innovation, or failures through
knowledge spillovers. structural holes have a negative impact on innovative output;
Hite and Hesterly (2001) analyse how the changing resource needs of start-ups
matches with the cohesive ties or structural holes in various stages of evolution of the
firm. In particular, they state that as the firm passes from the emergent to a growing
stage, the network shifts in response to changing resource needs. In initial phases, the
network structure conducive to success is more cohesive and as the firm grows filling
structural holes becomes more critical for success.
McEvily and Zaheer (1999) find evidence in favor of bridging ties for competitive
advantage, which are non redundant, infrequent and geographically dispersed.
Gargiulo and Benassi (2000) stress the trade-off between the safety conferred by
cohesive ties and the flexibility conferred by filling structural holes.
Inkpen and Tsang (2005) how knowledge transfer can be facilitated in different
types of networks with respect to different dimensions of social capital.
Koka and Prescott (2002) different dimensions of social capital and demonstrate
that each dimension has a different impact on firm performance (information dimensions,
like volume, diversity and richness).
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Rowley et al. (2000) investigate the conditions under which strong/ weak ties and
close/ sparse networks are associated with firm performance. Their findings for
semiconductor and steel industries reveal that weak ties are beneficial for exploration,
especially in uncertain technological environments, and that strong ties are beneficial for
exploitation, where uncertainty is low and competitive pressure is high.
Dyer and Nobeoka's (2000) detailed study of the Toyota network also supports this
argument.
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Dutta and Weiss (1997) investigate the relation between partnership type and innovativeness
of the firm, and find that technologically innovative firms are usually involved in diverse range of
partnership types so that transfer of tacit knowledge is restrained.
Mowery et al. (1998) investigate the transfer of firm capabilities by before and after alliance
formation. Their findings indicate that the level of technological overlap increases after alliance
formation, regardless of the initial motives underlying alliance (whether for market access or
technological),
Anand and Khanna (2000) who look at the effect of learning to manage alliances,
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3. Other Studies on Network Structure and Firm Performance
Transfer of Capabilities
Tsai (2001) who carries out an empirical study in petrochemicals and food
manufacturing, and finds that it is the interaction between absorptive capability of the
firm and network position that has a significant effect on innovative performance.
Kale et. Al (2000) investigate how the development of mutual trust facilitates transfer
of know-how and also forms as a basis to overcome the effects opportunistic
behaviour.
Larsson et.al (1998) analyse the learning effect of alliances in the context of learning
strategies adopted by firms.
Dyer and Nobeoka (2000) study the Toyota network, and how its structure enhances
the organizational learning of its members
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Hagedoorn and Duuysters (2002) find that learning through exploratory networks is
better for innovative performance than learning through exploitation networks.
Singh and Mitchell (2005) find out that both entry and post entry collaboration contributes to
superior performance, the extent of which is dependent upon who the collaborator is and upon
the size of the firm in hospital software industry.
Rogers (2004) for the case of Australian firms find that effect of networks on innovation is
significantly positive for small firms in manufacturing industry.
Bowles and Gintis (2004) look at the economic effects of ethnic and religious sharing of
identity in business networks and find support for the idea that these networks can solve
economic problems that are resistant to market or state based processes.
Park et. Al (2004) find a positive effect of alliances on firm value in market type alliances
cpmpared to technology alliances.
Beverly Hirtle (2007) The impact of network size on bank branch performance Journal
of Banking and Finance. (branch networks)
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Cowan and Jonard (2001) demonstrate that small worlds outperform regular and random
structures in the extent of knowledge diffusion.
Cowan and Jonard (2004) find that small world produces highest knowledge growth, yet the
most uneven distribution of knowledge among the actors.
Cowan et. al (2003) explore the effects of interaction in networks compared to no-networks
(no structure in communications). Their simulation results indicate that regular structures
generate higher knowledge growth in industries with tacit knowledge and high technological
opportunities; whereas when knowledge is codified and technological opportunities are lower,
communication without any structure performs better. In a similar framework,
Singh (2003) who investigates the relation between knowledge flow and the social distance
between inventor teams, and finds that the existence of a social link between two teams is
associated with larger knowledge flows.
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4. Industrial Districts
learning has a localized nature (Maskell and Malmberg, 1999; Malmberg, 1997;
Antonelli, 2000);
4. Industrial Districts
4. Industrial Districts
Trust and social networks in industrial districts
The increased collaboration between firms in Silicon Valley and the sharing of a
common culture and social context in the region enabled to better foresee market
conditions, shaping the rate and direction of technological developments to a large
extent.
On the other hand, firms in Route 128 were mostly self-sufficient vertical
hierarchies, largely closed to external collaboration (Saxenian, 1994). Indeed, it
has been shown in other studies that informal contacts have important influence on
knowledge diffusion in regional clusters.
Dahl and Pederson (2004) confirm this for the case of regional cluster of wireless
communication firms in Northern Denmark; and
Owen-Smith and Powell (2004) in their study of the Boston metropolitan area find
support that informal transmission mechanisms strengthens the information channels among
physically proximate firms.
Cooke and Wils (1999), for the case of Denmark, Ireland and Wales finds that social
capital has a positive effect on innovation in clusters.
Ruttena and Boekemab (2007) Regional social capital: Embeddedness, innovation networks
and regional economic development TFSC
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4. Industrial Districts
Bell (2005) finds for Canadian firms that locating in an industrial cluster and a central
position of the manager network increases innovativeness.
Aharanson et.al (2004) firnd that clustered firms are moreinnovative than geographically
dispersed firms and clustering has a significant positive effect on innovation.
Sonn and Storper (2003) also validate the positive effect of geographical proximity on
innovation, looking at US patent citations. In another patent analysis,
Almeida and Kogut (1999) find that regions are different from each other in terms of
knowledge localization, and mobility of patent holders is the main mechanism that localizes
knowledge in Silicon Valley.
Kauffman et al. (2003) look at the effect of Internet on innovation networks and find out
that Internet is complementary to local innovation networks.
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4. Industrial Districts
Effect of proximity on innovation
Despite the long established view that proximity increases innovativeness because
of localized learning, a recent strand of literature cast doubt on this, questioning the
postulate that mere geographical proximity is sufficient for learning and innovation.
Boschma and ter Wal (2005) show that it is not only local connections but also global
connections
Rallet and Torre (1999) also support this finding for the case of three French regions.
Balconi et al., 2004; Sorenson, 2003; Agrawal et al., 2003 social connectedness
might be more important than the mere geographical proximity
Bathelt et. Al (2004) emphasize the importance of both global and local interactions.
Doloreux (2004) local SMEs rely also on their linkages with customers and suppliers
outside the region.
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4. Industrial Districts
Effect of proximity on innovation
Oerlemans et. Al (2001) external linkages had stronger effect on innovative performance
in the face of complexity.
Andersson and Karlsson (2004) underline the importance of accessibility rather than
mere spatial proximity on innovation.
Lissoni (2001) knowledge can be highly codified, and even so it does not flow freely
among all the firms in the cluster but rather within small communities.
Love and Roper (2001) for the case of UK, German and Irish firms also find no significant
effect of external links and innovative performance of firms in geographical districts.
4. Industrial Districts
Networks involving third parties in industrial districts
Hites and Hesterly (2001) study the relations of firms with regional institutes in metal
working job shops,
Collinson and Gregson (2003) compare the three organizations established in USA, UK
and Canada to promote new start-ups and the way they interact with networks of firms and
other institutions in their respective regions.
Cooke (1996) underlines the role of not for profit organizations in setting up networks in
districts,
Molina Morales et. Al (2002) state that one of the benefits of proximity is the possibility
of access to external instiutions to get knowledge from outside.
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Effect of external
conditions on the
emergence of an overall
network structure
Network Evolution
Models
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Network structure
During the recent years, there is a growing attention in the literature to understand
and explain the overall structure of networks.
Theoretical work is developing only slowly, due to the difficulties inherent in
studying networks.
• most real world networks are characterized by high complexity: just as a
perfectly regular network in which all nodes are tied to nearest n nodes may
generate complexity as it evolves, the structure of the network itself may also
be complex in a static framework (Strogatz, 2001).
• In most real world networks, there is high level of diversity in the type of ties
in terms of their weight and content, and in the nodes themselves. (Strogatz,
2001).
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Network structure
• Despite all the difficulties, studying networks and how they evolve is valuable
in many aspects, because a dynamic network perspective enables to see
how economic outcomes are influenced by nature of networks and how
networks influence economic processes (Kirman, 1997).
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Network structure
Madhavan et al. (1998) study how specific industry events shape the structure of the
network in the steel industry. They measure structure by centrality and interblock relations,
and focus on industry specific events like a major technological change, entry of a powerful
competitor, a change in the regulatory infrastructure, and dramatic shifts in consumer
preferences.
Koka et al (2006) investigate how external effects and firm strategy shape the evolution of
networks.
Orsenigo et al. (1998, 2000) who construct a relation between the dynamics of the
knowledge base in biotechnology, and the evolution of the industry, and detect a close
relation between the two.
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Network structure
Kash and Rycroft (2000) and Frenken (2000) who model the relation between
complexity of knowledge and networks. In a simulation model,
Cowan et. al. (2004, 2006) model an evolving network where knowledge carrying agents
match with each other to combine their knowledge levels (and thus innovate). They
investigate the resulting network structures as a function of type of innovation. They
distinguish between two innovation regimes. In one of them diversity is important in
innovation, in the other knowledge level is important. They show that different network
structures emerge depending on innovation regime, and small worlds are a possibility in a
certain parameter space.
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Network structure
Network structure
Soh and Roberts, 2000 networks also influence the way technology evolves
Barley (1990) who shows how the characteristics of technology also change and modify
social networks in an organization.
Burkhardt and Brass (1990) on how technology effects network structure.
Powell et al. (1996) ,Walker et al. (1997) who find evidence of a path dependent
learning process specific to biotechnology industry that shapes the network of relations
among firms,
Garcia Pont and Nohria (2002) adopt a dynamic perspective where networks form
through mimetism in the automobile industry
Gulati (1999) who studies partner selection in relation to social networks.
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Network structure
Network structure
Watts and Strogatz (1998) have been the first to systematically explore in mathematical
terms what was already known to many people: that the world is small. Since then, a vast
amount of research has been conducted on the so called small world networks.
Small world networks are characterised by two parameters, clustering and path length.
Watts and Strogatz (1998) demonstrate that the small world region lies somewhere in
between a perfectly cliquish regular network with high clustering and high path lengths
between nodes, and random networks with no clustering and short average path lengths.
Small worlds, which lie in between these two extremes are characterised by high clustering
(local connections, where nodes have ties with nearest nodes), but at the same time, via a
few short cuts between distant agents, low average path lengths.
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Network structure
Network structure
As empirical work in many areas like the World Wide Web, scientific collaboration,
movie actor networks reveal, most of the real world networks exhibit small world
properties
Cowan and Jonard, 2001, 2003, 2004; Cowan et al, 2001 relation with knowledge
diffusion
Robin Cowan and Nicolas Jonard (2008) If the alliance fits …: Innovation and
network dynamics in relation with network formation (see section 1)
Baum et al (2003) investigate the emergence of small world networks among Canadian
investment banks, and
Carayol and Roux (2004) examine the possibility of the emergence of stochastically
stable small worlds in the face of small perturbations in the rules of link formation .
Bekkers et al. (2002) find evidence of small world properties in technological alliances.
Barabasi and Albert (2000) provide a survey on complex networks, which incorporates
the state of the art developments in the theoretical literature. The survey includes a detailed
account of empirical work in topology of various real world networks, as well as recent
theories on random networks, small worlds, percolation theory and scale free networks.
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Network structure
Network structure
Following their paper, the network literature has been witnessing an increasing
interest in scale free networks (Solla de Price (1967) for the initial foundations of
scale free networks).
Riccaboni and Pammolli (2002), where they compare biotechnology and ICT
industries. Their results reveal that in both ICT and LS (life sciences) the frequency
distribution of firm links follow a power law, and thus they are characterised by a
scale free structure.
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Network structure
Most of these models explore the dynamics of networks, where self interested
actors interact and result in the emergence of an overall network structure, under
different mechanisms for interaction and different behavioural rules.
These models analyse how the network forms and evolves, the feedback
mechanism conferred by the network, and the relationship between stability and
efficiency of the network.
This literature has been developing rapidly in the last decade and a nice survey
can be found in Jackson (2003) and Cowan (2004) on knowledge diffusion.
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Network structure
The term network dynamics connotes the change of the network through time. As
Doreian and Stokman (1997) point out, however,
Network structure
In network evolution models, the rules governing addition and deletion of ties for
each node are imposed in the micro level.
These rules are usually based on the trade-off between the costs and benefits of
forming a link.
Therefore, the analysis is not being made from the planners' perspective, but from
the perspective of individual incentives (Bala and Goyal, 2000).
Jackson and Wolinsky (1996): They investigate the stability and efficiency of networks,
where links are non-directed, and there is a cost and benefit of forming links. They show that
achieving stability and efficiency at the same time depends on the value allocation rules
among network members, and need not always intersect. Jackson, 2001, efficiency in
different ways
Watts, 2001 incorporating both direct and indirect links
Jackson and Watts, 2001 introducing small perturbations
Watts, 2002 introducing non-myopic agents
Bala and Goyal, 2000; Goyal and Vega Redondo, 2000; Skymrs and Pemantle,
2000 learning and for a nice survey, Goyal , 2003;
Goyal and Joshi, 2003; Goyal and Moraga, 2001; Kranton and Minehart, 2000;
Zirulia, 2004 introducing different market contexts
Hea and Fallah (2008) Is inventor network structure a predictor of cluster evolution?
Empirical, telecoms, TFSC
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Network structure
Carayol and Roux, 2004 stochastic stability
Carayol et al, 2005 use of genetic algorithms,
Cowan et al 2006 and knowledge diffusion and network evolution
Cantonoa and Silverberg (2009) A percolation model of eco-innovation diffusion:
The relationship between diffusion, learning economies and subsidies,
Technological Forecasting and Social Change
Conclusion