DANELLE

GARIN ESPARTERO

BSED SCIENCE 3-E

III. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:

1. Bone is strong because:

- Bone is a living, developing tissue composed mainly of collagen. Calcium phosphate

is a mineral that adds strength and hardens the structure, while collagen is a protein
that provides a soft framework. Bone is sturdy and resilient enough to withstand
stress due to the combination of collagen and calcium.

2. What are the two types of bone? How do they differ?

- Bony tissue is divided into two types: compact and spongy. Both contain solid bone
matrix secreted by osteoblast cells, but the arrangement of bony tissue in relation to
the space occupied by marrow differs.
- Lacunae are concentric lines of young osteoblasts or osteocytes in bony tissue. There
are concentric layers of bony matrix in between rows of cells, which are referred to
as lamellae.
- These concentric lacunae and lamellae in compact bone form an osteon, which is a
small unit with a microscopic Haversian canal running through it. Within the
Haversian canal, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels provide nourishment and
drainage for the tissue, respectively. In Haversian canal, nerve branches can also be
found.
- Long bones have compact bone, also known as cortical bone, that forms the shaft and
contains a well-defined marrow cavity. Within the marrow cavity of the shaft is
yellow bone marrow.
- The marrow cavity in spongy bone, in contrast, is irregular, with a meshwork of bony
tissue running through it. Trabeculae are spongy bone beams, whereas cancelli are
irregular cavities filled with marrow. Trabecular bone/cancellous bone is another
name for spongy bone.
- Spongy bone is found in the heads of long bones; it is stronger than compact bone and
shapes all irregular bones such as vertebrae and girdles. Furthermore, spongy bone
marrow cavity contains red bone marrow.

3. What is the function of bone marrow?

 - The spongy tissue within some of your bones, such as your hip and thigh bones, is
called bone marrow. It has stem cells in it. The stem cells can differentiate into red
blood cells, which transport oxygen across the body, white blood cells, which combat
infections, and platelets, which aid in blood clotting.

4. How does cartilage differ from bone?

- Bone is highly vascular, while cartilage is not. Whereas cartilage lacks a nerve supply,
bones are innervated. Cartilage allows nutrients, gases, and metabolites to diffuse
through the matrix, allowing for the exchange of nutrients, gases, and metabolites.
There is no diffusion since the bone is calcified.

5. Why is cartilage well-suited for padding joints?

- Articular cartilage is a thin sheet of specialized connective tissue having distinct

viscoelastic characteristics. Its primary purpose is to provide a smooth, lubricated
surface for low-friction articulation and to aid in load transmission to the subchondral
bone beneath.

6. What is a disadvantage of cartilage?

- Cartilage does not heal itself. It’s weak. A sudden traumatic event, such as a sports
accident, can injure the cartilage surface and create a weak spot. With normal forces,
cartilage will break down faster if weak spots are present. Although the damage may
be minor, weak spots in cartilage cause it to wear more quickly.

7. The three types of cartilage are categorized based on:

8. Name, describe and give an example location of the three types of cartilage:

Hyaline - most common, found in the ribs, nose, larynx, trachea. Is a precursor of bone.
This type of cartilage has a glassy appearance when fresh, hence its name, as hyalos is greek
for glassy. It looks slightly basophilic overall in H&E sections. Hyaline cartilage has widely
dispersed fine collagen fibres (type II), which strengthen it. The collagen fibres are hard to
see in sections. It has a perichondrium, and it is the weakest of the three types of cartilage.

Fibro- is found in invertebral discs, joint capsules, ligaments.
This is the strongest kind of cartilage, because it has alternating layers of hyaline cartilage
matrix and thick layers of dense collagen fibres oriented in the direction of functional
stresses. This type of cartilage does not have a perichondrium as it is usually a transitional
layer between hyaline cartilage and tendon or ligament.

Elastic - is found in the external ear, epiglottis and larynx.
In elastic cartilage, the chondrocytes are found in a threadlike network of elastic
fibres within the matrix. Elastic cartilage provides strength, and elasticity, and maintains the
shape of certain structure such as the external ear. It has a perichondrium.

9. What are the two types of fibrous connective tissue? What is another name for a joint?

- Fibrous connective tissue is divided into two categories: regular and irregular.
- Articulation: Any position where neighboring bones or bone and cartilage come
together to form a bond is referred to as a joint, also known as an articulation.
Structurally and mechanically, joints are classified.

10. Define the following terms:

a. Osteocytes

- A cell found inside the material of completely developed bone is called an osteoclast.
It lives in a tiny chamber known as a lacuna within the calcified matrix of bone.
Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts, or bone-forming cells, and are actually
osteoblasts encased in the secreted materials.

b. Canaliculi

- A canaliculus is a narrow body canal, duct, or passageway. The bone canaliculi enable
osteocytes to distribute materials from nearby blood vessels across the bone matrix.

c. Lacunae

- A lacuna (plural: lacunae) is a small cavity in the bone's material that houses an
osteocyte. The above is referred to as a cartilage lacuna. Lacunae are spaces between
lamellae in the bone. They appear as spots in the bone tissue when viewed under a
normal microscope.

d. Chondrocytes

- The only cells present in healthy cartilage are chondrocytes. They are responsible for
producing and maintaining the cartilaginous matrix, which is primarily composed of
collagen and proteoglycans.

e. Epiphysis
- In mammals, the epiphysis is the extended end of the long bones that ossifies
separately from the bone shaft but becomes fused to the shaft until complete growth
is achieved. The epiphysis is a spongy cancellous bone with a thin layer of compact
bone on top.

f. Articular cartilage

- The highly specialized connective tissue of diarthrodial joints is articular cartilage. Its
main purpose is to provide a lubricated, smooth surface for articulation and to make
load transmission easier with a low friction coefficient.

g. Diaphysis

- The diaphysis is a hollow, tubular shaft that connects the bone's proximal and distal
ends. The medullary cavity is located inside the diaphysis and is filled with yellow
bone marrow in adults. The diaphysis' outer walls (cortex, cortical bone) are made up
of thick and hard compact bone, which is a form of osseous tissue.

h. Medullary cavity

- The central cavity of bone shafts, also known as the marrow cavity, is where red bone
marrow and/or yellow bone marrow (adipose tissue) are housed. The central shaft
of any long bone is called the diaphysis.

i. Periosteum

- Except at joints, the periosteum is a thin layer of connective tissue that covers the
outer surface of a bone (which are protected by articular cartilage). An outer "fibrous
layer" and an inner "cambium layer" make up the periosteum.

j. Osteoprogenitor cells

- Osteoprogenitor cells, also known as osteogenic cells, are bone stem cells that play a
large role in bone repair and development. These cells are found in the bone marrow
and serve as precursors to more advanced bone cells (osteocytes and osteoblasts).

k. Osteocytes

- A cell found inside the material of completely developed bone is called an osteoclast.
It lives in a tiny chamber known as a lacuna within the calcified matrix of bone.
Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts, or bone-forming cells, and are actually
osteoblasts encased in the secreted materials.

l. Osteoblasts
 - The osteoblast is a type of bone cell that is located in the growing parts of the bone,
such as the periosteum and endosteum. It is responsible for the formation of new
bone. The collagen matrix and calcium salts are synthesized and secreted by
osteoblasts, which do not separate.

m. Osteoclasts

- A large multinucleated cell that dissolves and absorbs bone is known as an osteoclast.
Bone is a complex tissue that is constantly breaking down and reshaping in response
to factors such as structural stress and the body's calcium requirements.

n. Ossification

- In bone remodeling, ossification (or osteogenesis) is the process of osteoblasts

laying down new bone content. It is associated with the development of bone tissue.

o. Intramembranous ossification

- Compact and spongy bone grows directly from sheets of embryonic, mesenchymal
(undifferentiated) connective tissue during intramembranous ossification.
Intramembranous ossification forms the flat bones of the skull, the majority of the
cranial bones, and the clavicles (collarbones).

p. Endochondral ossification

- The replacement of hyaline cartilage with bony tissue is known as endochondral

ossification. This is how the majority of the skeleton's bones are made. These are
known as endochondral bones. Future bones are first developed as hyaline cartilage
models in this process.

q. Growth plate

- Between the widened portion of the shaft of the bone (the metaphysis) and the end
of the bone are growth plates (the epiphysis). The body's long bones do not expand
outward from the heart. Instead, development occurs around the growth plate at each
end of the bone.

11. Name and describe the four stages of bone repair: (additional reference)

a. Hematoma formation:
- Blood vessels in the fractured bone tear and hemorrhage, causing a hematoma at the
break site. The clotting mechanism seals the severed blood vessels at the fractured
ends of the bone. Nutrient-deficient bone cells start to die.

 b. Bone generation:
- Capillaries expand into the hematoma within days of the fracture, while phagocytic
cells clear away the dead cells. fibroblasts and osteoblasts invade the region and begin
to reform bone, even though remnants of the blood clot remain. Osteoblasts begin to
form spongy bone, while fibroblasts create collagen fibers that bind the broken bone
ends. The fibrocartilaginous callus, which connects the broken bone ends, is made up
of both hyaline and fibrocartilage. At this stage, some bone spicules can appear.

c. Bony callous formation:
- The fibrocartilaginous callus is transformed into a spongy bone bony callus. After a
fracture, the fractured bone ends take about two months to permanently connect
together. As cartilage becomes ossified, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and bone matrix are
present, similar to the endochondral formation of bone.

d. Bone remodeling:
- Osteoclasts and osteoblasts then remodel the bony callus, removing excess material
from the bone's exterior and the medullary cavity. Bone tissue that is identical to the
original, unbroken bone is created by adding compact bone. This remodeling process
will take months, and the bone can be uneven for years.

12. Explain the difference between:

a. Complete and incomplete fracture

- A partial or incomplete fracture occurs when the bone does not fully break into two or
three pieces, while a complete fracture occurs when the bone is completely broken into
separate pieces.

b. Simple and compound fracture

- A simple fracture, also known as a closed fracture, fractures the bone but does not
break the skin, whereas a compound fracture cracks the bone but does not break the
skin. A compound fracture, also known as an open fracture, occurs when a bone is
fractured and the broken fragments pierce the skin.

c. Impact and spiral fracture

- A complete fracture is a spiral fracture, also known as a torsion fracture. It happens

as a result of a rotational (or twisting) force. The way the bone breaks determines the
type of complete fracture. Transverse is one of the categories. An impacted fracture
occurs when the broken ends of the bone are jammed together by the force of the
injury. The split ends of the bone are fractured into several fragments in a
comminuted fracture. The structure of a fracture may also be graded.
 13. Have you ever had a fracture of a bone? If yes, what kind of fracture was it?

- No, I haven’t, but I was diagnose having defect on my spinal cord. A 6 degree curve to
the right, scoliosis.

PERFORMANCE TASKS
I. INDIVIDUAL (100 pts)

Form a group of 5 members. Create your own model of the skeletal system. This could be
drawn, painted, any creative ideas you have in your mind. However, this model would not be
labeled from the figure itself. Only a legend would be allowed to help the instructor check
your models.

Legend should include 34 parts of the skeletal system

Glue Stick Skeletal System