Science Yearly Notes

Physics Chemistry Biology Earth Science

Nicholas Pavic 10SCX1 Mr Dixon and Mr Munn

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Science Yearly Notes
Physics Section
A Wave is an Input of energy

The wave frequency is determined by the disturbance that produced the wave

The wave transports energy away from the source

Longitudinal- Disturbance parallel (oscillating up and down) to direction the wave is travelling

Transverse- Disturbance perpendicular to direction the wave is travelling- transverse

Wave Terminology

Amplitude is the maximum vertical displacement from the equilibrium

Crest and trough are the points of maximum displacement from the equilibrium above and below
equilibrium position respectively

Wavelength is the distance between two consecutive identical points on the wave

Velocity (v) is the speed with which the energy is being transferred in the direction of motion.

Period (T) is the time in seconds from one complete wave to pass a given point (basically the time it
takes for a cycle to complete itself) - measured in seconds Hertz (if a wave is 300Hz the period is
1/300 seconds)

Frequency (f) is described as the number of wave oscillations (cycles) per second- measured in Hertz
300Hz is equivalent to 300 cycles in one second

Oscillating- moving back and forth

Compression- Where the particles are closest together

Rarefaction- Where the particles are furthest apart

Mechanical Wave- Needs a medium to travel through

Longitudinal waves
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Transverse waves

Electromagnetic waves

• Electric and Magnetic components run perpendicular to each other

• Same properties
o Non-mechanical (self-propagating)
o Same Speed- 3×10^8 m/s
o Need no medium
o Made up of electric and magnetic component (fields)

Wave equation

V=f×λ
V= velocity with which the energy is being transferred in the direction of motion

F= Frequency (number of waves cycles per second)

λ= Wavelength

Properties of Light

Ø Light travels in straight lines which are called rays

Normal
(perpendicul
ar to the
surface)
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Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

Reflection from curved mirrors

v Reflection is where something hits a boundary of a medium and bounces off.

v Flat mirrors are also known as plain mirrors
v Curved mirrors may be called concave (curved inwards) or convex (curved outwards)
v F= focal point

v Convex mirrors are suited to improving visibility at dangerous street corners as they reflect
as greater amount of light

In a diagram f= focal point, tangents are straight lines touching one point where the light hit and
normal is drawn at 90 degrees of the tangent- angle of incident and angle of reflection are added
either side of the normal.

Refraction

• Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium into another
• Light changes speed and bends as it enters from one medium to another

• Total internal Reflection- Angle of incidence greater than critical angle (largest angle of
incidence for which refraction can still occur)
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• Leaves material at 90 degrees- angle of incidence = critical angle
• Normal refraction- angle of incidence less than critical angle

Absorption- the way by which the energy of a wave is taken up by matter, typically the electrons of
an atom
Scattering- is where some forms of wave, such as light, are forced to deviate from a straight
trajectory by non-uniformities in the medium through which they past
Communication technology- Radio Waves
• Televisions and Radios utilise radio waves in order to transmit information over long
distances in an efficient and effective manner
• Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation and work through radios receiving radio
waves which is converted into mechanical vibrations in the speaker to create the sound
waves that can be heard
• Radio waves are the longest waves, ranging from 1 mm to more than 100km
• Diffraction allows low-frequency radio waves to be received behind hills, although repeater
stations are often used to improve the quality of the signals. Unlike smaller waves that are
drastically affected by buildings and hils
• Radio waves are also reflected from an electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere,
known as the ionosphere- this means that the radio waves can reach receivers not in the line
of sight due to the curvature of the earth
• Do not harm humans as the wavelength is too great to great, unlike gamma rays that can
result in deletion of code in an individual’s DNA

Electrical Circuits Overview

Definitions
Electricity is the flow of charged particles
Voltage (V) is the energy per coulomb charge Measured in Volts (V) and calculated
by energy per coulomb
Current (I) is the rate of flow of charge- measured in amperes (amps or A)
Resistance (R) is how much a load restricts and reduces the flow of current- measured in Ohms (Ω)

Circuit diagrams
Series Circuit- A series circuit is a closed circuit in which the current follows one path
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Parallel Circuit- A parallel circuit is a circuit that has two or more paths for current to flow

Common Components

• The shorter leg on the battery= negative side, The longer leg on the battery= positive side-
electrons flow in the direction that the positive side is
• Arrow means variable
• Ammeters are placed in series, Voltmeters are placed in parallel- for a parallel circuit you
need a ammeter wherever there is something that could restrict, likewise for voltmeters in
series
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Advantages and disadvantages of series and parallel circuits
Advantages Disadvantages
Series Circuit Cheap If one globe burns out or is removed, all
other globes will stop working
Easy to construct The voltage is shared between each globe
resulting in reduced brightness
Parallel Circuit If one globe burns out or is removed, Require more effort to construct
all other globes will continue
working
Each globe receives the full voltage
of the source resulting in all globes
burning at the same brightness

Ohm’s Law- Describes the relationship between the current, voltage and resistance in a circuit
V=IR
• Series
o Current is equal at all points- I Total= I = I = I
o Resistance- R Total= R+R+R
o Voltage is shared- V Total= V+V+V
• Parallel
o Current is shared between the pathways- I total= I + I + I
o Voltage is constant- V Total= V = V = V
o Resistance is inversed

• The Gradient of a graph of voltage (x axis) versus current (y axis) will be the inverse of the
gradient

Motion Overview
Speed = Distance/time
Velocity- Speed in a given direction

Acceleration- is the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time

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Displacement- A straight line measurement from where an object starts to where an object finishes
Scalars- Are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or a numerical value) alone
Vectors- are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction
Motion graphs

Gradient= Rise/run
• The gradient of a displacement versus time graph will be the velocity
• The gradient of a velocity vs time graph will be the acceleration
• The area under a velocity time graph will give the displacement of the object
• The area under an acceleration time graph will give the average velocity
Newton’s Laws
1. Law of inertia- Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of
motion unless an external force is applied to it
a. A force is a push, pull or twist that can cause an object to increase its speed,
decrease its speed, change direction or change state
b. Examples
i. Ball rolling down a hill will continue to roll unless friction or another force
stops it
ii. A hockey puck will continue to move across the surface until the force of
friction acts upon it.
iii. place a pen on a desk it will not move
2. Force (Newtons)= Mass × acceleration- The relationship between an objects mass (m) and
its acceleration (a) and the applied force F is F=ma
a. Acceleration and force are vectors
b. Two of the same objects that have different masses will hit the ground at the same
time- (takes more force to accelerate an object with greater mass because of its
greater inertia, to the same acceleration of the other object)
c. Examples
i. Airbags reduce the force by reducing your acceleration- potentially saving
the individual’s life
3. For every action there is an equal and opposite Reaction
a. Examples
i. For example a pen pulls on the earth just as much as the earth pulls on a
pen- because the earth is of greater mass there is little effect on the earth
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Science Yearly Notes
ii. For example if you shoot something out of a cannon- the cannon goes back
but is not as effected as the ball because of its greater mass
iii. If a train his a bug, the bug is pulls on the train just as much as the train pulls
on the bug
Friction- acts between any two surfaces that try to slide over one another; acts in the opposite
direction to the movement or attempted movement. Always opposes motion but not always
negative i.e. Helps cars to steer otherwise would go off course
Mass (m) - is the amount of matter in an object regardless of its position in the universe- measured
in kilograms (kg)
Weight- is the force exerted on an object by gravity- It is often expressed in the formula W = mg
(Weight = Mass × gravity)
Skills

• Improve circuit- Do not allow circuit to heat up

• Current on Y axis, Voltage of X- Gradient= 1/R
• Use Ruler + Pencil

Force- defined as a push or pull which acts upon an object

Contact Forces

• Frictional Force
• Tension Force
• Normal Force
• Air Resistance Force

Action-at-a-Distance Forces

• Weight Force (force of gravity)

• Thrust
• Drag

Everything has force (weight)

Energy is not a force

Pressure is a force, but not all forces are pressure

Mass always in Kilograms

Waves cannot be destroyed

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Science Yearly Notes

Chemistry Section
Element- An element is a chemical substance that cannot be broken-down into any simpler
substances by chemical reactions

To determine the maximum capacity- 2n^2 (n number of shells)

Ion- is an atom with a net electron charge caused by losing or gaining an electron

Lattice- is an infinite orderly array of particles

Physical change- Is a change where no new substance is formed i.e. freezing

Chemical change- Is a change where a new substance is formed i.e. burning/corroding

• Signs include; gas given off (i.e. bubbling), formation of a precipitate, permanent
Colour change

Compounds and Molecules

• Compound- two or more Different elements are chemically bonded together
• Molecule- two or more elements chemically bounded together i.e. O2
• ALL Compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds!

Matter

A pure substance is a material composed of only one type of element or compound. If combined
they are always in fixed proportions i.e. water

An impure substance is a material composed of many elements or compounds not in fixed

proportions.

A Mixture is composed of two or more pure substances which are not chemically combined in fixed
proportions. Types of mixtures include

• Homogeneous mixtures- Mixture having a uniform composition and properties throughout

• Heterogeneous mixtures- Mixture not uniform in composition and properties throughout

A Solution is a homogenous mixture formed when a solute has dissolved in a solvent

• Solute- The substance that is dissolves in a liquid to form a solution

• Solvent- The substance in which the solute is dissolved

Kinetics- The study of the reaction rates- Collision theory says that as more collisions in a system
occur, there will be more combinations of molecules bouncing into each other
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• Temperature- higher temperature faster the reaction
• Catalysts- such as enzymes
• Surface area of solids
• Physical state
• Pressure- greater pressure faster the reaction
• Concentration- greater concentration faster the reaction
o Concentration- the amount of substance per defined space. Concentration is
usually expressed in terms of mass per unit volume

Separation of mixtures based on physical properties (i.e. appearance, texture, colour, order, melting
point, density, solubility, polarity)

i. Filtration- separates an insoluble solid from a liquid through using filter paper placed in a
filter funnel
ii. Evaporation- separates soluble solid and solvent by heating the mixture until the solvent
evaporates (turns into gas) and leaves behind solid residue
iii. Simple distillation- separates liquid from a solution by heating the water so it turns to gas
before it is collected by condensation
iv. Fractional distillation- Similar to distillation however it separates a mixture into a number of
different parts called fractions.
a. Tall column fitted above the mixture
b. Mixture heated
c. Substances with high boiling points condense at the bottom
d. Substances with low boiling points condense at the top
v. Magnetism- separates two solids (one must have magnetic properties) through hovering a
magnet of the surface of the mixture

The density of a substance is the relationship between the mass of the substance and how much
space it takes up (volume)

• Calculated through dividing the mass of the substance by its volume D=m/v
• Units- g/cm³

Changing states- (Vaporization also known as boiling)

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Periodic Table

Atomic Number: The number of protons an element has

Atomic Mass: The Neutrons + protons (May vary due to isotopes of the elements which contain
varying amounts of neutrons, affecting the weight).

History of the periodic Table- Increase in discoveries

• Advancements in technologies
o Such as accelerates used to detect signatures of nuclear activities that led to the
discovery of element 112
• Once the periodic table was structured, Gaps in the periodic table led Scientists to believe
that there was more elements to find

Periods and Groups

Going along each group (I-VIII) an electron is added to the outmost shell-

Going down each period (1-7) an electron shell is added

Closer to the sides the elements are more reactive (less to give up or to gain)

Groups 1-4 going down more the elements are more reactive as the electrons are further from the
nucleus

Groups 4-7- Going closer up closer to the top the elements are more reactive as they are tighter

Naming of groups
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Science Yearly Notes

Bonding

Covalent Bonding

• Involves the sharing of electrons rather than the formation of ions

• Mainly occurs when two non-metals bond together
• Never occurs in large lattices (instead are made up of small molecules)- Apart from Carbon
Allotropes

Ionic Bonding

• Involves the transfer (donation) of valence electrons

• Mainly occurs with a non-metal and a metal- Metallic atoms predominately give up their
electrons to non-metallic atoms
• Ionic compounds- Hard to break
• Ionic Substances- Dissolve in water

Reactions

Combination Reaction (synthesis) is a reaction where two reactants are combined in the one
reaction (C + O2 -> CO2)

A displacement reaction is a reaction where the less reactive element is removed from a component
and replaced by the more reactive element (AB + C -> AC + B)

A combustion reaction is a reaction where Oxygen is being reacted with something (CH4 + 2O2 ->
CO2 + 2H20)- Type of combination reaction

A decomposition reaction is a reaction where a compound is broken into smaller chemicals (AB->
A+B)
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Precipitation reactions where 2 aqueous solutions form 1 solid and 1 aqueous compound A (aq) + B
(aq) -> C (aq) + D (s)

A Neutralisation reaction is a reaction between an acid and a base to form a salt and a water as the
only products (HCl + NaOH -> NaCl + H2O)

Acids: PH 0-6: Donates Hydrogen ions- Contains H+

Bases: PH 8-14: Accept Hydrogen ions- Contains OH- (hydroxides)

Corrosion of iron occurs when oxygen reacts with iron in order to form a more stable iron oxide
(combustion reaction)

Incomplete combustion- Reaction or process which entails only partial burning of a fuel- Occurs
when a combustion reaction occurs without a sufficient supply of Oxygen- results in pure carbon
(soot or ash)

Protection Methods- Types of steel can be protected by coating that stop air and water reaching the
surface, therefore not allowing oxygen to react with the surface

• Painting/Greasing- plant stops oxygen reaching surface

• Galvanising- Zinc Layer stops oxygen/water from attacking the iron

Decomposition of peroxide- Hydrogen Peroxide not very stable and always decomposes to water
and oxygen 2H202-> 2H20 and O2

Endothermic and exothermic reactions

• Endothermic Reactions- A reaction that absorbs energy (thus it feels cold)

• Exothermic Reactions- A reaction that produces energy such as heat/light

The lower the temperature, the slower the rate of reaction between Hydrochloric acid and
magnesium

The Metal Activity series is a tool used to predict products in displacement reactions- Only a metal
higher in the reactivity series will displace another- Not all the same reactivity

Activation energy- The minimum energy that must be available to a chemical system with potential
reactants to result in a chemical reaction (i.e. striking matchbox- activation energy in form of heat)

Hoffman electrolysis- The separation of H20 to form H2 and O2

Acid + metal-> Salt + hydrogen

Acid + carbonate-> salt + water + carbon dioxide

Chemical equations

• Law of conservation of Mass basically states that atoms cannot appear from nowhere nor
can they disappear, thus all reactions must be balanced
• Also important to communicate the state of the reactants and products i.e. s (solid), l
(liquid), g (gas) and aq (aqueous- dissolved in solution)

Other Language

• Sulfate- The “ate” tells you that the most oxygen is attached as possible
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o 4 for sulphur
o 3 for Nitrogen
o 2 to 3 for Carbon
• Sulphide- the “ide” tells you that it is the last non-metal

Data logger can be used to get a more accurate result- temp, humidity, current, voltage, pressure,
light intensity, warer levels, rainfall

Balancing Equations

• First List how many of each element you have

• Second Balance everything apart from Hydrogen and Oxygen
• Third Balance Hydrogen atoms
• Finally Balance Oxygen atoms

Name and chemical formula for compounds

Word Name Chemical Formula

Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Hydrogen Chloride HCl
Sodium Chloride NaCl
Dihydrogen Monoxide (water H20
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4
Calcium Carbonate CaSO3
Calcium Sulfate CaSO4
Carbon Dioxide CO2
Hydrogen Gas H2
Oxygen Gas O2
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S
Calcium Oxide CaO
Potassium Hydroxide KOH
Nitric Acid HNO3
Potassium Nitrate KNO3
Silver Nitrate AgNO3
Silver Chloride AgCl
Copper Sulfate CuSO4
Barium Chloride BaCl
Barium Sulfate BaSO4

Risk assessment

Ways to make an experiment safer

• Protective eyewear
• Tell the teacher when glass breaks- make sure washes it
• Gloves
• Apron
• Tie off
• Hair clip
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Science Yearly Notes
Biology Section
Inheritance- The passing down of certain traits from generation to generation

Gene- A Unit of inheritance found on the chromosome (humans have 25000-30000 genes)

Trait- A characteristic that can be inherited.

Allele- A pair or series of genes inherited from the mother and father that determine hereditary
characteristics

Genotype- The makeup of genes in an allele

Phenotype- the physical appearance and behaviour of an organism as distinguished from its genetic
makeup

Homozygous- When both genes in pair of allele are the same (i.e. both recessive and both
dominant)

Heterozygous- When the genes in a pair of alleles are different

Dominant and Recessive Genes

Dominant Gene- a characteristic of an organism that will always be expressed. It is shown using a
capital letter

Recessive- A characteristic of the organism that is only expressed if you have two of them. It is
shown through a lower case letter

Acquired Traits are traits that cannot be passed on genetically. They include skills, knowledge and
memories.

Inherited Traits are traits that are passed on genetically and include things such as hair colour, eye
colour, muscle structure, bone structure etc.

Crosses

• Cross- Theoretical mating between two individuals

• Monohybrid Cross- Mating between two individuals with the concern of only one
characteristic
• Dihybrid Cross- Mating between two individuals with the concern of two characteristics
• F1 Generation- offspring from the First cross
• F2 Generation- offspring from the F1 generation
• Punnett square- Visual representation of a cross used to determine certain statistics

Mendels Cross Breeding experiment- Through Gregor Mendel’s cross breeding experiments
involving pea plants, he determined the phenomena of Dominant and Recessive Genes.

A Pedigree Chart is a diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance or phenotypes of a
particular gene

• Males and represented by squares, while females are represented by females

• Dominant traits- affect every generation
• Recessive traits- do not affect every generatio
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Science Yearly Notes
Punnett squares

• Work them out by placing to two genes of the mother on the top and the two genes of the
father on the side- fill In the boxes by stating their grid reference (wherever there is a capital
letter, that individual will have the characteristic)

Human Genetic diseases examples: Angelman Syndrome, Colour Blindness, Cystic Fibrosis, Down
Syndrome, Haemophilia, Turner Syndrome

Chromosomes- Structures made from DNA, RNA and Protein which are located in the nucleus of the
cell

• A normal human has 46 chromosomes- 23 from each parent

• Autosomes- Chromosomes pair 1-22: No difference in male and female- Chromosome pair
23
o Male- X and Y (carries male-determining gene which causes testes to develop)
Chromosome
o Female- X and X Chromosome

Cellular Reproduction- IPMATI

Mitosis- Diploid (2 sets of chromosomes) - cell division to make 2 new cells identical to the original

Meiosis- Haploid (1 set of chromosomes) – Produce 4 new cells with only ½ the number of
chromosomes known as gametes which are used in sexual reproduction. Unlike Mitosis, A second
split occurs after the initial split
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Meiosis leads to variation- Cells are split so that genetic information is split up into multiple
gametes, where information in one gamete is not completely identical to information in another-
this process is known as independent assortment

Meiosis has two rounds of genetic separation and cellular division, while mitosis only has one of
each. Meiosis takes place in sex cells, while mitosis does not. Finally Meiosis is haploid and only
has one set of chromosomes while mitosis is diploid and therefore has two sets of chromosomes.

Interphase- Nothing much

Prophase- The chromosomes and DNA replicate within the cell

Metaphase- the chromosomes align for the split

Anaphase- separation of the cell begins

Telophase- division finishing up- cell membrane closes in and splits the cell into two pierces

DNA
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores our genetic instructions
• Forms a double Helix
• Found in the chromosome which is in the cell’s nucleas
• Made up of nucleotides which are made up of a Carbon Sugar Molecule (deoxyribose),
phosphate group and 1 of 4 nitrogen bases (Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine)
• Base Pairs- A and T G and C
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Science Yearly Notes
Mutations

• A mutation is a change in the structure of the genes or chromosomes of an organism

• Caused by mistakes during cell division or by exposure to DNA-damaging agents in the
environment- disruption in the code of the DNA
• Types- Germ line mutation and Somatic Mutations
• Effects- Changes in phenotype
o Small- cause a cat’s ears to curl backwards slightly
o Big- DDT Resistance in insects/death
Extraction- strawberries, mash up, put dishwashing detergent in, mash up, filter out chunky bits
strainer, add alcohol using pipette, extract
DNA Replication

1. DNA replication ‘unzip’ the double helix structure of the DNA molecule
2. Carried out by an enzyme called a helicase which breaks the hydrogen bonds holding
complementary bases of DNA together
3. New bits join on before it splits again

Gene technologies

• Vaccines- Traditionally animal cells have been used for the production of viral vaccines. This
is achieved through genetically modifying them to do so
o Animal Cells- isolate the gene code and insert it into another gene to produce
vaccine- Standardising cell substrates must be achieved to balance the desire for a
very efficient production system with the goal of minimising risks
• Stem Cell Research
o Stem cells- nonspecialised cells that have the potential to create other types of
specific cells
o Stem cells being grown in laboratories- tests carried out to investigate fundamental
properties of the cell- take tissue from an aborted embryo in the past, now induced
pluripotent stem cells- artificially derived from a non-pluripotent cell
o Ethics
§ Pro- lead to better treatment several diseases- parkinson’s disease,
Alzheimer’s disease, spinal cord injuries- higher survival rate
§ Con-Use of embryos
§ Con- should not play god
§ Con- should not try to clone humans
• IVF
o Allows sperm to easily hit the egg in a test tube- this is repeated for 6 eggs and then
one is chosen to be inserted into the mother- the others are snap frozen in liquid
nitrogen
o Some argue that it is very immoral- against nature and God’
• Artificial embryo twinning
o Very early embryo- separated into individual cells which are allowed to divide and
develop for a short time in the Petri dish- then surrogate mother
o Con- Harmful for genetic diversity one disease could potentially wipe out the entire
species because they are all exactly the same and without variation
o Con- malpractice

The Human Genome Project

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Science Yearly Notes
• International Research Effort to map all the genes of our species
• Goals- Provide complete/accurate sequence of 3 billion DNA base pairs that make up Human
Genome and find all of the estimated 20,000-25,000 Genes
• 1990-14th April 2003 The National Human Genome Research Institute, the Department of
energy and the International human Genome sequencing Consortium announced the
success and completion of the program
• Benefits
o Helps us understand disease
o Identification of mutations linked to forms of cancer
o Advancements in forensic applied science

Ethical Issues

IVF- unnatural not letting nature (arguably God) decide Patenting Genes

For
Allows more funds for private corporations
which can be put towards further research
Against
Hindrance to the scientific Community- slow
down/prevent further research
Technically not an invention- no right to
Slippery slope- people want to patent other
things

Also unethical issue- people believed Human Genome project would lead to discrimination and
unfair treatment- fear insurance companies + employers would discriminate against people based
on health concerns.

Evolution
Evolution is the process of mutation that results in the survival of an organism

Patterns of evolution

• Direct Lineage
• Divergent evolution
o 1 species splits into 2 species as each evolves in different environments
• Parallel evolution
o 2 species respond to similar environment by evolving in a very similar way
o For example the Marsupial flying possum is very similar to the North American flying
squirrel
• Convergent evolution
o 2 Species becoming more and more similar as the environment selects similar
features for their survival
• Radiation evolution
o One species diverges into many species as each exploits new environments and has
come to evolve to its chosen habitat
• Over time through radiation the number of species rise as every ecological niche is filled up,
however every so often there is a drastic drop in the number of species
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Science Yearly Notes
DNA evolution- If enough of the changes (munitions) occur over a long period of time the individuals
may be sufficiently different from the original

2 types of evolutionary theory

• Lamarckism- organism evolves itself (incorrect because you can not change your genes)-
Wrong cannot change Genes
1. Organisms are born
2. To survive they need to overcome adversity
3. Those with the greatest desire to survive will survive and others will die
4. The survivors breed, passing the advantages to the next generation
• Darwinism Natural selection
1. In any population too many offspring are born and of whom are different
2. The differences afford benefits to individuals
3. The individuals who suit their environment best will survive, those who do not will
die (survival of the fittest)

Punctuated equilibrium- moments of stillness (no need to adapt), moments of change (need to
adapt due to changes in climate or environment)

1000 generations to involve!

Evidence for evolution

• Fossil record
o Shows changes in form
o Shows changes in environment
o Shows extinctions and mass extinction (30-40% of all organisms become extinct) e.g.
small horses
• Vestigial organs (not necessary organs)
o Appendix of humans- not needed but shows that one of our ancestors needed it
o Used to show what ancestors needed (what was necessary for survival)
• Genetic evidence- “Throwbacks”
o Occasionally organisms are born which show a feature from an ancestor that they
do not need now yet still have these pieces of code
• Sharing related forms
o The now distant offspring of a common ancestor share features that have since been
modified e.g. similarities of the Pentadactyl plan

Adaptive Radiation

• Every ecological niche is filled by the descendants of an ancestor

• E.g. Queensland there was a behavioural adaption involving birds using there beak
to get a blast of cool from tires
• E.g Bears in Yosemite National Park getting into the food bins by determining how to
open the lid (behavioural)

Industrial meliorism

• 1 in 1000 moths born black- dark ones stand out and are easily eaten by predators
when resting in trees
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Science Yearly Notes
• Industrialisation occurred- soot on trees- dark and now they can blend in so there is
a rise in black moths
• Factories decrease- less soot- decrease in black moths

Horses also further adapted from little dog-sized animals to much larger horses which we see today

• Ancient Horses- tiptoed through the forest (had to be small to escape from
predators and navigate in a forest), food through nibbling on leaves
• Climate Conditions- grasslands- larger faster more likely survive

Fossils
A fossil is the naturally preserved remains of a once-living organism

What do they tell us?

• Evolution- Gives us clues about organisms

• Earth Surface- Provide evidence about how the Earth’s surface
• Past environments- past environments may have been like

How is a fossil formed?

1. Sediment- An animal is buried by sediment, such as volcanic ash or slit, shortly after it dies.
The organism is protected from rotting by the layer of sediment
2. Layers- more sediments layers accumulate above the animal’s remains and minerals such as
silica replace the calcium phosphate in bones
3. Movement- Movement of tectonic plates or giant rock slabs that make up the earth’s
surface, lifts up the sediments and pushes the fossil closer to the surface
4. Erosion- Erosion from rain and rivers wash the sediments away

Main types of fossils

• Petrified Fossils
o Replacement of carbon with silica (replace one atom at a time yet made up of Silica
instead of Carbon)
• Moulds and Casts
o Process of formation
1. Shell buried by sediment
2. Soft bits dissolve leaving a mould
3. Mould infilled
• Carbon Fossils- Everything goes except for a film of carbon i.e. fish fossils
• Trace fossils- footprint
• Preserved Remains
o Everything in the organism remains including the hard and soft parts
o No rotting (no bacteria) occurs
o Occurs in cold, airless, dry or chemically nasty environments (where bacteria die)
o Examples
§ Organisms stuck in amber (no air)
§ In ice (too cold)
§ In a swamp (chemically nasty environment)
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Science Yearly Notes
Geology Section
The Theory of Plate Tectonics
The Theory of Plate tectonics is a theory explaining the structure and the associated phenomena in
regards to the Earth’s crust

Founding Father of Plate Tectonics- Alfred Wagener- who first thought of the concept surrounding
continental drift and separation from a supercontinent

Observations that led to plate tectonic theory

i. Geometric fit of continents

ii. Matching rocks/fossils etc. on opposite sides which join when we fit continents together
iii. Mid ocean ridges in all world’s oceans
iv. Trench systems- places of crust destruction- this is where the crust is being destroyed
v. Linear ration of; Mountain ranges, Earthquake zone and Volcanic zones

Pangaea

• Supercontinent made when all plates combine

• Last time Pangaea formed was 250 million years ago, however it has taken place several
times
• Pangaea split approx. 65 million years ago into
o Laurasia- Europe, Asia, North America
o Gondwanalanda- Australia, India, Antarctica, South America and Madagascar
• Any continent will eventually split due to its position over convection cells causing tension
and then separation ‘

Convection currents in the Earth’s mantle are caused by hot material rising towards the crust,
cooling and then sinking back down

Lithospheric Plates are in constant motion caused by convection cells

The earth

Name State Elements mainly found there

Crust/upper Mantle Solid Silicon/Aluminium

Mantle Plastic Silicon/Magnesium

Core Liquid Silicon/Magnesium
Mercore Solid NA
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Science Yearly Notes
Types of Crust

1. Oceanic- thin (8-10Km)- basic igneous rick- containing mostly

a. Oldest rocks in the ocean are furthest from the mid ocean ridges
b. You can destroy continents, Can not destroy oceans
2. Continental Crust- thicker- igneous/sedimentary/metamorphic rock-

Plate movement- plates cannot move without impinging on others- do not move at a constant rate-
(average 5cm a year)

Separation- mainly occurs in ocean basins- the magma comes through the middle of the two crusts
and creates a Mid Ocean Ridge- Crustal Construction

Collision (e.g. Himalayas)- sedimentary rocks are highly folded- occurs when 2 continental crust slabs
move towards each other- Crustal Destruction

Collision with subduction- under pressure magma comes up forming a Volcanic Mt range- occurs
when 1 continental crust and 1 oceanic crust move towards each other- Crustal Destructive
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Science Yearly Notes
Lateral or side/side- Crustal Conservation

Hot spot activity- all other volcanos not directly over the hotspot are inactive- localised convergence
of several convection cells results in a great amount of heat- The magma goes up to the surface
creating a hotspot and thus a volcano. More volcanos are made while the plate moves, however the
hotspot itself does not move

Name Destructive/Constructive Earthquake Focus Acid/Basic Landforms

Volcano
Separation Constructive Yes Shallow Basic Volcanoes, mid ocean ridges,
Collison Destructive Yes Shallow - Mountain ranges
Collison Destructive Yes Shallow or deep Acid (because Volcanoes, trenches
with of the wet
subduction sand it brings
down)- water
volatiles
Lateral - Yes Shallow - -
Hotspot - Yes Shallow Basic Volcanoes

Oldest rocks furthest away from mid ocean ridge

Transform Fault- when two rock slabs move at different speeds but in the same direction

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are the vibrations caused by rocks breaking under stress

• Earthquakes occur when a sudden release of built-up strain energy in the crust is released
(strain potential energy -> kinetic energy)

The focus is the actual point where the release of strain energy occurs in the crust
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Science Yearly Notes
Shock waves

• P waves (Primary)- longitudinal - shaking sideways (11km/sec)

• S waves (secondary)- transverse- shaking up and down- vibrations
• L waves (surface)- circular- cause twisting

Depth

• 0-7km- Shallow
• 7-70km- medium
• 70-700km- large

Measuring an earthquake

• Mercalli scale (1600s)

o 12 Point relative scale that compared the damage done to different places- used for
40 to 50 places however was not that effective as not all buildings were built to the
same standard
• Richter/Guttenberg
o Numeric Logarithmic absolute scale measuring the energy
o Completed using a seismometer/seismograph

Effects on buildings

• L waves cause Pancaking (upper floors detach from the buildings and fall down which causes
all the other internal floors to detach)
• Fluidisation/liquefaction
o Normally, water fills the spaces between sediment grains which are held together
by friction. Earthquakes however increase the water-filled spaces between the
grains through vibrations, allowing sediment to flow like a liquid
o reclaimed land that was water before being turned into land

Prediction

• Measure Strain build up- strain meter along faults

• Composition in spring water
• Build-up of radon gas
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Science Yearly Notes
A tsunami is a long, high sea wave caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, usually
as a result of an underwater earthquake or volcanic eruption- 805km/h- mean Harbour Wave in
Japanese

Volcanic Eruptions- the Magma chamber contains gases. These gases build up pressure forcing
magma through the rock. The Magma then rises because it is less dense

Magma is molten rock material formed within the earth’s crust. If it reaches the earth’s surface it
becomes ‘lava’

All magma contains volatiles (elements and compounds with low melting point/boiling points)

More Silica in magma- slower flowing

Types of Magma/eruption

• Acid- occur is subduction zones/trenches

o Tend to be thick and gluggy (slow lava)
o Violates cannot escape- pressure builds up- creates very explosive eruption
• Basic- occur at separation boundaries, mid ocean ridges, oceanic hot-spots
o Runny (fast lava)
o Violates can escape- “quiet explosion”

Methods of Volcanic eruption prediction

• Pressure build up (Ground deformation)- magma moving from the magma chamber below
can push up the overlying rocks thus cracking and bulging of the ground surface may occur
• Gas Emissions- since violates have low boiling points you can find them in the air and
determine whether they are increasing
• Thermal Monitoring- Heat signature
• Hydrology- involves monitoring the streams in the area and their chemical structure
• Cosmic Particle Analysis- Particles travelling through the volcano are slowed down by matter
(i.e. in this case magma)-

Volcanic Gases (Volatiles- absorb heat

• SO2 and water -> H2SO3 (sulfurous acid)

• SO3 and water -> H2SO4 (Sulfuric acid)
• CO2 and water -> H2CO3 carbonic acid)

Ash/Tephra (caused when eruptions are explosive)

• Pulverised rock or magma droplets thrown into the air solidifies and comes down as larger
volcanic bombs
• Ash in the air reflects sunlight back into space causing global cooling
• Accumulates on Lungs which rips holes in the lungs
• Ash + water -> volcanic mud

Lava-nuee Ardente (pyroclastic flow) - Molten rocks suspends in air and immediately starts to move
downhill very quickly (600-1000Km/h)

Cyclones

• Cyclones are extreme low pressure systems that form over warm tropical waters
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Science Yearly Notes
• To initiate a tropical cyclone- sea-surface temperature above 26.5 Degrees Celsius- lose
energy when the move over land
• Only occur in the Southern Hemisphere (instead Hurricanes form in the North Hemisphere)
• Caused when air moves from high pressure to low pressure. This results in an area of less
pressure, thus more air goes into the area creating an endless cycle- The direction is affected
by the rotation of the earth.

An ecosystem is a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment

The four spheres include the; atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere

The Carbon Cycle

The Nitrogen Cycle

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Science Yearly Notes
The Water cycle

A feral plant or animal is one that has adapted from a domestic environment to a wild environment

Preservation- keep something in a form that it will not change (i.e. two last monkeys, put them in an
enclose where they can breed)

Conservation- Giving something the ability to stay in its natural environment (i.e. two last monkeys,
finding a suitable environment in the wild where they can breed)

Endangered Species- A species of Animal or Plant that is at a serious risk of extinction

Examples

• Animals- White rhinoceros, Lead beater’s possum, grey nurse shark

• Plants- Rafflesia Flower, Western Prairie Fringed Orchid and Georgia Aster

Causes and effects

• Overexploitation of animals- endangered Bluefin tuna farming, White Rhino (ivory)

• Introduction of Predators- black rat disease to rattus nativitatis
• Change in the environment- mammoth (end of the ice age)
• Hunted To extinction- Tasmanian Tiger

Solutions

• Laws and regulations on hunting/poaching (Bans against hunting white Rhino for ivory)
• Preservation to reignite a species in a protective environment (mating)

Indigenous Communities/Modern Methods

• Modern (usually after negative actions)

o Aim to combat bushfires while still using Hazard Reduction Burning
o Reduce access to places/encourage people to stay on the track and pick up their
rubbish
o Reforestation
• Indigenous
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Science Yearly Notes
o Had a Belief to live with the land, not on the land like European Settlers and
arguably we today believe in- did not overhunt etc.
o The Indigenous population used fire to maintain a pattern of vegetation in order to
encourage new growth and attract game for hunting- large bushfires were
uncommon- “People here see burning as like mowing the law. It’s how they
maintain and manage the land”

Pollution

Air Pollution- the presence in the air of a substance that has harmful or poisonous effects

• Due to transport, industrial activity, smoking, bushfires, fossil fuels

• Effects- Smog, enhanced Greenhouse effect, asthma, lung cancer, lead poisoning
• Example- Rozelle- Measured alarmingly high 33.4 micrograms per metre of the PM 2.5
• Example- China- Beijing reached levels 536 of PM2.5- 20 times more WHO- recommended
levels

Water Pollution- The presence in the water of objects, waste or other substances that potentially
has harmful and poisonous effects

• Due to fertiliser (chemicals gradually wash away), Chemical Waste, Nutrients, Sewage,
Waste Water, oil pollution, species
• Effects- Loss of Biodiversity, health hazard on beaches, loss of biodiversity, ecosystems
destroyed
• Example- Great Barrier Reef- poor water quality coupled with climate change- result in a
loss of sections of the Reef and loss of biodiversity

Land Degradation- The process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by
human-induced processes acting upon the land

• Due to- Clearing land for minds, farms and buildings, use of irrigation to grow crops
• Effects-
• Example- in Australia 2.5 million Hectares of Land has been drastically affected by poor
salinity due to poor management
• Example- 450 plant species are in danger of extinction due to dryland salinity

Greenhouse effect- the trapping of the Sun’s warmth in a planet’s lower atmosphere, due to the
presence of certain gases (increasing levels of Carbon Dioxide, CFCs and other pollutants)

Global Warming- A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere generally
attributed to the greenhouse effect.