Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous

spices consumed in Nigeria
Henrietta Ene-Obong a,⇑, NneOla Onuoha b, Lilian Aburime a, Obioma Mbah b
a
Department of Biochemistry (Human Nutrition and Dietetics Unit), Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria
b
Department of Home Science, Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The chemical compositions and antioxidant capacities of seven spices consumed in Southern Nigeria
Received 30 June 2016 were determined. They were purchased from majors markets in the study area. Edible portions of the
Received in revised form 6 December 2016 spices were ground into fine powder and their nutrient and phytochemical compositions determined
Accepted 20 December 2016
using standard methods. Antioxidant activity were determined on aqueous extract using standard assays,
Available online 22 December 2016
namely, 1,1-diphenyl-2picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical ability and ferric reducing antioxidant poten-
tial (FRAP). The spices were rich in macro-and micro-nutrients. Ricinodendron heudelotii had the highest
Keywords:
protein (30.6%) and fat (24.6%) contents. Tetrapleura tetraptera had the least fat content. The total phenol,
Nutrients
Phytochemicals
flavonoid and vitamin C contents differed significantly (p < 0.001) from each other. Aframomum citratum
Antioxidant activity had the highest amount of total phenol, flavonoid and DPPH scavenging ability, while Afrostyrax lepido-
Indigenous spices phyllus had the best FRAP. The spices have good nutrient profile and antioxidant potentials. Their
increased consumption is recommended and use as functional foods needs to be exploited.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The double burden of disease in both developed and developing
countries of the world has continued to pose serious health chal-
lenges. Apart from under nutrition, middle and low income coun-
tries have begun to experience an increase in the prevalence of
non-communicable diseases (NCDs). These conditions impose a
lot of healthcare cost on individuals, households and nations;
hence majority of the population are driven to look to food as
cheaper alternatives. Advances in food and nutritional sciences
has shown that apart from nutrients, certain foods contain some
bioactive substances which provide some health benefits; includ-
ing reduction in cancer risk and modification of tumor behavior
(Kaefer & Millne, 2008). Spices are typical examples of such foods.
Spices are said to be pungent or aromatic substances which are
used as additives for the purpose of flavoring, colouring and pre-
serving foods (Abishek, Panchal, Poudyal, & Brown, 2009). In Africa,
especially in Nigeria most traditional and indigenous delicacies are
prepared with traditional and indigenous spices. These spices are
used as additives or cures for certain ailments and diseases or just
to add taste or flavor to food. They are also used as preservatives to
kills harmful bacteria or prevent their growth (Dalby, 2002). Spices
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: nkeneobong@gmail.com, nkeneobong@yahoo.com
(H. Ene-Obong).
could be obtained from any part of plant as fresh or dried seeds,
kernels, bulbs, stalk, roots, barks, leaves, pods or buds. They have
been used for thousands of centuries by many cultures to enhance
the flavor and aroma of foods. Indigenous cultures recognized the
value of spices mainly in preserving foods and for their medicinal
value. Such knowledge has been handed down from one genera-
tion to another; thus not much attention is given to their nutri-
tional value. Spices also improve appetite and increase the flow
of gastric juice. They are said to be useful in the management of
convulsion, leprosy, stomach ache, inflammation and rheumatoid
pains, cough and loss of appetite (Valko et al., 2007).
Spices abound in Nigeria; some are specific to certain locations
and usage is based on cultural food habits and preferences. Despite
their wide use in traditional cuisine, most of these spices are miss-
ing in national and regional food composition databases/tables.
This may be attributed to the fact that spices were regarded as
non-nutritive components of food (Kaefer & Millne, 2008). Consid-
erable amount of work has been done in Nigeria on spices, partic-
ularly Monodora myristica and Piper guineense (Akinwumi &
Oyedepo, 2013; Bassey, Johnny, & Okoro, 2011; Dike, 2010;
Ekeanyanwu, Oge, & Nwachukwu, 2010; Faleyimu & Oluwalana,
2008; Okonkwo & Ogu, 2014; Uhegbu, Iweala, & Kanu, 2011), how-
ever there are issues of proper identification, varying values and
units of expression. There is need for more studies to validate
existing work and to examine less researched spices for the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.12.072
0308-8146/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64 59

purpose of including them in the national Food Composition
Table (FCT) and exploiting them for other uses in human nutrition.
This study was aimed at determining the nutrient and phyto-
chemical compositions as well as the antioxidant capacities of
the following spices commonly consumed in Southern Nigerian.
The image of these samples is shown in Fig. 1.
Monodora myristica is a tropical tree of the family Annonaceae
and popularly known as African/Calabash nutmeg. The local names
include: ‘‘Inwun” in efik; ‘‘ehuru” (Igbo), ‘‘ariwo” Yoruba, ‘‘gujiya-
dan-miya” in Hausa; while other names include ‘‘ehiri”, ‘‘airama”
(Okafor, 1987). The fruits are collected from the wild and the seeds
dried and sold as whole or shelled seed, which are then ground for
use in soups and other foods. The odour and taste mimic that of
nutmeg and it is used as a popular spice in West African cuisine
in stews, soups, and sauces. It is also used to flavor peanut butter
used in eating kola nuts or garden eggs (common items of enter-
tainment in parts of Southern Nigeria). Aqueous extract of the seed
has been shown to contain pharmacological compounds such as,
alkaloids, flavonoid, vitamin A and E (Eze-Steven, Ishiwu, Udedi,
& Ogeneh, 2013), essential oils (Susheela, 2000), while ethanolic
extract showed presence of tannins and saponnins (Erukainure
et al., 2012). Onyenibe, Fowokemi, and Emmanuel (2015) also
found that it contains cholesterol lowering ability. A close relation
of Monodora myristica is ‘‘ehu” in Igbo. Its local name is used inter-
changeable with Monodora myristica (‘‘ehuru”). It is used in
flavouring soups and sauces but has not been sufficiently
characterized.
Aframomum citratum is commonly known as ‘‘mfong” (efik),
‘‘olima” (Delta Ibo) and ‘‘erighoje” (Urobo). Its English name is
grain of paradise. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae (Ginger

Fig. 1. Pictorial presentation of the spices consumed in Nigeria.

60 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64
family) and a close relation of Aframomum melegueta (Alligator
pepper). It is an aromatic plant cultivated for its spicy fruits (Iwu,
1993). It is popularly used to prepare ‘‘banga” (palm fruit pulp)
soup and ‘‘nsala” (white soup) soup in Delta State. It has also been
found to serve as alternative strategy in managing risk factors and
associated co-morbidities of diabetes mellitus (Etoundi, Kaute, &
Ngondi, 2010). It extracts have been found to have antifungal, cyto-
toxic, antibacterial, antihypercholesterolemic, antiviral and anti
plasmodial activities (Tane, Tatsimo, Ayimele, & Connolly, 2011).
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus is also called Bush onion or Country
onion in English: This spice belongs to the family Huaceae. It is
locally known as ‘‘oyim Efik”, meaning Efik onion, probably
because of its distinct strong odour similar to onion and garlic. It
is best blended into bean dishes, meat, stews, roasted fish and
other spices (Iwu, 1993). The seed oil of A. lepidophyllus has been
shown to exhibit a strong inhibitory effect on growth of human
cancer cells, and a scavenging activity but with negligible antimi-
crobial effects (Fogang et al., 2014).
Ricinodendron heudelotii belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It
is called ‘‘njangsang” (Efik), ‘‘okwe” (Igbo), ‘‘erinmado” (Yoruba),
and ‘‘wawangula kurmi” (Hausa). It is a perennial native tree in
the tropic and sub-tropics. It is a very important plant because
all parts of the tree are used for one purpose or the other. It is seen
on compound farms in Nigeria. The colours range from red brown
to black, while the kernels are white and yellowish. Substantial
work has been done on its oil content which ranged from 44.7 to
54.7% and containing mainly the polyunsaturated fatty acids a-
elaeostearic acid (Kapseu & Tchiegang, 1995) and eicosapentaenoic
acid (Ezekwe, Besong, & Johnson, 2014).
Piper guineense Schumach (‘‘Ashanti pepper”, ‘‘Benin pepper”):
popularly known as ‘‘uziza” (Igbo), ‘‘odusa” (efik/Ibibio). It belongs
to the family Piperaceae. The leaves and seeds are used in prepar-
ing soups. The medicinal uses of this spice have been well docu-
mented by Echo, Osuagwu, Agbor, Okpako and Ekanem (2012).
Traditionally, the seeds are used as postpartum tonic for women
to stimulate uterine contraction which is assumed to clear the
womb of remains of the placenta and other remains after the birth
of the child. A recent review by Morufu et al. (2016) revealed the
many nutritional and non-nutritional benefits of various parts of
the plant. Aqueous extracts of the seed have also been shown to
have cholesterol lowering effects (Manta, Saxena, Nema, Singh, &
Gupta, 2013) and significant increase in hemoglobin level, white
blood cell and red blood cell counts of albino Wistar rats
(Uhegbu, Chinedu, and Amadike (2015).
Tetrapleura tetraptera is known as ‘‘uyayaka” (Efik), ‘‘ushakir
isha/oshosho” (Igbo), ‘‘aridan” (Yoruba), ‘‘ighimiaka” (Edo) and
‘‘oghokiriaho” (‘‘Urogbo”), ‘ikoho” (Nupe). It belongs to the family
leguminosae. It is one of the most valued forest spices in Nigeria
but is threatened by extinction as a result of deforestation
(Akachukwu, 1997). It adds good aroma and flavor to food and
therefore increases the pleasure of eating. It is a major spice ingre-
dient for ‘‘white soup” and ‘‘banga soup” (palm fruit palm) among
the Efiks and Ibibios of Southern Nigeria.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sample collection
Seven (7) spices were purchased from five vendors each in Mar-
iam market in Calabar, Cross River State and Ogboete market,
Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria. The samples were pooled and taken
for identified by Taxonomists in two Nigerian Universities, namely
the University of Calabar, Calabar and the University of Nigeria,
Nsukka.
2.2. Sample preparation
The selected samples were thoroughly screened to remove
spoilt ones, stones and other unwanted materials. The samples
were prepared according to their usage pattern.
Monodora myristica (inwum): The seeds were toasted in a pan
over fire for 2 min. The hard shell was removed and the inner ker-
nel thoroughly grounded into powder with electric kitchen grinder.
Aframomum citratum (mfong): The purchased seeds were
sorted to remove all unwanted materials, washed and air-dried.
They were then grounded into fine powder using an electric
kitchen grinder.
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (oyim Efik): The dried shell was peeled
off and the hard seeds were broken into pieces with hammer,
ground into fine powder and stored in an air tight container.
Ricinodendron heudelotii (Njangsang): The kernels were pur-
chased as dried from the market. They were washed, sundried,
ground into fine flour and stored in an air tight container.
Piper guineense Schumach: The dried seeds as purchased from
the market were picked and sorted to remove all unwanted mate-
rials. The seeds were then rinsed in cold water, drained, sun dried
and ground into fine powder.
Tetrapleura tetraptera (Uyayak): The dried fruits as purchased
were cut into pieces and ground into powder.
All ground samples were stored in air-tight containers and kept
in the refrigerator until ready for analyses.
2.3. Chemical composition
2.3.1. Proximate analysis
The proximate composition (moisture, crude protein, crude
fibre, lipid, and ash) were determined using the standard A.O.A.C
(2006) methods. The nitrogen conversion factor used was 6.25.
Total carbohydrate was obtained by difference as follows:
100 (moisture + protein + lipid + ash).
2.3.2. Mineral analyses
Mineral elements were determined using the Atomic Absorp-
tion Spectrophotometer (Perkin–Elmer Model 3110, USA). Phos-
phorus was determined using the vanadomolybdate method,
while potassium and sodium were determined by flame photomet-
ric method.
2.3.3. Phytochemical determination and antioxidant activity
2.3.3.1. Preparation of extract. To 1 g of each ground sample, 20 ml
of distilled water was added and left overnight. The mixtures were
then sieved and centrifuged at 2000g for 3 min. The residues were
discarded and the supernatant labelled as the stock solutions; 1 ml
of the stock solution was diluted with 9 ml of distilled water to
give a 10 ml working solution which was subsequently used for
the antioxidant assay. The stock solution and the working solution
were preserved in a refrigerator after each assay.
2.3.3.2. Chemicals and reagents. Chemicals and reagents used such
as 1,10-phenanthroline, deoxyribose, gallic acid, Folin–Ciocalteau’s
reagent were procured from Sigma-Aldrich, Inc., (St Louis, MO), tri-
chloroacetic acid (TCA) was sourced from Sigma-Aldrich, Chemie
GmbH (Steinheim, Germany), hydrogen peroxide, methanol,
sodium nitroprusside, griess reagent, acetic acid, hydrochloric acid,
sodium carbonate, aluminum chloride, potassium acetate, sodium
dodecyl sulphate, iron (II) sulfate, potassium ferricyanide and ferric
chloride were sourced from BDH Chemicals Ltd., (Poole, England).
Except stated otherwise, all other chemicals and reagents were of
analytical grades and the water was glass distilled.
 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64
2.3.3.3. Determination of total phenol content. The total phenol con-
tent was determined according to the method of Singeleton,
Orthofer, and Lamuel-raventos (1999). Briefly, appropriate dilu-
tions of the extracts were oxidized with 2.5 ml 10% Folin-
Ciocalteau’s reagent (v/v) and neutralized by 2.0 ml of 7.5% sodium
carbonate. The reaction mixture was incubated for 40 min at 45 °C
and the absorbance was measured at 765 nm in the spectropho-
tometer. The total phenol content was subsequently calculated as
gallic acid equivalent (GAE).
2.3.3.4. Determination of total flavonoid content. The total flavonoid
content of the extracts was determined using a slightly modified
method reported by Meda, Lamien, Romito, Millogo, and
Nacoulma (2005). Briefly, 0.5 ml of appropriately diluted sample
extract was mixed with 0.5 ml methanol, 50 ll 10% AlCl3, 50 ll
1 M potassium acetate and 1.4 ml water and allowed to incubate
at room temperature for 30 min. The absorbance of the reaction
mixture was subsequently measured at 415 nm and the total flavo-
noid content calculated as quercetin equivalent (QE).
2.3.3.5. Determination of vitamin C content. Vitamin C content of the
polar extracts was determined using the method of Benderitter
et al. (1998). Briefly, 75 ll DNPH (2 g dinitrophenyl hydrazine,
230 mg thiourea and 270 mg CuSO4
5H2O in 100 ml of 5 mol L 1
H2SO4) were added to 500 ll reaction mixture (300 ll of an appro-
priate dilution of the polar extract with 100 ll 13.3% (TCA) and
water).The reaction mixtures were subsequently incubated for
3 h at 37 °C, then 0.5 ml of 65% H2SO4 (v/v) was added to the med-
ium; their absorbance was measured at 520 nm and the vitamin C
content of the samples was subsequently calculated.
2.3.3.6. Determination of reducing property (FRAP). The reducing
properties of the spice samples were determined by assessing the
ability of the extracts to reduce FeCl3 solution as described by
Oyaizu (1986). A 2.5 ml aliquot was mixed with 2.5 ml 200 mM
sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.6) and 2.5 ml 1% potassium ferri-
cyanide. The mixture was incubated at 50 °C for 20 min. and then
2.5 ml 10% trichloroacetic acid was added. This mixture was cen-
trifuged at 650 rpm for 10 min. 5 ml of the supernatant was mixed
with an equal volume of water and 1 ml 0.1% ferric chloride. The
absorbance was measured at 700 nm. The ferric reducing antioxi-
dant property was subsequently calculated.
2.3.3.7. Determination of 1,1-diphenyl-2 picrylhydrazyl free radical
scavenging ability (DPPH⁄). The free radical scavenging ability of
extracts of the spices against DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2 picrylhydrazyl)
free radical were evaluated as described by Gyamfi, Yonamine, and
Aniya (1999). Appropriate dilutions of the extracts (1 ml) were
mixed with 1 ml, 0.4 mM methanolic solution containing DPPH
radicals, the mixture was left in the dark for 30 min and the absor-
bance was taken at 516 nm. The DPPH free radical scavenging abil-
ity was subsequently calculated as percentage of the control.
2.4. Analysis of data
The proximate and mineral compositions were performed in
duplicates, while the total phenol, flavonoid, vitamin C and the
antioxidant activities were carried out in triplicates. Means of
duplicate and triplicate determinations were calculated. One way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan Multiple range test
was used to compare the means. The EC50 was calculated using
non-linear regression.
61
3. Results and discussion
The proximate composition of the spices is shown in Table 1.
The moisture content of the spices were all <10% except for Tetra-
pleura tetraptera (‘‘uyayak”) which was 13.5%. The high moisture
could be an indication of its freshness. The relatively low moisture
content of these spices guarantees longer shelf life and makes them
safe for consumption as they are sold under normal room temper-
ature, without any form of refrigeration. High moisture level will
encourage the growth of microorganism.
The protein content ranged from 5.0% in Piper guineense to
30.6% in Ricinodendron heudelotii (‘‘ngangsang”). The 10.5% protein
reported for T. tetraptera in this study was above the range of val-
ues (5.48–7.84%) reported by Uyoh, Ita, and Nwofia (2014) who
worked on twenty accessions collected from different parts of
Cross River State, Nigeria. This may probably be due to seasonal
variation/time of harvest. The protein content of Ricinodendron
heudelotii (30.0%) was higher than all the other spices (ranging
from 5 to 13.3%) and compares very well with that of soybean,
while the protein contents of the other spices compared favourably
with those of cereals grains. Ash values did not vary much except
for Monodora myristica with 2.0% and Piper guineense with a value
of 4.9%; other spices had values ranging from 3.0 to 3.6%. The rel-
atively high ash content indicates presence of mineral constituents
in the spices. Crude fibre values varied from 4.4% to 10.3%; Mon-
odora spp. (‘‘ehu”) had the highest value followed by Ricinodendron
heudelotii. These nutrient values are high relative to several food
groups. Unfortunately, most of these spices are not consumed in
large quantities and so their contribution to nutrient intake may
not be very significant; however, the protein content of Ricinoden-
dron heudelotii cannot be overlooked. The high protein value
obtained from this study is comparable with the value reported
by Ezekwe and Besong (2014). It is therefore not surprising to note
that R. heudelotii is used as a thickening agent for soups and incor-
porated into baby cereals and cakes or used as substitute for pea-
nuts in the Cameroon (Leakey, 1999). The fat content ranged from
8.5% in Tetrapleura tetraptera to 24.5% in Ricinodendron heudelotii,
and so all the spices could be classified as oily seeds and this can
account for their relatively high energy values. Energy value was
lowest for Tetrapleura tetraptera (1583 kJ/379 kcal) and highest in
Ricinodendron heudelotii (2000 kJ/480 kcal).
The fat content reported in this study was lower than the values
reported by some authors (Ezekwe & Besong, 2014; Faleyimu &
Oluwalana, 2008; Manga, Fondoun, Kengue, & Thiengang, 2000).
The fat value reported for Monodora myristica was lower than val-
ues obtained by Ekeanyanwu et al. (2010) and Bassey et al. (2011),
while value for Piper guineense was similar to the one reported by
Okonkwo and Ogu (2014). The observed differences may be attrib-
uted to location, maturity, time of harvest, soil type/pH and other
conditions. Most of the spices have been shown to contain essen-
tial oils (Kiin-Kabari, Barimalaa, Achinewhu, & Adeniji, 2011;
Susheela, 2000); for example, Ezekwe and Besong (2014) showed
that the fat of Ricinodendron heudelotii contains high levels of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and rich with substantial
amounts of omega-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA), making it a potential alterative to fish oil. A review by
Swanson, Block, and Mousa (2012) showed that EPA and docohex-
aenoic acid (DHA) are important for proper fetal development,
including neuronal, retinal and immune function and may affect
many aspects of cardiovascular functions.
For minerals, calcium values ranged from 415 to 660 mg/100 g;
220 to 715 mg/100 g for potassium, 130 to 690 mg/100 g for phos-
phorus, 230 to 690 mg/100 g for magnesium, 210 to 323 mg/100 g
for sodium and 5.85 to 19.5 mg/100 g for manganese. The iron con-
tent ranged from 11.8 to 24.3 mg/100 g, being highest in Afrostyrax
62 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64

Table 1
Proximate (%), energy value (kJ/kcal) content of spices consumed in Nigeria.

Spice Moisture Protein Fat Ash Fibre Total CHO⁄ Energy kJ/kcal
Monodora myristica: ‘‘ehuru” 6.9 13.3 13.1 2.0 8.2 64.7 1810/433
Monodora spp.: ‘‘ehu” 9.1 11.1 9.0 3.6 10.3 67.8 1674/400
Aframomum citratum: ‘‘mfong/olima” 9.2 9.2 9.6 3.4 7.4 68.6 1678/401
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus: ‘‘oyim efik” 7.8 7.7 13.2 3.0 4.4 68.3 1780/426
Ricinodendron heudelotii: ‘‘njangsang” 7.2 30.6 24.5 3.6 9.5 34.1 2006/480
Piper guineense: ‘‘Uziza/odusa” 8.8 5.0 8.8 4.9 4.5 72.4 1642/393
Tetrapleura tetraptera: ‘‘uyayak” 13.5 10.5 8.5 3.4 7.5 64.1 1583/379

CHO⁄ = Total Carbohydrate calculated by difference with crude fibre included: 100 (moisture + protein + lipid + ash).

lepidophyllus, followed by Monodora spp (20.2 mg/100 g). Similar
high value (21.7 mg/100 g) has been reported for Monodora myris-
tica (Ekeanyanwu et al., 2010). Copper values ranged from 0.93 to
3.22 mg/100 g, while selenium and iodine ranged from 0.01 to
0.09 mg/100 g and 1.74 to 3.68 mg/100 g, respectively. Generally,
Tetrapleura tetraptera showed the least values for most of the min-
erals except for zinc (Table 2) where it had similar value of
6.78 mg/100 g with Aframomum citratum (‘‘mfong”). Apart from
Tetrapleura tetraptera all the spices proved to be potential sources
of macro- and micro minerals. Calcium deficiency is likely in Nige-
ria especially with the low intake of rich calcium containing foods,
e.g. milk and milk products, and vegetables. Even though spices are
not consumed in large quantities, some of the spices, e.g., Ricin-
odendron heudelotii could serve as a potential source of calcium
which could make substantial contribution to the intakes of popu-
lation groups if consumed on a more regular basis. Their high cal-
cium and potassium contents need to be exploited in view of their
importance in heart and bone health (Weaver, 2013). They could
also be exploited in tackling micronutrient deficiencies, e.g., iron,
zinc and copper and iodine.
The total phenol and flavonoid and vitamin C content of the
spices are shown in Fig. 2. Total phenol of Aframomum citratum
(13.47 mg/GAE/g) was significantly (p < 0.001) higher than the
other three spices. The total phenol content of Ricinodendron
heudelotii (‘‘njangsang”) was the least (3.64 mg/GAE/g). Similarly,
flavonoid content of R. citratum (1.47 mgQE/g) was significantly
(p < 0.001) the highest, while Afrostyrax lepidophyllus
(0.12 mg QE/g) had the least. The vitamin C content varied from
each other (Table 2); from 2.03 mg AAE/g in Ricinodendron heude-
lotii to 7.14 mg AAE/g in Monodora myristica. The lower phenolic
content of Monodora myristica compared to Aframomum citratum
and Afrostyrax lepidophyllus has been reported by other researchers
(Duthie, Gardiner, & Kyle, 2003; Etoundi et al., 2010.
The ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of the selected
spices is shown in Fig. 3. Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (‘‘Oyim Efik”/
country onion) showed a significantly (p < 0.001) higher FRAP
value (7.88 mg AAE/L). This was followed by Monodora myristica
(5.80 mg AAE/L). R. heudelotii (1.77 mg AAE/L) had the least FRAP.
The free radical scavenging abilities of the selected spices are
shown in Fig. 4. DPPH was significantly (p < 0.001) highest for
Aframomum citratum (73.3%). EC50 which is the effective concen-
tration at which 50% of free radical were scavenged was 10.3 lg/
ml. This was followed by Monodora myristica (72.0%) with EC50
of 10.58 lg/ml. Ricinodendron heudelotii had the least DPPH scav-
enging ability (56.1%) with EC50 of 12.81 lg/ml. Using the classifi-
cation of Kaur and Kapoor (2002), Aframomum citratum and
Monodora myristica had high antioxidant activity (>70%), Afrostyrax
lepidophyllus had medium and Ricinodendron heudelotii low (<60%)
antioxidant activity.
The high DPPH of A. citratum could be attributed to its higher
amounts of phenolic acid and flavonoids compared to the other
spices. Phenolic acids and flavonoids have been shown to be very
important group of bioactive compounds in plants that have natu-
ral antioxidants important in human health (Dai & Mumper, 2010;
Kim, Jeond, & Lee, 2003). M. myristica exhibited high antioxidant
activity using both DPPH and FRAP as parameters. In addition to
having substantial amount of phenolic acids, it had the highest
amount of vitamin C which is also known to be a potent antioxi-
dant. Ricinodendron heudelotii, with the lowest amount of phenolic
acid and vitamin C had the lowest DPPH and FRAP ability despites
the fact that its flavonoid content was second to that of Aframo-
mum citratum. It has been shown that the capacity of flavonoids
to act as powerful antioxidant and free radical scavenger will
depend on the position of the hydroxyl groups and other features
in the chemical structure (Formica & Regelson, 1995). These may
include liquid/aqueous phase partitioning properties of the oxida-
tion condition and the physical state of the oxidation substrate or
of the antioxidant (Frankel & Mayer, 2000). This may also account
for the high FRAP value obtained from Afrostyrax lepidophyllus
despite its low flavonoid content. Fogang et al. (2014) have also
reported a good DPPH () and ABTS (+)-scavenging activity of the
oil of Afrostyrax lepidophyllus.
Aqueous extracts were deliberately used in this study rather
than methanoic extracts in order to mimic their use in human
nutrition. Several authors have also used aqueous extract and
found them containing potent bioactive compounds. Onyenibe
et al. showed that aqueous extract of Monodora myristica had the
ability of significantly reducing total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides
(TG) and low-density lipoprotein–cholesterol (LDL-C) and
increased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) in Wistar
rats. Dada, Ifesan, and Fashakin (2013) working with five local
spices found that water extracts (58–77.5%) yielded the highest

Table 2
Mineral composition of the spices consumed in Nigeria (mg/100 g).

Spice Ca K P Na Mn Mg Fe Cu Zn Se I
Monodora myristica: ‘‘ehuru” 590 310 680 254 7.14 540 11.79 1.07 3.09 0.06 2.35
Monodora spp.: ‘‘ehu” 660 715 ND 225 5.85 ND 20.20 1.19 4.84 0.09 3.68
Aframomum citratum: ‘‘mfong/olima” 495 550 690 264 19.5 690 19.76 0.99 6.78 ND ND
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus: ‘‘Oyim efik” 415 710 230 323 7.77 230 24.26 1.71 5.65 0.01 2.86
Ricinodendron heudelotii: ‘‘njangsang” 627 645 460 210 10.29 460 15.28 3.22 5.79 0.02 2.18
Piper guineense: ‘‘Uziza/odusa” 445 220 ND 280 9.9 ND 16.25 1.49 4.98 ND ND
Tetrapleura tetraptera: ‘‘uyayak” 24 ND 130 18 3.68 180 2.32 0.93 6.78 0.16 1.74

ND = Not determined.
 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64 63

Fig. 2. Vitamin C, total phenol and flavonoid content of selected spices consumed in Southern Nigeria.

Fig. 3. Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of selected spices.

Fig. 4. DPPH radical scavenging ability of the selected spices.

DPPH scavenging activity followed by hexane extracts (44.5–74%)

and ethanol extracts (23–47%) and therefore suggested that water
extracts of the spices studied may be good antioxidants, while
ethanol extracts may be better antimicrobial agents. Furthermore,
Etoundi et al. (2010) also suggested that aqueous extract of A. citra-
tum and other spices studied could be offered as teas, foods and/or
dietary supplements because of the anti-enzymes (amylase and
lipase) activities which could be exploited in the management of
chronic diseases, e.g., diabetes mellitus. The aqueous extracts were
also found to have high antioxidant activities.
4. Conclusion
Although these spices are consumed in small quantities, they
could make substantial contribution to nutrient intake if used
more frequently. Mild flavored spices like R. heudelotii could be
exploited for other uses. The high antioxidant and free radical
reducing abilities of the spices justify their use for medicinal pur-
poses. Proper description and classification of Nigerian foods is still
a major challenge. Awareness of their availability, nutritional and
64 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64
medicinal values needs to be created among the Nigerian popula-
tion. This is why they should be included in the national FCT/-
database. More research efforts are needed in this area so that
they can be appropriately exploited for use in solving nutritional
problems in the society.
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