EL-101 Basic Electronics

Electric Charge: Electric charge is a basic property of electrons, protons and other
subatomic particles. Electrons are negatively charged while protons are positively
charged. Things that are negatively charged and things that are positively charged pull
on (attract) each other. This makes electrons and protons stick together to form
atoms. Things that have the same charge push each other away (they repel each
other). This is called the Law of Charges. It was discovered by Charles-Augustin de
Coulomb. The law that describes how strongly charges pull and push on each other is
called Coulomb's Law. Things that have more electrons than protons are negatively
charged, while things with fewer electrons than protons are positively charged. Things
with the same charge repel each other. Things that have different charges attract each
other. The symbol for charge is Q which stands for quantity. The practical unit of
charge is called the coulomb (C). One coulomb is equal to the amount of charge of
6.25X1018 electrons or protons stored in a dielectric.

Voltage: Voltage is what makes electric charges move. It is the 'push' that causes
charges to move in a wire or other electrical conductor. It can be thought of as the
force that pushes the charges, but it is not a force. Voltage can cause charges to move,
and since moving charges is a current, voltage can cause a current. Electric Potential
Difference is the true scientific term but is commonly called Voltage. Informally,
voltage or electric potential difference is sometimes called "Potential Difference".
Voltage is also called, in certain circumstances, electromotive force (EMF). The unit for
electrical potential difference, or voltage, is the volt. One volt equals one joule per
coulomb. The symbol for the unit volt is written with an uppercase V as in (9V). There
are two types of voltage, DC voltage and AC voltage. The DC voltage (direct current
voltage) always has the same polarity (positive or negative), such as in a battery. The
AC voltage (alternating current voltage) alternates between positive and negative.

Current: Current is the flow of electrical charge carriers like electrons. Current flows
from negative to positive points. The SI unit for measuring electric current is the
ampere (A). One ampere of current is defined as one coulomb of electrical charge
moving past a unique point in a second. There are two types of electric current,
namely alternating and direct current. In alternating current, the flow of current
1|Page
reverses its direction periodically. Alternating current in a circuit is represented by the
sine wave. Direct current, unlike alternating current, flows in the same direction
continuously. An example of direct current would be the current provided by a battery

Resistance: Resistance is the opposition that a substance offers to the flow of

electric current.  It is represented by the uppercase letter R.  The standard unit of
resistance is the ohm, . When an electric current of one ampere passes through a
component across which a potential difference (voltage) of one volt exists, then the
resistance of that component is one ohm. In general, when the applied voltage is held
constant, the current in a direct-current (DC) electrical circuit is inversely proportional
to the resistance.  If the resistance is doubled, the current is cut in half; if the
resistance is halved, the current is doubled. The electrical resistance per unit length,
area, or volume of a substance is known as resistivity. An ohm (referred to by the
Greek letter Ω (Omega)) is the SI unit of resistance (R). It can be defined by Ohm's law
and the equation:  R = V I, where R is resistance in ohms, V is voltage in volts & I is the
current in amperes.

Electrons: An electron is a very small piece of matter and energy. Its symbol is e−. It
was discovered by J.J.Thomson in 1897. The electron is a subatomic particle. It is
believed to be an elementary particle because it cannot be broken down into anything
smaller. It is negatively charged, and may move almost at the speed of light. Electrons
take part in gravitational, electromagnetic and weak interactions. The electricity that
powers televisions, motors, mobile phones, and many other things is actually many
electrons moving through wires or other conductors. Electrons have the smallest
electrical charge. This electrical charge equals the charge of a proton, but has the
opposite sign. For this reason, electrons are attracted by the protons of atomic nuclei
and usually form atoms. An electron has a mass of about 1/1836 times a proton.

Protons: A proton is part of an atom. They are found in the nucleus of an atom along
with neutrons. The periodic table groups atoms according to how many protons they
have. A single atom of hydrogen (the lightest kind of atom) is made up of an electron
moving around a proton. Most of the mass of this atom is in the proton, which is
almost 2000 times heavier than the electron. Protons and neutrons make up the
nucleus of every other kind of atom. In any one element, the number of protons is

2|Page
always the same. An atom's atomic number is equal to the number of protons in that
atom. Protons are made of quarks. A proton is believed to be made up of 3 quarks,
two up quarks and one down quark. One down quark has a charge of -1/3, and two up
quarks have a charge of +2/3 each. This adds to a charge of +1. A proton has a very
small mass. The mass of the proton is about one atomic mass unit.

Conductors: A conductor is a material which electricity, heat or sound can flow

through. An electrical conductor conducts electricity. The ability to conduct electricity
is called electrical conductivity. Most metals, like iron and copper, are electrical
conductors. These metals are used to make wires to carry electric current. Plasma is
an excellent conductor of electricity and is used for many purposes but metals are
more used. Some materials are semiconductors. This means that electricity can flow
through them, but not very well. Some materials are resistors. This means that they
make it very hard for electricity to flow through them. A material that stops electric
current is called an insulator (electricity).

Insulators: An electrical insulator is a material that does not easily allow flow of
electricity through an electric current. Materials typically used to insulate include
rubber, plastic and glass. In transformers and electric motors, varnish is used.
Insulating gases such as Sulfur hexafluoride are used in some switches. Wires that
carry electric currents are usually insulated so the electricity goes to the right place.
Insulator can mean not only the material but things that are made of that material.
They are made of various materials such as: glass, silicone, rubber, plastic, oil, wood,
dry cotton, quartz, ceramic, etc. The type of insulator will depend on the uses.
Insulators have high electrical resistivity and low conductivity. The insulators prevent
the loss of current and make the current more efficient by concentrating the flow.

Semi-Conductors: A semiconductor is a material that in some cases will conduct

electricity but not in others. Good electrical conductors, like copper or silver, easily
allow electricity to flow through them. Materials that block the flow of electricity, like
rubber or plastic, are called insulators. Insulators are often used to protect people
from electric shock. As the name implies, a semiconductor does not conduct as well as
a conductor. Silicon is the most used semiconductor, but gallium arsenide is also used.
Silicon is the most important commercial semiconductor, though others are used.

3|Page
Ampere: The ampere or amp (Symbol: A) is the standard unit of electric current. An
electric current of one amp is one coulomb per second. AOne ampere of current
represents one coulomb of electrical charge (6.24 x 1018 charge carriers) moving past a
specific point in one second. Physicists consider current to flow from relatively positive
points to relatively negative points; this is called conventional current or Franklin
current. Current indicates the intensity of the electricity in motion. The symbol for
current is I (for intensity) and is measured in amperes. The definition of current is: I =
Q/T. Where I is current in amperes, Q is charge in coulombs, and T is time in seconds.

Common Electronic Component Symbols:

4|Page
Difference Between Closed & Open Circuit:

Closed Circuit Open Circuit

In closed circuit the current flows In open circuit current does not flow
In close circuit there is difference in In open circuit potential difference is not
potential established

Closed circuit is represented by ( . ) sign Open circuit is represented by ( ) sign.

Direct Current: Direct current (DC or "continuous current") is the flow of electricity
in a single direction, from the positive to the negative terminals (potential, poles). The
direct current always flow in the same direction, distinguishing it from the alternating
current (AC). Direct current used to be called "Galvanic current". Batteries are some of
the main sources of direct current (DC), but many other sources also exist such as
bridge rectifiers in power supply, solar panels, etc. Typically, the current goes through
a conductor and other things that can carry DC. Below are the characteristics of DC
current:

• It is the flow of charges in just one direction and...

• The fixed polarity of the applied voltage which are characteristics of DC circuit.
Following is the wave form of DC current:

5|Page
AC Current: An alternating current (AC) is an electric current of which magnitude
and direction vary, unlike direct current, whose direction remains constant. This
means that the direction of current flowing in a circuit is constantly being reversed
back and forth. This is done with any type of AC voltage source. The usual waveform of
an AC power circuit is a sine wave, because this leads to the most efficient
transmission of energy. However, in certain applications different waveforms are
used, such as triangular or square waves. Inexpensive power inverters produce a
square wave with a pause between the change in direction. When one speaks of
alternating current one mostly refers to the form in which electricity is delivered to
businesses and residences. The direction of the electricity switches back 60 times
every second (or 50 times in some parts of the world). This happens so fast that a light
bulb does not stop glowing. But audio and radio signals carried on electrical wire are
also examples of alternating current. Following is the wave form of AC current:

Complex Voltage:

6|Page
This is a more realistic view of what an audio signal’s voltage would look like

Impedance: Impedance (Z), in electrical devices, refers to the amount of opposition

faced by direct or alternating current when it passes through a conductor component,
circuit or system. Impedance is null when current and voltage are constant and thus its
value is never zero or null in the case of alternating current. Impedance is often
mistakenly said to be the same as resistance, which is not correct. Impedance is a two-
dimensional quantity comprising resistance (real component vector) and reactance
(imaginary component vector). Impedance is also known as the frequency domain
ratio of voltage and current. Frequency is involved because of alternating current (AC)
whose sinusoidal wave is generated upon a certain frequency which directly or
indirectly affects electrical components such as capacitors and inductors, whose
resistance varies with frequency of the power source provided.

Difference Between AC & DC Current:

DC Current AC Current

Fixed polarity Reverses polarity

Varies in magnitude between reversals in

Can be steady or vary in magnitude
polarity

Steady value cannot be stepped up or

Used for electrical power distribution
down by a transformer

Electrode voltage for tube and transistor

I/O signal for tube and transistor amps
amps

Easier to measure Easier to amplify

7|Page
Grounding: In electrical engineering, ground or earth is the reference point in an
electrical circuit from which voltages are measured, a common return path for electric
current, or a direct physical connection to the earth. Electrical circuits may be
connected to ground (earth) for several reasons. Exposed metal parts of electrical
equipment are connected to ground, so that failures of internal insulation will trigger
protective mechanisms such as fuses or circuit breakers in the circuit to remove power
from the device. This ensures that exposed parts can never have a dangerous voltage
with respect to ground, which could cause an electric shock if a grounded person
touched them. In the wiring of practical circuits one side of the voltage source is
usually grounded for safety. For 120 V - ac power lines in homes this means one side
of the voltage source is connected to a metal cold water pipe. For electronic
equipment, the ground just indicates a metal chassis, which is used as a common
return for connections to the source. Following are the common symbols for
grounding in electric circuits:

Logic Gates: Digital systems are said to be constructed by using logic gates. These
gates are the AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR and EXNOR gates. The basic
operations are described below with the aid of truth tables.

AND Gate:
8|Page
The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all its inputs
are high.  A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B.  Bear in mind that this
dot is sometimes omitted i.e. AB
 
OR Gate:

The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or more of its
inputs are high.  A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.
 

NOT Gate:

The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of the input at
its output.  It is also known as an inverter.  If the input variable is A, the inverted
output is known as NOT A.  This is also shown as A', or A with a bar over the top, as
shown at the outputs. The diagrams below show two ways that the NAND logic gate
can be configured to produce a NOT gate. It can also be done using NOR logic gates in
the same way.

9|Page
NAND Gate:

This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.  The
outputs of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an AND
gate with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.
 
NOR Gate:

This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate.  The
outputs of all NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high. The symbol is an OR gate
with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.
 
 

EXOR Gate:

10 | P a g e
The 'Exclusive-OR' gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either, but not both,
of its two inputs are high.  An encircled plus sign ( ) is used to show the EOR
operation.

EXNOR Gate:

The 'Exclusive-NOR' gate circuit does the opposite to the EOR gate. It will give a low
output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high. The symbol is an EXOR gate
with a small circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

The NAND and NOR gates are called universal functions since with either one the
AND and OR functions and NOT can be generated.

Note: A function in sum of products form can be implemented using NAND gates by
replacing all AND and OR gates by NAND gates. A function in product of sums form can
be implemented using NOR gates by replacing all AND and OR gates by NOR gates.

Table 1: Logic gate symbols

11 | P a g e
Table 2 is a summary truth table of the input/output combinations for the NOT gate
together with all possible input/output combinations for the other gate functions. Also
note that a truth table with 'n' inputs has 2n rows. You can compare the outputs of
different gates.

Table 2: Logic gates representation using the Truth table

 A NAND gate can be used as a NOT gate using either of the following wiring
configurations.

                                       (You can check this out using a truth table.)

12 | P a g e