machines

Review
Wire Electrical Discharge Machining—A Review
Laurenţiu Slătineanu 1 , Oana Dodun 1, * , Margareta Coteaţă 1 , Gheorghe Nagîţ 1 ,
Irina Beşliu Băncescu 2 and Adelina Hriţuc 1
1 Department of Machine Manufacturing Technology, Technical University of Ias, i, Blvd. D. Mangeron, 59 A,
700050 Ias, i, Romania; slati@tcm.tuiasi.ro (L.S.); mcoteata@tcm.tuiasi.ro (M.C.); nagit@tcm.tuiasi.ro (G.N.);
adelina.hrituc@student.tuiasi.ro (A.H.)
2 Department of Mechanics and Technology, University of Suceava, Universităt, ii Street
13, 720229 Suceava, Romania; irina.besliu@usv.ro
* Correspondence: oanad@tcm.tuiasi.ro; Tel.: +40-747-144-605




Received: 15 September 2020; Accepted: 23 October 2020; Published: 28 October 2020


Abstract: Wire electrical discharge machining has appeared mainly in response to the need for
detachment with sufficiently high accuracy of parts of plate-type workpieces. The improvements
introduced later allowed the extension of this machining technology to obtain more complex ruled
surfaces with increasingly high requirements regarding the quality of the machined surfaces and
the productivity of the wire electrical discharge machining process. Therefore, it was normal for
researchers to be interested in developing more and more in-depth investigations into the various
aspects of wire electrical discharge machining. These studies focused first on improving the machining
equipment, wire electrodes, and the devices used to position the clamping of a wire electrode and
workpiece. A second objective pursued was determining the most suitable conditions for developing
the machining process for certain proper situations. As output parameters, the machining productivity,
the accuracy, and roughness of the machined surfaces, the wear of the wire electrode, and the changes
generated in the surface layer obtained by machining were taken into account. There is a large
number of scientific papers that have addressed issues related to wire electrical discharge machining.
The authors aimed to reveal the aspects that characterize the process, phenomena, performances,
and evolution trends specific to the wire electrical discharge machining processes, as they result from
scientific works published mainly in the last two decades.

Keywords: wire electrical discharge machining; phenomena; actual state; equipment improvement;
wire tool electrode; process optimization; evolution trends

1. Introduction
The wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) is currently one of the most well known and
applied electrothermal machining processes by which the material removal from the workpiece occurs
due to non-stationary electrical discharges developed between the traveling wire tool electrode and
the workpiece. The resulting waste is removed from the working gap due to the circulation of a
dielectric fluid. The wire tool electrode must unwind on one coil wheel and wrap on another coil
wheel to reduce or even avoid the influence of material loss due to electrical discharges that also
contribute to the removal of material from the wire tool electrode. In the working gap, the traveling
wire electrode has a rectilinear shape due to its low rigidity and the presence of a tension force and
suitable guiding subsystems. If initially only ruled surfaces were obtained by WEDM, now there has
been a certain diversification of the machining processes included in the general group of WEDM
machining techniques, since it is possible to obtain other various categories of surfaces [1–4].

Machines 2020, 8, 69; doi:10.3390/machines8040069 www.mdpi.com/journal/machines

Machines 2020, 8, 69 2 of 28

As another limitation of use in industrial practice, at least the classic version of WEDM did not
allow the machining of blind holes or cavities. To some extent, this limitation is currently being
eliminated using the WEDM milling process.
Research on WEDM has expanded widely in recent decades due to the involvement of many
researchers and research structures, and an impressive number of scientific papers addressing topics
or related to such a subject were published.
Through this paper’s content, in connection with the best information they had access to,
the authors tried to provide an image of the current state of scientific and technical knowledge about
WEDM and the future development directions. The paper includes a characterization and evaluation
of the main current achievements in the field of a WEDM process. The steps that led to the emergence
and the promotion of the WEDM process were considered in more detail. A systematic presentation
of the main ways of approaching and optimizing the different aspects specific to the WEDM process
was made, in accordance with the authors’ opinions on these aspects. A brief statistical analysis of the
papers published to date has been used to highlight the interest of researchers to investigate issues
related to the WEDM process.

2. Essential Aspects of the WEDM Processes

In the initially promoted version, the WEDM process involved the use of a traveling wire electrode
(vTE = 0.1–10 m/min) vertically positioned and supported in the machining zone on two guide
subsystems. There was movement between the wire tool electrode and the plate-type workpiece
(2–6 mm/min) in a horizontal coordinate system. The working gap usually has values of 0.02–0.05 mm.
As the other conditions for carrying out a process of electrical discharge machining were also fulfilled,
from the plate-type workpiece, it was possible to gradually separate a part characterized by simpler or
more complex contours. In this version, it was possible only to obtain ruled surfaces in which the right
line generatrix remained permanently parallel to the vertical direction.
The wire tool electrode’s upper guide support can achieve a controlled movement, also in the
horizontal plane (Figure 1). Thus, for example, this allows the approach of machining some conical
surfaces. The addition of other possibilities for moving the wire electrode and the workpiece has
significantly increased WEDM process versatility [5–7].
The diameter of the wire electrode was 0.01–0.3 mm. It must first be flexible enough to take the
form of guide rollers or coin wheels on which it is stored. A second necessary condition that the wire
electrode material must meet a that it has a high tensile and bending strength. The wire had to be as
long as possible (7–12 km), to allow machining without the interruption of the contours, themselves of
long length, and in workpieces whose thickness has increased over the years [3,8].
As a working fluid, deionized water is usually preferred since it has high fluidity and allows,
as such, the relatively simple removal of particles detached by the electroerosive process by the action of
gravity. A less convenient aspect is the possible development of an electrolysis process. The electrolysis
could generate microexplosions by igniting hydrogen from bubbles formed due to the electrolysis
process, with undesirable consequences on the wire’s integrity, but also on the quality of the machined
surface. For this reason, other liquids usable for processing by wire EDM have been investigated
and promoted [4,9,10].
The speed of movement of the wire along its axis must be high enough to avoid affecting the
precision of processing by possible thinning of the wire due to electrical erosion, which also affects the
wire electrode. For a long time, the traveling speed was about 1.5–80 mm/min. WEDM processes use
very high speeds of traveling movement in high-speed WEDM processes [11,12]. It is necessary to
exert a tension on the wire under the action of forces of about 0.04–0.7 daN, to ensure its rectilinearity
in the machining zone.
 Machines 2020, 8, x 3 of 29

3. Evolution of WEDM
MachinesThe 8, 69
2020,first proposals for the use of electric discharges for cutting metallic workpieces were3 of 28

formulated by Tilghman (“Cutting metal by electricity”), towards the end of the 19th century (1889).
A fuller outline of a field that would refer to electrical discharge machining took place once with the
The main benefits of WEDM are the following: efficient production capabilities, production
patent application elaborated by Boris and Natalia Lazarenko (1943). They aimed to develop a
reliability, difficulties or even impossibility to obtain surfaces by other machining methods, low costs,
method of machining the electroconductive materials. Almost two decades later, real electrical
stress-free and burr-free cutting, tight tolerances and excellent finishes, CNC (Computer Numerical
discharge machines were to be built and used.
Control) downloadable program files [1,2,13,14].

Control panel Tension clutch

Monitor Z-axis drive
Wire take-up mechanism

CONTROL UNIT Machining Power Supply

U-axis drive

V
Upper wire
guide
V-axis drive
Workpiece
Manometer

Pump
M
Work table

Filter X-axis drive

Upper flushing valve

Wire electrode
Lower Lower flushing
Dielectric fluid Y-axis drive wire guide valve

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the machining zone and the machining equipment in the case of
Figure 1. Schematic representation of the machining zone and the machining equipment in the case
the wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) process.
of the wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) process.
3. Evolution of WEDM
Gradually, these machines became more and more complex. They were equipped with
The first proposals
subsystems for theprocess
for machining use of electric discharges
optimization forbenefited
and cutting metallic
greatlyworkpieces were formulated
from the emergence and
bydevelopment
Tilghman (“Cutting metal
of numerical by electricity”),
control subsystems.towards the end of the 19th century (1889). A fuller
outlineSome
of a field that
of the would refer
moments to electrical
considered discharge
decisive machining
for developing thetook place once
equipment with the
currently patent
used for
application elaborated by Boris and Natalia Lazarenko (1943). They aimed to
WEDM were highlighted in Figure 2. These moments were mentioned according to the informationdevelop a method
ofidentified
machining electroconductive
in the consulted literature materials.
[3,15–29]. Almost two decades later, real electrical discharge
machines were to be built and used.
Gradually, these machines became more and more complex. They were equipped with subsystems
for machining process optimization and benefited greatly from the emergence and development of
numerical control subsystems.
Some of the moments considered decisive for developing the equipment currently used for WEDM
were highlighted in Figure 2. These moments were mentioned according to the information identified
in the consulted literature [3,15–29].
Machines 2020, 8, x69
2020, 8, 4 of429
of 28

Benjamin Chew Tilghman obtained a patent for the invention
“Cutting metal by electricity”.
In the UK, D.W.A.F. Rudorff probably wrote the first patent
application for “Improvements in methods and apparatus for
cutting electrically conductive materials” (Patent GB637872),
which used a so-called “endless wire or band”.
1889 Boris and Natalia Lazarenko proposed a method for
machining electroconductive materials.
1943
The team coordinated by David H. Dulebohn finalized an
1947 optical line following system, which later formed the basis
for the development of CNC equipment.
1960

1960 Patent application concerning “Method of guiding the wire

In a book published in 1967, Livshits presented a wire EDM EDM or ultrasonic wire tool” proposed by V.Iu.Veroman (SU
machine used in 1964 and based on the precise Leitz 1964 Patent SU142138A1).
measurement machine.
1967 A company in the former Soviet Union seems to have
At the European Machine Tool Exbihition in Paris, the Swiss
introduced the first WEDM machine (displayed at a machine
company Agie promoted a WEDM machine (AGIEcut DEM15). 1969 exposition in Montreal, Quebec, Canada), (stepper motors,
machining accuracy of 0.02 mm.
The early 1970s. Pure copper wire electrodes are used. 1970
1974 As a consequence of the use of the results obtained by the
Second half of the 1970s: brass wire used instead of pure copper team coordinated by Dulebohn, a wire-cut EDM machine
wire. 1970
controlled by the optical-line following system was achieved.
Copper wire electrodes coated with zinc. 1980
Brass wire coated with zinc. 1981 Masuzawa proposed the wire electrical discharge
1985 grinding (WEDG) process.
Tsuchiya et al. have proposed and investigated a hybrid process 1985
later called travelling wire electrochemical spark micro-machining Wire vibration.
(TW-ECSMM), to machine non conductive workpiece. 1989 Brass wire electrodes coated with zinc for high-precision
cutting and coated Cu-50 mass % Zn for high-speed were
Wire electrode including core materials of stainless wire coated 1990
used.
with copper.
1990 A control subsystem to monitor and control the spark
frequency to estimate the workpiece height proposed by
Studies concerning the ultrasonic aided wire electrical 1994
Rajurkar et al.
discharge machining were made.
1997 A subsystem for online estimation of the workpiece height
2001 based on using neural networks and hierarchical adaptive
An electrostatic induction feeding method, mainly applicable to control.
micro WEDM process.
2006
Plastic deformation of the surface’s intersections
At Nanjing Univerity, a high-speed WEDM (HSWEDM) process 2009 characterized by small value angles under the action of the
was proposed and investigated. attraction or repulsion forces were reported.
2009
Cryogenic treatment (cooling to -110oC or to -184oC applied to 2010 Twin-wire electrical discharge grinding proposed by Sheu.
the brass wire filiform tool electrode.
2012
Gotoh et al. have proposed a wire electrical discharge milling
Tangential feed WEDG process proposed by Zhao et al. 2013 process.

2015 Method for the online monitoring of discharge pulse in

Zhang proposed the use of polyvinyl alcohol in distilled water as a WEDM middle speed based on digital image processing
machining fluid when applying WEDM to nanocomposite ceramic. 2015
and machine learning.
2015
A high-precision constant wire tension control subsystem to
Active supplying wire-electrical discharge grinding (AS-WEDG) improve the workpiece surface quality and geometric
proposed by Li et al. to diminish the wire fluctuation and improve 2018
accuracy.
the aspect ratio of the microelectrode.
2019

Figure
Figure2.2.Evolution
Evolutionofofknowledge
knowledgeabout
aboutWEDM
WEDMprocesses and
processes equipment.
and equipment.

4. WEDM Equipment
4. WEDM Equipment
The WEDM
The WEDMmechanical
mechanicalsystem
systeminvolves the the
involves CNC controlled
CNC worktable
controlled (X–Y) (X–Y)
worktable on whichon the workpiece
which the
is clamped and an electrode wire driving mechanism for continuous motion through
workpiece is clamped and an electrode wire driving mechanism for continuous motion through the the workpiece
with a mechanical
workpiece tension between
with a mechanical tensiona between
pair of wire guides
a pair (Figure
of wire guides1). (Figure
According to the workpiece’s
1). According to the
height, the lower
workpiece’s wire
height, theguide
loweriswire
stationary, and
guide is the upperand
stationary, guide
the could
upperbe repositioned
guide could bealong the Z axis.
repositioned
The
alongmechanism
the Z axis. involves movinginvolves
The mechanism the upper guidethe
moving in upper
Cartesian
guidecoordinates
in Cartesian (U–V) by driven
coordinates servo
(U–V)
motors to obtain tapered surfaces.
by driven servo motors to obtain tapered surfaces.
spark generator
The spark generator enables
enablesvarious
variousforms
formsofofelectric
electricpulses.
pulses.It It allows
allows thethe variation
variation of of electrical
electrical
parameters toto adapt
adapt the
thesparks
sparkstotothe
theworking
workingconditions
conditionstoto generate
generate a series
a seriesof of
electrical discharges
electrical discharges
between the workpiece
workpieceandandthethecontinuous
continuouswirewireelectrode.
electrode.
Machines 2020, 8, 69 5 of 28

If how the dielectric fluid reaches the working zone is taken into account, the following categories
of WEDM processes can be highlighted [6]:

1. Submerged type WEDM, when the wire electrode and the workpiece are immersed in the
dielectric fluid;
2. Non-submerged (co-axial flushing) type WEDM, when the dielectric fluid reaches the space around
the wire electrode in the machining zone from the top and the bottom nozzles;
3. Dry and near dry WEDM, when the dielectric liquid is replaced with a minimum amount of
atmospheric gas or other gas. In this case, the ecological requirements are better fulfilled.

In recent decades, the development and improvement of numerical control subsystems have
generated a strong impetus for designing and developing new WEDM equipment. Such equipment
has made it possible to solve a broad set of problems required by the WEDM process in a short time.
If the first software for the numerical control of WEDM equipment was quite complicated, it gradually
came to simpler software, which allows the development of CNC programs even by specialists who do
not have in-depth knowledge in this field [16].

5. Improvements in the WEDM Processes and Equipment

5.1. General Classification

A possible grouping of improvements applied to the WEDM process could consider:

- Improvements regarding the machining equipment and its operation;

- The emergence of hybrid machining processes, with the adaptation of machining equipment to
the requirements of such processes;
- Improvements of the geometric wire shape and chemical compositions of the wire materials;
- The use of the WEDM process for new materials and including the improvement of the
characteristics of the surfaces processed as a result of the application of WEDM;
- Identifying the optimal conditions for the development of the WEDM process.

These improvements will be briefly addressed below, with a separate chapter covering some key
ways to optimize WEDM processes.

5.2. Improvements Regarding the Machining Equipment and Its Operation

Improved solutions for the pulse generator. The improvement of the WEDM process results
acting on the characteristics of electric discharges characteristics was implicitly connected with some
improved pulse generators or at least of the generators capable of ensuring the variation between
certain limits of the machining pulse characteristics [30,31]. A particular objective of the research
regarding the improvement of pulse generators was to ensure better environmental protection. This led
to the effective shaping of “clean-cut” type generators [31]. Intending to eliminate the influence of
stray capacitance in the pulse generator circuit and at the same time, the wear of the wire electrode
connection brushes in the pulse generator circuit, methods aiming to use electrostatic induction feeding
method were investigated [21].
Subsystems for the estimation of workpiece height. The use of WEDM in the case of a
workpiece that presents components with different thicknesses highlighted an unstable process in
the transition zone. The research developed to avoid or reduce such a negative effect aimed at using
information during the processing process to assess the thickness of the workpiece thickness and
change continuously. As such, the values of process input factors so that an optimal process occurs.
The information regarding the spark frequency [20], the abnormal ratio defined by the proportion
of abnormal sparks in a sampling period [32], variable gap error (considered as a combination of
ionization-time and servo voltage) [33] were used. New subsystems were proposed to be part of the
WEDM machining equipment.
Machines 2020, 8, 69 6 of 28

Near-Dry WEDM. Near-Dry WEDM is a machining process involving a minimum amount of

liquid with a mixture of gases to the working gap. This process’s main advantages are a possible better
quality of the resulting surface, more stable development of electric discharges, and a reduced negative
impact on the environment. In recent decades, this latest argument has led to a real intensification of
the research in near-dry WEDM [34,35].
Use of an additional indexing axis of rotation. Better knowledge of how the WEDM process
was used to separate parts with different contours from the plate-type workpiece, suggested machining
revolutionary surfaces. This led to the addition of an indexable rotation axis of the workpiece that
allowed the development of effectively distinct WEDM grinding and turning processes, but also to the
machining of slots in secured positions using an indexable positioning subsystem of the workpiece by
its controlled rotation around an axis [7,36].
Wire electrical discharge grinding. The initial version of the wire electrical discharge
grinding (WEDG) was proposed by Masuzawa in 1985 and applied to produce high accuracy
microshafts repeatedly.
The WEDG process has certain similarities with the wire electrical discharge turning (WEDT)
process. Both processes were used to remove material from a rotating axially workpiece against the
wire’s traveling electrode. In the opinion of some researchers, the difference among the two machining
methods is the fact that WEDG is used, like the classic grinding, to obtain a lower roughness of the
machined surfaces and sometimes a higher accuracy of these surfaces (a high accuracy also being
accessible to some WEDT processes).
There are currently several machining processes that are known under the more general name
of WEDG. The process called twin-wire WEDG allowed the simultaneous development of rough
and finish machining, thus reducing two-thirds of the machining time (Figure 3a). Subsequently,
there was a process which was promoted in which instead of the radial feed motion, a tangential feed
motion was used. This method was called tangential feed WEDG (TF-WEDG) (Figure 3b) [17,26].
The method was reducing the effect of the workpiece positioning error in the conventional radial feed
WEDG version (Figure 3a). The twin-mirroring-wire tangential feed electrical discharge grinding
(TMTF-WEDG) (Figure 3c) was then promoted. It was considered as a combination of twin-wire WEDG
with tangential feed WEDG [17]. Using a novel active supplying wire-electro discharge (AS-WEDG)
device, a microelectrode of 40.3 µm in average diameter and 49.6 in aspect ratio was obtained [37].
WEDM milling. Gotoh et al. [26] investigated a machining process developed by taking into
account the wire electrical drilling process. It can be seen that a traveling wire electrode was used
(Figure 4). The wire electrode is active and has a circular arc shape due to its winding on hemispherical
wire support and on which there is placed a semicircular groove. This groove determines the diameter
of the circular arc of the wire arrangement. The wire support still has the possibility of achieving
a reciprocating rotation characterized by a certain angle. Using such a tool it becomes possible to
apply three-dimensional machining, similar to a certain extent to those in traditional milling with a
ball-end mill.
As there is currently milling equipment with multiple possibilities of moving a hemispherical
milling cutter to the workpiece, especially for roughing or finishing complex surfaces of high
precision, it is expected to be investigated in the future similar milling techniques with wire electrode.
Such techniques could provide a considerable extension of the possibilities of using WEDM, taking into
account that initially the WEDM process was used only to obtain ruled surfaces.
Wire cutting of the twist drill cone flank. A method based on the WEDM process was proposed
starting from the conventional grinding wheel-sharpening process of the conical flank face or twist
drills [38]. A wire-cutting and forming device was used after a preliminary simulation of the machining
conditions using UG NX software.
Wire cutting of the noncircular gears. The high precision and the good quality of the surfaces
made by WEDM led to the idea of cutting noncircular gear teeth in a single operation [39]. CAD/CAM
software was used to determine the trajectory of the wire electrode relative to the workpiece.
 Machines 2020, 8, 69 7 of 28
Machines 2020, 8, x 7 of 29

Figure 3. Redrawn figure of the schematic representations of different WEDG processes: a—

conventional WEDG; b—tangential feed WEDG; and c—twin-wire WEDG [17].
Figure3. 3.Redrawn
Figure figure
Redrawn of the
figure ofschematic representations
the schematic of different
representations of WEDG processes:
different WEDG (a)—conventional
processes: a—
WEDG; (b)—tangential feed WEDG; and (c)—twin-wire WEDG [17].
conventional WEDG; b—tangential feed WEDG; and c—twin-wire WEDG [17].

Figure 4. Redrawn figure of the wire electrical discharge (WED) milling (ref. [26]).
Figure 4. Redrawn figure of the wire electrical discharge (WED) milling (ref. [26]).
Figure 4. Redrawn figure of the wire electrical discharge (WED) milling (ref. [26]).
Micro WEDM. The micromachining concept was defined by considering the possibilities of
obtaining parts with dimensions between 1 and 999 µm [40]. It was appreciated that the versatility
obtaining parts with dimensions between 1 and 999 µm [40]. It was appreciated that the versatility
proved by the WEDM applications led to the adaptation of this machining process, including for the
micromachining processes [41].
In principle, micro WEDM does not generate additional problems than those generally
Machines 2020, 8, 69 8 of 28
known
in WEDM. However, the maximum pulse energy must be limited to avoid breaking the wire.
Some proved
characteristics of the micro-WEDM process can be considered the small values of the
by the WEDM applications led to the adaptation of this machining process, including for the
roughness micromachining
of the processed surfaces
processes [41]. (Ra < 0.1 µm), machining accuracy (<±0.2 µm), the thickness of
the white layerIn(<2 principle,
µm), microand WEDM
gap size does(<4
notµm).
generate additional
The WEDM problems than gears
of micro those generally known in of 40 µm, a
with modules
WEDM. However, the maximum pulse energy must be limited to avoid breaking the wire.
thickness of 3.5 mm and a 30 µm width slot has been reported [42].
Some characteristics of the micro-WEDM process can be considered the small values of the
WEDM turning.
roughness of the Wire electrical
processed surfacesdischarge turning
(Ra < 0.1 µm), (WEDT)
machining accuracyis considered
(<±0.2 an adaptation
µm), the thickness of of the
WEDM processthe whitethat
layer (<2allows thegapmachining
µm), and of WEDM
size (<4 µm). The revolutionary surfaces
of micro gears of difficult-to-machine
with modules of 40 µm,
a thickness of 3.5 mm and a 30 µm width slot has been reported [42].
electroconductive materials. The existence of almost insignificant forces in size generated by the
WEDM turning. Wire electrical discharge turning (WEDT) is considered an adaptation of
WEDM processthe WEDM ensuredprocess conditions
that allows for machining
the machining the parts with
of revolutionary revolution
surfaces surfaces characterized
of difficult-to-machine
by a high aspect ratio. An materials.
electroconductive illustration
The of a WEDT
existence process
of almost can be seen
insignificant forcesin
in Figure 5. Over
size generated by the
the last decade,
WEDM process ensured conditions for machining the parts with revolution surfaces
studies have considered the effects of input factors on the values of output parameters (including characterized
by a high aspect ratio. An illustration of a WEDT process can be seen in Figure 5. Over the last
roundness decade,
and thestudies
cylindricity of turned surfaces), optimizing the development of the WEDT process
have considered the effects of input factors on the values of output parameters
[36,43–45]. (including roundness and the cylindricity of turned surfaces), optimizing the development of the
WEDT process [36,43–45].

Figure 5. Redrawn figure of the of wire electrical discharge turning (WEDT) process (ref. [36]).
Figure 5. Redrawn figure of the of wire electrical discharge turning (WEDT) process (ref. [36]).
Monitoring of the WEDM process. Monitoring a process refers to a set of actions designed
to identify changes in some characteristic sizes of the process, but without using the interruption
Monitoring of theand
of the process WEDM process.
the existing Monitoring
possibility a process
of a rapid response refers
to the to a events,
stochastic set of toactions
ensure designed to
identify changes
process in some characteristic
development sizes ofInthe
in better conditions. the process,
case of thebut
WEDMwithout
process,using the interruption
the sensors could of the
collect information about the integrity of the wire electrode, working gap size,
process and the existing possibility of a rapid response to the stochastic events, to ensure process level of vibrations,
mechanical stresses, discharge pulse characteristics, amount of heat released, temperatures reached in
development in better
the machining conditions.
zone, In the integrity
energy consumption, case of themachined
of the WEDM process,
surface, the sensors
etc. [28,46–49]. could collect
Currently,
informationsuchabout the can
information integrity of inclusively
be obtained the wire electrode,
by taking working
images from gap size,
the processing area. level of vibrations,
It was considered that one of the first uses of monitoring subsystems
mechanical stresses, discharge pulse characteristics, amount of heat released, in the field of nonconventional
temperatures reached
technologies was aimed at preventing the breakage of the wire tool electrode or even launching
in the machining zone, energy consumption, integrity of the machined surface, etc. [28,46–49].
appropriate commands if such breakage of the wire electrode occurred [46].
Currently, suchFabricating
information can beon
micro-texture obtained inclusively
the workpiece byinteresting
surface. An taking imagesapplicationfrom theWEDM
of the processing area.
It wasprocess
considered that
is the one that one
allows the of the first
generation uses of onmonitoring
of microtextures the surfaces of subsystems in ofthe field of
different categories
cutting tools. Small width slots can be made into the workpiece by controlled short working strokes of
nonconventional technologies was aimed at preventing the breakage of the wire tool electrode or
the wire electrode or the workpiece [50]. Grooves with a depth of 250 µm and width of 100 and 200 µm
even launching appropriate commands if such breakage of the wire electrode occurred [46].
Fabricating micro-texture on the workpiece surface. An interesting application of the WEDM
process is the one that allows the generation of microtextures on the surfaces of different categories
of cutting tools. Small width slots can be made into the workpiece by controlled short working strokes
of the wire electrode or the workpiece [50]. Grooves with a depth of 250 µm and width of 100 and
Machines 2020, 8, 69 9 of 28

were achieved by a WEDM process to process the cutting edges of a turning tool used to generate a
micro square structure [51].
Powder mixed WEDM. One of the possibilities to improve the WEDM process’s performance
is the introduction in the dielectric liquid of some powder particles that modify, to a certain extent,
the mechanism of material removal from the workpiece. Usually, the mixed powder particles
in the dielectric are electrically charged and arranged in chain formation, which facilitates the
earlier generation of electric discharges. These effects result in an increase in material removal rate
and improved machined surface roughness in these surfaces’ texture. Tungsten carbide, cobalt,
boron carbide, silicon, silicon carbide, and aluminum can be used as powder materials [52–54]
Combined electrical wire discharge-electrochemical machining in sequential use. To obtain
specific benefits, both the EDM process (machining accuracy) and ECM process (quality of the surface
integrity), a successive machining by wire electrical erosion and, respectively, by wire electrochemical
erosion on the same machining equipment, using the same wire tool electrode, have been identified
and investigated [55]. Tap water was used as the dielectric liquid for WEDM, while aqueous sodium
chloride solution was preferred for wire ECM.

5.3. Hybrid WEDM Processes

There are also improvements to the WEDM process which consider combining the WEDM process
with other unconventional processes or by assisting the WEDM process with other conventional or
unconventional processes.
It is worth mentioning that the WEDM process is assisted by vibrations in the sonic or
ultrasonic field [19,56], wire electrochemical discharge machining [18,57,58], and abrasive wire electrical
discharge machining [59].
A possible direction for the future development of the WEDM process could be determined by
examining the possibilities of combining WEDM with aspects specific to one or more conventional or
unconventional processing processes.
Wire electrochemical discharge machining. It is mainly applied to nonconductive brittle
materials such as quartz glass or ceramics.
The machining process can occur either by immersing the machining area in the electrolyte or
by introducing the electrolyte in the form of droplets [57,60]. The drops also contribute to a material
removal of the products resulting from the process in the working gap. The tool electrode is connected
to the cathode, using another additional electrode (Figure 6a), connected to the direct current source’s
anode, and located near the workpiece. It is necessary to ensure a certain pressure between the wire
electrode and the workpiece. In essence, the electrolysis process contributes to the appearance of
oxygen and hydrogen bubbles. The electric discharges passing through the hydrogen bubbles gradually
remove material from the workpiece. The electrolyte may be, for example, an aqueous solution of
sodium chloride.
In Figure 6b, an illustration of the electrochemical discharge-assisted diamond wire cutting can
be observed. The diamond wire was obtained by bonding diamond particles onto the steel wire [61].
The process ensures a material removal rate higher than that of the case using the conventional diamond
wire cutting process.
High-speed WEDM (HSWEDM). In principle, the high-speed WEDM (HSWEDM) process is a
WEDM process in which high speeds of wire movement in both directions along its axis are used,
much higher (10–12 m/s) than those in the case of ordinary WEDM processes (1.5–80 mm/min [12,63,64]).
It is estimated that the removal of material from the workpiece results from both electrical
discharges and the anodic dissolution of the workpiece material, which would include this process in
the category of hybrid processes. The HSWEDM ensures a 200–600% increase in the material cutting
rate. The process involves using a new wire winding subsystem, hybrid electrolyte, and high-efficiency
pulse generator.
 Machines 2020, 8, 69 10 of 28

External magnetic field-assisted WEDM. It was found that the presence of a magnetic field at
the working zone contributes to an increase in the density and stability of the plasma channel, to the
intensification of the debris removal from the workpiece surface, to an improvement of machining
efficiency and quality [65,66]. The magnetic field’s influence on the WEDM process was investigated
Machines 2020, 8, x 10 of 29
when the magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the direction of the wire electrode’s movement.

Figure
Figure 6. Redrawn
6. Redrawn figure
figure concerning
concerning the assisting
the assisting electrode
electrode use inuse
the in theelectrochemical
wire wire electrochemical discharge
discharge
machining: a—simple version; and b—electrochemical discharge-assisted diamond wire cutting[61,62].
machining: (a)—simple version; and (b)—electrochemical discharge-assisted diamond wire cutting
[61,62].
5.4. Improvements Concerning the Wire Tool Electrode Material and Geometrical Characteristics
High-speed
When selectingWEDMthe (HSWEDM). In principle,
wire electrode’s material theand
high-speed WEDM
dimensions, (HSWEDM)
properties suchprocess is a
as conductivity,
WEDM process in which high speeds of wire movement in both directions along its axis
tensile strength, elongation, melting point, straightness, flushability, cleanliness, geometric properties are used,
much
(diameter, (10–12 coating,
higher shape, m/s) thanandthose in the
surface layercase of ordinary
structure) WEDM processes
are considered [3,14]. (1.5–80 mm/min
[12,63,64]).
Trying to achieve high-speed and high-precision WEDM, Okada et al. used a piano wire coated
It isa thin
with estimated
wire of that
an the removalconductive
electrically of materialbrass
fromlayer
the [9].
workpiece results from both electrical
discharges and the anodic dissolution of the workpiece
Various versions of wire electrodes have also been proposed material, which
andwould
to some include
extent,this process and
investigated
in even
the category of hybridThus,
used in practice. processes. The HSWEDM
there were proposed wire ensures a 200–with
electrodes 600%cross-sections
increase in the material
that revealed the
cutting
presence of a core coated with a single layer (for example, the brass core coated with a layerhigh-
rate. The process involves using a new wire winding subsystem, hybrid electrolyte, and of copper
efficiency
alloy) or pulse
withgenerator.
two layers (a low boiling temperature will characterize the outer layer), with an oxide
External
layer magnetic
(to diminish field-assisted
the WEDM. It was
process of developing founddischarges
electrical that the presence of a magnetic
on the side of the wirefield at
electrode),
the working zone contributes to an increase in the density and stability of the plasma channel, to the
with a layer formed by twisting thin wires of brass characterized by high mechanical strength and an
intensification of the debris removal from the workpiece surface, to an improvement of machining
external layer of zinc or zinc alloy). The possibilities of using electrodes with a cross-section different
efficiency and quality [65,66]. The magnetic field’s influence on the WEDM process was investigated
from the circular one (rectangular, square, trapezoidal section, with triangular channels or other shapes)
when the magnetic field lines are perpendicular to the direction of the wire electrode’s movement.
and possibly obtained by twisting [3], as well as wire electrodes on which diamond particles were
attached to outer surfaces [67].
5.4. Improvements Concerning the Wire Tool Electrode Material and Geometrical Characteristics
The cryogenic treatment of the brass wire tool electrode (cooling to very low temperatures) was one of
theWhen selectingsolutions
researcher’s the wire toelectrode’s material
improve the and dimensions,
wire electrode’s properties
behavior. such of
As a result as the
conductivity,
application of a
tensile strength, elongation, melting point, straightness, flushability, cleanliness,
cryogenic treatment, the structure of the wire electrode material (brass) was refined, and the electrical geometric
properties
conductivity(diameter,
of theshape,
materialcoating, and surface
was improved, thuslayer structure)
facilitating an are considered
increase [3,14]. removal rate [25]
in the material
and an improvement of the surface roughness [68]. Filiform electrodes madepiano
Trying to achieve high-speed and high-precision WEDM, Okada et al. used a wire
of brass coated and
[25,68,69]
with a thin wire of an electrically conductive brass layer [9].
zinc-coated diffused brass [68–71] were subjected to cryogenic treatments.
Various versions of wire electrodes have also been proposed and to some extent, investigated
Wire deflection and deviation from the prescribed path of the wire electrode. Although the
and even used in practice. Thus, there were proposed wire electrodes with cross-sections that
tension force acts on the wire electrode and it should ensure a rectilinear shape of its axis, the wire
revealed the presence of a core coated with a single layer (for example, the brass core coated with a
electrode does not behave like a rigid bar. Under the action of forces quite small in value generated by
layer of copper alloy) or with two layers (a low boiling temperature will characterize the outer layer),
the electroerosive process, the dielectric liquid circulation in the working gap and feed motion along
with an oxide layer (to diminish the process of developing electrical discharges on the side of the wire
the established path, the electrode wire deforms, and its axis is no longer rectilinear in the machining
electrode), with a layer formed by twisting thin wires of brass characterized by high mechanical
zone (Figure 7) [72–74]. There is also a vibration of the tool electrode between the upper wire guide and
strength and an external layer of zinc or zinc alloy). The possibilities of using electrodes with a cross-
lower wire guide, and this usually generates a larger kerf width in the middle zone of the workpiece.
section different from the circular one (rectangular, square, trapezoidal section, with triangular
channels or other shapes) and possibly obtained by twisting [3], as well as wire electrodes on which
diamond particles were attached to outer surfaces [67].
The cryogenic treatment of the brass wire tool electrode (cooling to very low temperatures) was one
of the researcher’s solutions to improve the wire electrode’s behavior. As a result of the application
of a cryogenic treatment, the structure of the wire electrode material (brass) was refined, and the
 deflection and its vibration have been proposed [72,75–77].
Another error investigated by researchers refers to the deviation from the prescribed path in
trajectories that include sharp angles or radii of small values. This error can be determined by the
accuracy of the relative feed movement subsystems between the wire and workpiece, by the use of
certain commands for the CNC subsystem, but also by the previously mentioned wire deflection
Machines 2020, 8, 69 11 of 28
[72,73,78], or plastic deformation of thin tips, to the diamagnetic or paramagnetic character of the
workpiece [23].
Wiremethodologies
Research tension control
and subsystems
simulations ofwere proposed
errors generatedand experimented
by the with,deflection
wire electrode’s improvingand the
its
machinedhave
vibration surface’s quality and
been proposed geometric accuracy [76,79].
[72,75–77].

Upper wire
guide

Upper workpiece
surface
Workpiece feed

Lower
wire guide

Figure7.7. Redrawn
Figure Redrawn figure
figureof
ofthe
thewire
wiretool
tooldeflection
deflectionin
inthe
thework
workzone
zoneduring
duringthe
theWEDM
WEDMprocess
process[72].
[72].

Another errorofinvestigated
5.5. Improvements by researchers
the Usage Properties refers
of the Parts to thebydeviation
Obtained from the by
WEDM, Including prescribed
Using New path
Partsin
trajectories
Materials that include sharp angles or radii of small values. This error can be determined by the
accuracy of the relative feed movement subsystems between the wire and workpiece, by the use of certain
Expanding
commands for thethe
CNCrange of materials
subsystem, processed
but also by theby WEDM. mentioned
previously As a result wire
of thedeflection
development of car
[72,73,78],
manufacturing fields, increasingly diversified materials could be observed. A consequence
or plastic deformation of thin tips, to the diamagnetic or paramagnetic character of the workpiece [23]. of this fact
has Wire
been tension
the research
controlefforts aimed
subsystems at investigating
were proposed and the various materials’
experimented behavior
with, improving theduring
machined the
WEDM process and, respectively, to optimize
surface’s quality and geometric accuracy [76,79]. the machining of workpieces made of such materials.
Thus, it was found, first of all, that the use of WEDM for very different groups of
5.5. Improvements ofmaterials
electroconductive the Usageand
Properties
some of thetheParts Obtained
studies in thisby WEDM,took
direction Including by Using New
into account:
Parts Materials
- Various steels [68,78,80–82];
Expanding the range of materials
- Nickel–chromium-based processed
alloys and by WEDM.
superalloys As a [30,83
type Inconel result–of
91],the development
nickel-based of car
alloys [2];
manufacturing fields, increasingly diversified materials could be observed. A consequence of this fact
has been the research efforts aimed at investigating the various materials’ behavior during the WEDM
process and, respectively, to optimize the machining of workpieces made of such materials.
Thus, it was found, first of all, that the use of WEDM for very different groups of electroconductive
materials and some of the studies in this direction took into account:
- Various steels [68,78,80–82];
- Nickel–chromium-based alloys and superalloys type Inconel [30,83–91], nickel-based alloys [2];
- Aluminum alloys [92–94], tungsten [95,96], copper [97];
- Titanium and titanium alloys [30,98–103];
- Aerospace alloys [31,104];
- Shape memory alloys [105];
- Carbide type materials [34,106–108];
- Polycrystalline diamond [109];
- Semiconductor materials: silicon [110–113], germanium [114];
- Some categories of composite materials [44,106,115–127];
Machines 2020, 8, 69 12 of 28

- Ceramics [27].
Improving the use of properties of surfaces obtained by WEDM. Mechanisms specific to the
WEDM process lead to the generation of specific geometric characteristics of the processed surface and
structural changes in the machined surface layer. Some of these consequences of using the WEDM
process can determine the improvement in the part of the operating behavior.
Trauth et al. managed to optimize the surface’s integrity previously obtained by the WEDM
process using the surface finishing process machine hammer peening. In this way, an improvement
of the fatigue strength of the workpiece material (Inconel718) was observed [128]. Improvement in
mechanical properties and especially fatigue strength has also been noticed in the use of WEDM for
the manufacture of highly loaded titanium parts for space applications [129]. In other situations,
it was appreciated that the topography of the obtained surface has more convenient tribological
characteristics, allowing to increase the load-carrying and the duration of use of the gears whose flanks
were obtained by WEDM [130].
WEDM of ceramics. The concept of ceramics refers to a wide range of hard, brittle, heat-resistant,
and corrosion-resistant materials, made by shaping and then firing a nonmetallic material. In principle,
it is known that to be processed by WEDM, the materials must have a certain electrical conductivity.
From this point of view, ceramics can be divided into the following categories:
- Conductive ceramics, characterized by electrical conductivity of at least 10–2 ohms.cm (titanium
nitride TiN, titanium diboride TiN2) and which, with some small difficulties, can be processed
by WEDM;
- Nonconductive ceramics: for such materials, a so-called assisting electrode method was considered.
There must be at least a thin conductive layer on the workpiece’s surface or immediately near
this surface [131,132]. Under the action of high temperature developed by the electric discharges
between the wire electrode and the conductive layer, cracks are developed, and this effect can
contribute to the removal of material from the workpiece. The dielectric hydrocarbons can also
be cracked. Some of the resulting conductive carbon compounds could adhere to the surface of
the workpiece, ensuring a certain continuity of the conductive layer. Another WEDM way of
non-conductive ceramics was based on an electrolyte in a hybrid WEDM process;
- Semiconductive ceramics, whose WEDM process can take into account the version applicable
in the case of conductive ceramics (with lower machining performance) or the one usable in
nonconductive ceramics.
In recent years, Zhang [27] appreciated that fluid machining is the main influencing factor of
MRR and surface integrity quality when applying WEDM to ceramic nanocomposites. Smirnov et al.
considered obtaining low asperities at the WEDM of ZrO2 /TiN ceramic nanocomposites not to
negatively affect the flexural strength of the parts [133].

6. Input Factors and Output Parameters for WEDM

The wire electrical discharge machining system (Figure 1), as any other system, was defined by the
input factors, by the output parameters which measure the process performance, the intermediate process
factors (parameters whose values are continuously changing during the process), and the disturbing
factors or system noise [1,59,134].
Depending on the possibility of choosing their values, the input factors are classified into adjustable
factors and imposed factors, which are, in general, those related to the workpiece or some devices of the
WEDM machine. The WEDM process performance is decided by the values of the following input factors:
- Characteristics of the wire electrode tool: material, the chemical composition of wire electrode
tool, resistivity, specific heat, thermal conductivity, melting temperature, latent heat of melting,
vaporization temperature, latent heat of vaporization, specific mass, tensile strength, wire diameter,
the shape of the wire (cross-section, structure), positioning accuracy of EF (angular positioning,
coordinate error in the horizontal plane, etc.);
Machines 2020, 8, 69 13 of 28

- Characteristics of the workpiece: thickness, material, chemical composition, electrical conductivity,

specific heat, thermal conductivity, melting temperature, the accuracy of workpiece positioning, etc.;
- Characteristics of the positioning-clamping device: positioning-clamping accuracy, clamping force, etc.;
- Characteristics of the dielectric circulation subsystem: electrical conductivity of the dielectric
liquid, chemical composition, impurities concentration, liquid viscosity, surface tension, specific
heat, temperature, flow direction through the working gap, dielectric pressure, inlet flow,
relative position of the electrodes pair to dielectric flow;
- Characteristics of the electric pulses: voltage pulses shape, frequency and filling factor, pulse on-time,
pulse off-time, cycle time, discharge frequency, peak or average voltage, peak or average current,
pulse energy, electrodes polarity;
- Characteristics of the mechanical conditions: stability of the wire electrode feed subsystem,
sensitivity and reaction speed, the adjustment range of the wire electrode feed subsystem,
running speed of wire electrode, axial tension of the wire electrode, distance between the guides
of the wire electrode, the initial inclination of the wire electrode;
- Characteristics of the process control and optimization subsystem: possibilities for the monitoring,
adaptation, and optimization of parameters.

Intermediate factors or so-called process-dependent parameters are dependent on the characteristic

of the fundamental phenomena in the working gap, and their values change during the process.
The following intermediate parameters can be considered:

- Characteristics of the material removal processes: the working gap size (front and lateral), kerf width,
technological gap shape (kerf size in the upper workpiece zone, at the of workpiece bottom,
at mid-height of workpiece, convexity, taper angle), length of the free path of particles expelled
from the crater, percentage of pulse energy received by the working environment, by the workpiece
material, the volume of removed material from the wire electrode tool by a single discharge,
average depth of the crater in the electrode tool surface and in the workpiece surface, local average
density of spurious pulses, and short-circuited pulses, local, average current intensity;
- Characteristics of the evacuation processes: flow rate of solid waste and of gaseous waste from the
gap, local density of erosive particles, average speed and pressure of shock waves, flow rate of
erosive particles formation;
- Forces that act on the wire electrode: electrostatic forces, electromagnetic forces, hydrostatic forces,
hydrodynamic forces, forces due to the pressure in the plasma column, forces due to the pressure
of the gas bubble;
- Wire electrode deformations: dimensional deformation, vibration, position in the two directions,
properties, structure.

The performance of the WEDM process is evaluated using the following output parameters:

- Characteristics of process productivity: productivity, cutting speed evaluated in mm/min or mm2 /min,
totally removed volume, the total length of the machined kerf;
- Characteristics of the machined surface of the workpiece: the physicochemical appearance of
the machined surface (chemical composition, structure, properties), geometric appearance
(dimensional accuracy, shape and position accuracy, maximum shape deviation, the roughness of
rounding radii of the edges of the machined surfaces) [135];
- Wire electrode wear characteristics: wire electrode wear rate, relative volume wear, specific consumption
of wire electrode;
- Degree of process stability;
- Processing time: total working time, specific working time;
- Processing cost: specific cost of used wire electrode, total specific machining cost.
Machines 2020, 8, 69 14 of 28

The analysis of the presented system (Figure 8) suggests the complexity of the WEDM process
and the fact that establishing the optimal processing conditions must be the result of analyzing the
effects of as many factors as possible and the interactions between them.

Figure 8. Several factors and groups of factors highlighted when analyzing WEDM as a system.

Sometimes, highlighting the input factors in the WEDM process was done using Ishikawa
diagrams and grouping the factors considering the dielectric medium, the wire tool, the machine,
and the workpiece [2].
In extensive research to optimize the WEDM process, by reviewing 32 scientific articles,
Alduroobi et al. [134] assessed the importance of the WEDM process input factors by considering the
number of articles addressing these factors. They found that as input factors, 28 articles mentioned
pulse input on-time, 24 papers—pulse off-time, 17 papers—current intensity, 16 papers—servo-voltage,
13 papers—wire speed, 10 papers—servo feed, 8 papers—wire tension, 8 papers—dielectric pressure,
3 papers—workpiece thickness, etc. At the same time, as process output parameters, they found that
there were addressed problems related to surface roughness (in 22 papers), material removal rate
(16 papers), machining speed (7 papers), machining accuracy (4 papers), kerf width (3 papers),
white layer thickness (2 papers), machining time (2 papers), electrode wear rate (2 papers),
surface waviness (1 paper), etc.
Corner and wall thickness accuracy. It was found that the WEDM process can ensure the accurate
machining of the intersections of surfaces at sharp angles on the one hand, and on the other hand,
of parts with quite low thicknesses. In the first case, the numerical control subsystem’s characteristics
can exert a significant influence on machining a low-value radius of connection of surface intersections.

7. Influence of Different Factors on the Values of the Parameters of Technological Interest in the
Case of WEDM
Some aspects specific to the results obtained by the experimental research of the WEDM process
were summarized in Table 1. From the synthetic diagrams included in the table, it was found that
sometimes they showed the same variation trend of an output parameter when changing the values
of an investigated input factor, as, at other times, there were pronounced differences between the

1
Machines 2020, 8, 69 15 of 28

trends of variation. The explanations of the differences can be found essentially in the different
domains of values related to the variation of the input factors, the different materials of the workpieces,
electrodes, dielectric fluids, and the possible interactions of the input factors. Then, some simple
general considerations resulted from the analysis of the information contained in Table 1 will be
presented. In many situations, the explanations regarding the influence of the input factors, values on
the sizes of the output parameters are entirely valid also for ram electrical discharge machining.
In principle, increasing the pulse time on-time will lead to an increase in the amount of energy
corresponding to the electrical discharge in the machining process’s productivity. When the discharge
energy exceeds some values specific to the proper machining conditions, however, there is an increase
in the amount of vapor of the electrodes’ materials, the number of particles detached from the electrodes
and found in the dielectric liquid, the intensification of the pyrolysis process that affects the properties
of the dielectric liquid and as such, a possible reduction of processing productivity. The curves of
variation of the machining process productivity to the pulse duration can therefore present a maximum
point. In the cases of some diagrams included in Table 1, it can be noticed that the experimental
studies have highlighted the existence of a maximum point, as sometimes they may correspond to the
ascending zone or the descending zone of the curve.
Explanations similar to those presented above can be formulated in the case of the influence
exerted by the intensity of the current in the electrical discharge and, to a certain extent, for how the
gap voltage affects the productivity characteristics of the WEDM process. Thus, it was accepted that an
increase in the voltage gap has, as a consequence, an increase in the intensity of the discharge current,
and therefore of the energy corresponding to the electrical discharge. In fact, increasing the voltage
gap leads to an increase in the number of electrically charged particles that break the working gap and
increase the distance they are able to cover.
A decrease in the productivity of the process can usually be signaled in the case of the influence
exerted by the increase in the duration Toff of the pause between the pulses, due to the decrease in the
time interval in which the electric discharges act on the electrode materials.
If the increase in flushing pressure of the dielectric fluid worsens the conditions for electrical
discharges, we will see a decrease in WEDM process productivity. However, suppose by that increasing
the flushing pressure, there is a faster evacuation of detached particles, a refresh of the working gap
with clean and favorable dielectric fluid, and as such, there will be an increase in process productivity.
The diagrams in Table 1 revealed somewhat contradictory and explicable aspects.
As mentioned above, at the plasma column’s contact corresponding to an electric discharge with
the electrodes’ surfaces, a material removal process develops. It is desirable that the sampling of
workpiece material be maximum or rigorously controlled. On the other hand, the material is taken
from the wire electrode, causing its wear. The continuous displacement of the filiform electrode along
its axis was reported to diminish the wear’s influence on the machining accuracy.
However, the process of wearing the wire electrode cannot be avoided, but machining conditions
that lead to the minimum wear of the wire electrode can be identified. Such conditions can be
considered in the context of optimizing the WEDM process. Since the removal of material is largely
similar to that of removing material from the workpiece, it was expected that the influences exerted by
different input factors would be similar to those of the influence exerted by the same input factors on
the productivity of the WEDM process. This was evidenced by the trends of the curves in column 6
(corresponding to the wear of the wire electrode) in Table 1 with those of the curves in column 2
(corresponding to the productivity of the WEDM process).
As there are many factors whose effects and interactions influence the values of technological
interest parameters, but in the literature accessible to the authors of this review paper, no graphical
representations corresponding to these influences were identified, thus Table 1 contains only synthetic
graphical information on such aspects.
 representations
representations
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1- [35,136]
1- [35,136] 1- [35,136]
1- [35,136] 1- [137] 3- [101][99,136,137]
1-[99,136,137]
1- [137]1- [137] [137] [99,136,137]
time [35,101,132,136–
time 3-
1- [82,91]
3- [82,91] 3- 3- [35,101,132,136–
[35,101,132,136–
[82,91]
[82,91] 1- [99,136,137]
3- [82,91]1- 3-
138]
[82,91]
138] 2- [101,116]
1- 2-
[35,136] 2-
[101,116] 2- [84,101]
[101,116]
[101,116] [84,101][84,101] 2- [138]
[84,101] 2- [138]2- [138]
1- [136] 1-
2- [138]
2- [101]
[136] 2- [101] 2- 2-
[101]
2- [101]
[82] 2- [82]
1- [82]
2- 2- [82]
138][35,101,132,136–
138] 1- [35,136] 3- [101] 3- 3-
[101] 1- [137] 1- [137][99,136,137]
[101]
[35,101,132,136–
3- [82] 3- [82] 3- [82] 3- [82] [84,101] 3- [101]
2- [138] 2- [138] [99,136,137]
Pulse-off Pulse-off 2- [116]
2- [116]2- [116]
2- Pulse-off
[116] 2- [101,116] [84,101] 3- [101] 3- [101]3- [101]3- [101]
Pulse-off Pulse-off 138] 138] 2- [101,116] 3- [101] 3- [101]
2- [101] 2- [101] 2- [82] 2- [82]
time time 3- time
time [82,91]3- [82,91]3- 3- [82,91]
[82,91] 3- [82] 3- [82] 3- [101] 3- [101]
time Pulse-off 2- [116]
timePulse-off
1- [35,116]; 1-2-[35,116];
[116]
1-
1- [35,116]; [35,116];
1- [35] 1- [35] 1- [35]
1- [101]1- [101]
1- [101]
1- [101] 1- [138]1- [138] 1- [138]
1- [138]
1- [137] 1- [137] 1- [137]1- [99,138] 1- [99,138]
1- [99,138]
1- [99,138]
Pulse-off
Pulse-off 3- [82,91]
1- Pulse-off
[35,116];
Pulse-off
Pulse-off 2- [82,91,101] 2- 1- [35] 1- [35] 1- [101]
2-3-[82,91,101]
[82,91]
[82,91,101] 2- [84]
1- [101] 2- [84]
2- [84]
1- [138]
2- [84] 2- [101] 2- [101] [137] 1- [137] 1- [99,138]
2-1-[101] 2- [82] 2- [82]
2- [82]
timetime time 2- time
[82,91,101]2- [82,91,101]
1- [35,116]; 2- [101,116]
1- 2-
[35] 2- [101,116]
2- [101,116]
[101,116] 2- [84] 2- [101] 2- [101]
1- [138] 2- [101]
1- 2-
[137]2- [101]
[101] 2-2-[101] 2- [82]
1- [99,138]
time 2- [101,116] 2- [101] [82]
Pulse-off time time 3- 3-
1- [138]
1- [138] 3-
[35,116];
[35,116]; 3- [35,116];
[138][138]
2- [82,91,101]3- [138] 31-- [35]
[82] 3[82] 3 - 1-
-[35]
[82] [82] 2- [84]
1- [101]
[101] 1- 1- [101]
[101]1- [101] 2- [101]
1- [138]
1- [138] 1- 3-
1- [101] 3-
2- [82]
[99,138]
[99,138] 3- [99,138]
[101][101]
3- [101]
1- 1-
[35,116];
1- [35,116];
1- [35] 2- 3 -
[101,116]
1-
1- [35]1- [35] 1- [101] 1- 1- [138]
[138]1-1-[138]
1- 2- [101]
[137]
[137] 1- 1- [137]
[137] 3- [101] 1- 1-
[99,138]
1- [137] 1- [99,138] [99,138]
1-
1- [35,116]; 3 - [82]1- [35] 2- [84] 2- 2- 1- [138] 1- [137]
Pulse-off
Pulse-off 3- [138]
2- [82,91,101]
Pulse-off
Pulse-off
2- [82,91,101] 2- 2- [82,91,101]
[82,91,101]
2- [82,91,101] 3 - [82] 2- [84] [84]
[84] 2- [84] 2- [101]2- 2-
2- [101] [101]
[101]2- [101] 2- 2-
[82] 3- [101]
[82] 2- 2- [82]
[82]
2- 2- [101,116]
[101,116] 2- [101,116]
2- [101,116]
2- [101,116] 2- 2- [101]
[101]
1.2-
2- [101]
[101]2- [101] 2- [82] 1. [82] 2-
1.
time time
timePulse-off
[35,116];
time
2- [82,91,101] 1. 2-[35]
3- [138]3- 3-
3- [138] [138]
[138]3- [138] [101,116] 1.2- [84][101] 1. 2- [101]
[138] 2- [101] [137] 3- [101]3- 3-
3- [101] [101]
[101]
[99,138]
3- [101]
2. 1- [82,91,101]
Pulse-off 3- [138] 3 - 3[82]
- [82]3 -3[82] - [82]
3 - 1-
[82] 2. [101] [101]1-2.[99,138]
3- [99,138] [82]
[35,116]; 1- 1- 2.
[35,116];
[35,116]; 3 -
1- [35,116]; 1- [35]1- [35] 1- [35][101,116]
[82] [101]
1- [35] 2. 1- [101]
[84]1- 1-
[101][101]1- [138] 1- 1-
[138]
1- [138] 1- [137] [138] 2. [101] 1- [99,138]
time 3. time 1-1-[137]
1- [137]1- [137] [99,138]
1-
[138]
2- Dis-
[82,91,101] 2- [82,91,101]
2- [82,91,101] 3.
2- [82,91,101] [82] 2- [84] 2- [84] 2- [84] 2- [84]2- [101] 2- [101]2- [101]2- [101] 2-[101]
[82] 2- [82] 2-3.[82] [101]
2- [82]
Dis- Dis- Dis- 1- [35,116]; 2- [101,116]
2- 2-
[101,116]
1- [35] 1- [35] 2- 1-
[101,116]
[101,116] [101] 1- [101] 1- [138] 2- [101] 2- [101] 2- 2-
[101] 1- [99,138]
Dis- 1- [35,116];
3- [138] 1- [138]1- [137] 1- [137] 1- [99,138]
charge 3- charge
[138]
charge 3- [138]3- [138]
2- [82,91,101] 3 - [82] 3 - [82] 3 - 3 -
[82] [82] 2- [84] 2- [101] 3- [101]
2- 3- [101]3- [101]
[82] 3- [101]
charge Dis- charge 2- [82,91,101] 2- [101,116] 2- [84] 2- [101]2- [101] 2- [101] 2- [82]
1-
3- [35]
[138] 1-3-[35]1- [35] 3 - [82] 2- [101,116] 1- [136] 1- [136] 1- [136]
Dis-current
Dis-
current charge
Dis- [35] 1- [35]
current
current current
1- Dis-
Dis- [138] 3 - [82] 1- [136] 1- [136] 1-3- [101]1- 3-
[136]
1- [136] 1- [136]
[136]
1-[101]
[136]
Dis- 2- [82]
1- 2-
[35] 2-
[82] [82]
2- [82] [35,82,101,136] 1- [101]1- [101]
1- [101]
1- [138]
2- [101]
1- 2-
[136] 2- [138]
[138] 2- [138]
current
chargecharge
charge 2- charge
charge[82] [35,82,101,136]
[35,82,101,136]
[35,82,101,136] 1- [101] 2- [138] 2- [83] 2- [83][83]
1- [136] 2- 2- [83]
[35,82,101,136] 2- [84] 2- [84]
2-1-[84]
2- [101] [101]
[101] 2-
[101] [83]
charge 1- [35]
currentcurrent
current
3-
1- [138]
[35]
3- current
[138]
current
3-
2- [82] 3- [35]
[138]
1- 1-
[138]
3- [138]
[35]1- [35] [35,82,101,136] 2- [84] 1- [101]3- 1-[84]
3- [101]
[136]
[136]
[101] 3-
2- [138] 3- [136]
1- 1-
[101]
[101]
[136]3- [101]
1- [136] [101] 3-
1- [82]
1- [82]
[136] 3-
2- [83]
[136] 3- [136]
[82] [82]
3- [82]
currentDis- 4- 1- [138]
[35] 1- [136] [101] 3- 1- 1-[136]1- [136]
Dis- Dis- 2- [101,132]
Dis- 3-
[82]
2- [101,132]
4- [82] 4- 4- [82]
2- 2-
[101,132]
4- [101,132]
[101,132]
[82]2- [82] [35,82,101,136]
[35,82,101,136] [35,82,101,136]
[35,82,101,136]
[35,82,101,136]
1-2-
1- [101] [84]
[101] 1- 1-
[101]2- 3- [101]
1- [138]
2-[101]
[138][101] 2- 2- [138]
[138]2- [138] 2- 4-
2-
[83]
1- [136]
[101] 4-
3- [82]
[83] 4- [83]
[101]
2- [101]
4- [101]
2- [82] [35,82,101,136] 2- [84] 1- [101] 2- [138] [101][101] [101] 4- [101] 2- [83] 2- [83]
charge charge charge charge4- [101,132]
3- [138]
3- [138] 3- 3- [138]
[138]3- [138] 2- [84] 2- 2- 3-[84]
[84] 2-3-[84]
[101]3- 3-
[101] [101]
[101]3- [101] [101] [101] 4- 2- [101]
[83]
Dis- Dis- 3- [35]
[138]1- [35] 2- [84] 3- [101] [101] 3- 3-
[82] [82] 3- 3- [82]
[82] 3- [82]
current
Dis-charge current current 1-
4- [35] 1-
current
current
4- [101,132]
[101,132] 4- 4- 1- [35]
[101,132] 1- [136] 1- [136] 1- 1-
[136][136] 1- 3- [82] 1-[101]
1-[101]
[136][136]
charge charge4- [101,132] [101,132]
4- [101,132] 4- [136] 1- [136]
4- [101]
[101] 4- 4-[101]4-
2- [82] 2- [82] 2- 2-
[82] [82] 1- [101]
[35,82,101,136]
[35,82,101,136] 1- [101] 1-
2- 1-
[101]
[138] [101]
2- [138] 2- 2-
[138][138] 4- [101]
current1. current 1- [35] 1- [35][35,82,101,136]
[35] [35,82,101,136] 1- [136] 1. 1- [136]
[136] 2- [83] 2- [83] 2- 1.
1- [136] 2- [83]
[83] [136]
3- [138] 3- [138] 3- 3-
[138][138] 2-1.[84] [84] 2-
2-[101] 3- 2- [84]
[84]
[101] 3- [101] 3- 3-
[101] [101] [101] [101]
[101] [101] 1- [136]
2. 2- [82] 2- [82] [35,82,101,136]
[82] [35,82,101,136] 1- [101] 2- [138]
1- [101] 2. 2- [138] 3- [82]
[101] 3- [82] 3- 2.
2- [83] 3- [82]
[82] [83]
4- [101,132]
4- 4-
[101,132] 4- [101,132]
[101,132] [35,82,101,136] 2.2- [84]
[84] 2- [84] [101] 2- [83]
3. 3- [138] 3- [138]
[138] 3- [101] 3. 3- [101] [101]4- [101] 4- [101]4- 3. 4- [101]
[101]
3- [82] 3- [82] [82]
4.2020, 4-
x8,[101,132]
[101,132] 4- [101] 4.
Machines
Machines 2020, 8,Machines
x 4- [101,132]
2020, 8, x 17 of
17 29
of4-29[101] [101]
17 of 29
Machines 2020, 8, x 17 of 29
Machines 2020, 8, x 17 of 29
Machines 2020, 8, x 17 of 29
Machines 2020, 8, x 17 of 29
Machines
Machines 2020, 8,2020,
Machines
Machines
Machines 2020, x 8, x8,2020,
2020, x8, x 8, x 1729
17 of1729of of of
17 2917
29of 29

Machines 2020, 8, x
Gap 17 of 29
Gap Gap
Machines 2020, 8, x 17 of 29
Machines
Machines
voltage
voltage 2020,
Gap Machines
2020, 8, x8,2020,
voltage x 8, x 17 of 29 17 of 29
17 of 29
Gap
Gap voltage Machines Gap 2020, 8, x
voltage 1- [101]
1- [101] 1- [101] 1- [83]
1- [83]
17 of 29 1- [83]
Gap Machines voltage
1- [35]
2020, 8, x 1- [35]
1- [35] 1- [35] 1- [101] [101]
[101] [101]
voltage 1- [35] 1- [35] 2- [81]
2-1.[81] [101] 1- [101]2- [81] [101] [101] [101] 2- [139]
2- of 1-17[83]
[139] of 292- [139]
Machines 2020, 8,Machines x 1- [35] 2020, 8, x2- [101,116] 1- [35] 2- [101,116] [101] 17 29 1.1- [83] 17 of 29
voltage
GapGapGap 2- [91,101,116]
2- [91,101,116] 2- 2- [101,116]
[91,101,116] 1- [35] 3- [84,140]2- 1-
[81]
3-2.[84,140] [101] 3- [84,140] [101]
[101] [101] 3- [101] 2- 1- [83]3-[83]
[139]
1.Gap Gap [35] 1- [35] 1- [35] 1. 2- 1- [35][35]
[101,116] 1- [101] [81]2- [81] [101] [101] 3-
[101] 1- [83] 2- 2. [101] 2- [139][101]
2- [91,101,116] 3- [139]
3- [139] 3- [139]
2- [101,116](air 3- 2-
pressure)
(air [81](air pressure)
[84,140]
pressure) [101] 3- [101][139] [139]
voltage voltage
voltage2.voltage voltage
[91,101,116] 2- [91,101,116]
1- 2.
[35] [101,116]
2- [101,116] 3. 3-
[84,140] [84,140] [101] 3- [101]
1- [35] 2- [91,101,116] 3- [139]
Gap 3- [139] 2- [81] 1- [101]
(air 3-1- [84,140]
[101]
1-
pressure)
1- [101] 1- [101][101]
[101] 2- [139]
1- [83]1- 3- 1-3.
[101]
[83] [83]
1- [83][101]
1- [83]
2-Gap
[91,101,116] 3. 1- [35]
2- [101,116]
1- [35]1- [35]
[139]
3-
1-[139]
[35]
1- [35]1- [35] (air
3- [84,140] (air pressure)
pressure) [101] 3-[101]
voltage
Gap Gap Gap 1- [35]
voltage
1- [35]1- 1-
[35] [35]
3- [139]
2- [81]2-(air2-
[81] pressure)
[81]
2- [81]2- [81] [101] [101] [101][101] [101]
[101] [101] [101] [101]
2- [139] 2- 2-
2- [139] [139] 2- [139]
[139]
2- 2-
2- [91,101,116] [91,101,116]
2- [91,101,116] 2- [101,116]
2- [91,101,116]
[91,101,116] 2- 2-
[101,116]
2- [101,116] 1-
(air3-[101]
2- [101,116]
[101,116] pressure) 3- 3-[84,140] 1- [83] 3- [101]
voltage
voltage
Gap voltage 1- [35] [84,140]
3- [84,140] 1-3-[101]
[84,140][84,140] 3- [101]
3- [101] 1-3-[83]
3- [101] [101]
[101]
FlushingGap 1- Flushing
Flushing [35]
1- [35] 3- [139] 3- 3-
3- [139] [139]1-3-[35]
[139] 2- [81]
[139] 1- [101]
1- (air
(air [101](air
pressure) 1- [101]
pressure)
(air
pressure) (air [101]
pressure)
pressure)
2- [81] [101]
2-
[101][139] 1- [83]1- 2-
1- [83] [83][139]
Gap voltage
pressure? Flushing
pressure? 2- [91,101,116]
Gap 1- [35] 1- [35] 2- [101,116]
1- 1-
[35] [35] 1- [35] 3- [84,140] [101]
[101] [101]
voltage 1- pressure?
Flushing 1- [35]
[35] 2- 2- [101,116] 2-
2-1-[81] [81]2- [81] [101] [101] 3- [101] 2-[83]
[139] 2- [139]
Flushing
voltagepressure?
[35]
1- 1-[91,101,116]
[35]
3- [139] 2- [101,116]
2- [101,116]
[101] 3- [84,140] [101] 2-1-[139] 3- [101]
voltage 2- [91,101,116] 2-1-[101,116] 1- [101]
Flushingpressure?pressure?2-1-[91]
2- [91]
2- [35]
1- [35]2- [91,101,116]
[91,101,116]
2- [91] 1-
[35]
[35]
(air pressure)
3- [139] 3- [84,140]
3-2-[84,140]
1- [101] [81] 3- (air
[84,140] [136]
pressure)
1- [101] [136]
[101] [136] [4] [4] [101] 1- [101]
3- [83]
[139] 3- [101]
[4]3-2-[101]
1- [35]1- [35] 3- 3-
[139][139] 3- [139] [81]
2-[81]
[81] [81] [101] [101] [136] 1-
[136] [83] 2- [139][136] 1- [83]
1-
3- 2-[4]
[35]
[4] 1- [35] 1-
[91,101,116]
2- [91] 1- [35]2- [101,116]
[35,136]
[35,136] 1- [35] [35,136]
(air (air
3- pressure)
(air pressure)
pressure)
[84,140] [136] [101] [4] [101]
pressure? 3- 3- [35]
[4] 2- [101,116] 2- [81]3- [84,140] [81] 2- [81] [101] [136] [4] 3- [101]
Flushing Flushing
Flushing Flushing
1- Flushing 2- [91]
2- [91,101,116] 3- [139][35,136] [81] [136] [101] [4] 2- [139] [136]
3- [101] 2- [139]
Flushing pressure? 2- [35] 3- 2-
[91,101,116] [4][91] 2- [91,101,116]
3- [4]
2- [101,116]
3- [139][35,136] 2- [101,116]
[35,136] (air
3- [84,140] pressure) [81] 3- [84,140] 3- [101] [136]
[136]
3- [101]
pressure? pressure?
pressure? pressure?
pressure?
2- [91] 3- (air pressure) [136] [4]
Flushing 1. 1-[35]
[35]
1- [35]1-[4]
[35]
1- [35] 3- [139]
1- [35] 3- [139] [81]
(air pressure) (air pressure) [136]
3-Flushing
[4] [35,136] [136] [136][136] [4] [4] [4][4]
[136] [4] [4]
pressure? 2-
2.Flushing[91][91]
2- 2-
[91] [91]
2- 2-
[91] [91] [136] [136]
Flushing [81] [81] [81] [81] [81]
Flushing 1-pressure?
[35] 3- [4]
3-[4][4] 1-3-[35]
[4] [35,136] [35,136]
[35,136]
[35,136] [35,136] [81]
[35,136] [136] [136] [136]
[136][136] [136]
pressure? 3.pressure?
pressure? 3- [4] 3- [4] [136] [4]
WireWirefeed
Flushing
feed 2- Wire
[91] 1-feed
1- [35] [35]1- [35] [81] [136] [4]
Flushing 2- [91] [35,136] [81] [136] [136]
Flushing Wire feed
pressure? 3- [4] 2- [91]2- [91] [35,136] [81] [81] [136] [136] [4][4] 1-[4][99,137] [136]
pressure?Wire1- Flushing
2-feed
[91]
1- [91]
1-[91]
[35] 1-[4]
3- [91] [81] 1- [99,137]
[136][136] [136] 1- [99,137]
Wire feed 1-
3- [35]
[4] [8] [35,136]
[8]
[35,136] [35,136] [8][84] 1- [99,137]
pressure? 2-
1-
pressure?
3-
[8]
2-2-
[35] 1-
[4]
[8][91] [91]3- [4] 2- [8] [84] [84] [136] [137] [4]
[137] 2- [83]
2- [83]
[137] 1- 2- [83]
[99,137]
Wire feed 2- [91] 1- [91]1- [35] [8] [81] [136] [4] [136]
[35,136] [8] [84] [137] 2- 1-
[83][99,137]
3- [91]
2- [132] [4]1-
2-
3-3-[132] [8][91] 3- [132]
2- [8] 2- [91] [35,136] [8] [81] [84] [136] [136] [4] 3- [8]
[137] 3-[4][8]
[136] 2- [83] 3- [8]
Wire Wire Wire
feed 1-feed
Wire
feed Wire
[91]feed
3- feed
[4]
2- [8] [81] [84] [81] [137]1-
[136][99,137]3- 2-
[8] [83] [136]
3- [4] 3- [132] 3- [4] [35,136]
3- [132] [8] [35,136]
[84] [137] 2- [83] 3- [8]
2- [8]
1- [91] 3-
1- [91]1-[132]
[91]
1- 1- [91]
[91] 1- [99,137]3-
1- [8]
[99,137]
1- [99,137]1- [99,137]
1- [99,137]
Wire feed [8] [8] [8][8] [8]
3-Wire
[132]
2-feed
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factors
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WEDM
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WEDM
investigated
energy
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WEDM the
WEDM WEDM
process,
process
discharges,
process
process
process,
process,
of [134,142].
process,
process
electric
on also
such
also
output
such such
process,
as
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allowed
also
flushing
wire
as
discharges,
allowed
as
such
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wire
allowed
parameters an
wire
also
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wire
flushing
Machines 2020, 8, 69 17 of 28

However, there are other factors whose effects on the output parameters in the case of the WEDM
process can also be discussed.
Thus, the polarities corresponding to the two electrodes involved in the process exert, of course,
a significant influence. For short pulse times, only a small number of ions can cross the entire working
gap and transfer energy to the workpiece surface layer. As a consequence, such situations could lead
to a lower machining productivity determining an electron character of the material removal from
the workpiece. This would correspond to a connection of the workpiece to the positive pole of the
power supply, following that when high productivity is pursued, the workpiece will be connected to
the negative pole.
However, the effect of electrode polarity can be significantly modified by other process input
factors, such as the tool electrode and workpiece materials, the chemical composition of the dielectric
liquid, the values of electrical and mechanical machining input factors, which may favor or prevent
the formation of a graphitizing film on the wire tool electrode, etc.
The existence of very high temperatures, which determines the melting and even vaporization
of small quantities of the workpiece material and the wire electrode, will lead to the appearance
of a heat-affected zone. The thickness of this zone, and the thickness of the white layer resulting
in steels and cast iron by decarburization, are dependent on the energy of electric discharges,
flushing conditions, etc. [101,136,138,141].
Deeper research into the influence of input factors in the WEDM process also allowed an assessment
of the weights of the effects exerted by these factors [101,134].
To a lesser extent, the influence of some input factors in the WEDM process, such as wire diameter,
spark gap or workpiece height, spark ignition intensity, workpiece cross-section, and pulse shape,
on the values of the process output parameters was investigated [134,142]. There is also relatively little
research on the influence of input factors in the WEDM process on output parameters such as the
corner radius, wire offset, and acoustic emission signal [142].

8. Modeling and Optimizing the WEDM Process

The need to use some models appears especially when the problem of optimizing the process arises.
The empirical models (first-degree polynomial, second-degree polynomial, power type function,
etc.), established using regression analysis, are well known and applied even for the WEDM
process. The constants and exponents are present in the empirical models, but most often graphical
representations made based on the models provide information about the intensity of the influence
exerted by the input factors in the WEDM process or the interactions of these factors on the values of
some output parameters [99,137].
Extensive research has been undertaken to outline and use more complex mathematical models,
the matrix type, and the Taguchi method.
The methods used over time to model the WEDM process and its results can be highlighted as
regression analysis and response surface methodology [99], the Taguchi method [134,143–145], and the
least squares method [50].
As previously mentioned, using specialized software for processing experimental results, empirical
mathematical models were identified for the output parameters of the WEDM process, with the inclusion
of independent variables of a greater or lesser number of the input factors of the process. Most such
empirical mathematical models are based on the use of first or second-degree polynomial functions
and power functions, respectively. With software evolution, more complex empirical mathematical
functions have been considered.
As examples of empirical mathematical models, we can mention those established by
Ikram et al. [144] for the kerf width and the Ra roughness parameter. The respective models were in
the form of a first degree polynomial with eight independent variables, which were the workpiece
thickness, open voltage, pulse on-time, pulse off-time, servo voltage, wire feed velocity, wire voltage,
and dielectric pressure. An example of the power function used as an empirical mathematical model
 Machines 2020, 8, 69 18 of 28

was recently proposed by Yang et al. [50] for the width of the slits used to generate micro-textures in a
cemented carbide workpiece, taking into account as independent variables (input factors), the pulse
on-time, pulse off-time and pulse current. Sometimes, researchers have also proposed more complex
empirical mathematical models, which also consider the interactions between two or more input
factors in the WEDM process.
Theoretical mathematical models are also important and are determined by taking into account
the different input factors in the WEDM process. For example, theoretical models for the wire vibration
during the WEDM process were highlighted by some researchers [42,74].
If the amplitude of the lateral vibration is taken into account, Chen et al. [76] considered that
the kerf width could be expressed as a function of the radius of the cross-section through the wire
electrode and the breakdown distance, i.e., the maximum distance between the wire electrode and the
workpiece for which the electric discharge no longer occurs [76].
Straka et al. appreciated that the shape error of the real surface obtained by the WEDM process to
the requested surface could be estimated by the sum of different dimensional deviations [78].
Some of the models proposed over time to characterize some of the specific aspects of the
WEDM process can be seen in Figure 9. When developing the graphic representation from Figure 9,
the information identified in the consulted literature [5,11,23,32,75,82,102,132,146–151] was taken
Machines
into2020, 8, x
account. 19 of 29

2018: General regression 2018: Box-Behnken

neural network (GRNN) and design used to 1994: Non-linear discrete model
multiple regression analysis perform the to correlate the cutting speed
(MRA) experimental runs with spark frequency

2014:Optimisation
using MADAM-TOPSIS 2010: Spark distribution
approach and wire vibration by high-
speed observation

2013:Simulation of
crater formation
2007: A self-tuning fuzzy logic
algorithm with grey prediction was
proposed to improve the WEDM
2013: Simulation of the
process in the case of a varying
temperature and thermal MODELLING THE thickness of the workpiece
stress field in the WEDM PROCESS
reciprocating travelling
WEDM
2010: Adaptive control system
with self-organizing fuzzy sliding
2013: Teaching learning- mode control strategy for micro
based optimization method, WEDM machines
the method being initially
promoted in 2011
2010: Optimizing the trajectory
of the relative movement
2012: Wire between the wire electrode and
vibration workpiece
2011: Using the Plucker 2011: Regression
coordinate representation to modelling and Tabu-
design the desired ruled search algorithm
surface

Figure
Figure 9. Some
9. Some ofproposed
of the the proposed models
models forWEDM
for the the WEDM process.
process.

Optimization
Optimization refers
refers to identifying
to identifying one one or more
or more solutions
solutions appreciated
appreciated as most
as the the most convenient
convenient fromfrom
several available solutions. Optimal solutions are sought in many areas of human
several available solutions. Optimal solutions are sought in many areas of human activity, and it wasactivity, and it was
normal, as such, to formulate the problem of optimization in the WEDM
normal, as such, to formulate the problem of optimization in the WEDM process. process.
Considering
Considering this this process
process as a system,
as a system, its optimization
its optimization can becan be approached
approached from several
from several pointspoints
of
of view. Thus, by optimizing the process, it can follow the identification of that
view. Thus, by optimizing the process, it can follow the identification of that combination of the input combination
of the
factors inputthat
values factors values that
contributes contributes
to the maximizationto theormaximization
minimizationorofminimization of an output
an output parameter
parameter (monocriterial
(monocriterial or monobjective or monobjective
optimization) optimization)
or of manyor output
of manyparameters
output parameters (multicriterial
(multicriterial or
multiobjective optimization). In this sense, the problem of maximizing the cutting speed within the
WEDM process (for example, in the case of the need to ensure high productivity), of minimizing the
height of the machined surface asperities, and of maximizing the machining accuracy (in case of a
high accuracy cutting) were all addressed.
A problem of interest for optimizing the WEDM process was the one in which it was necessary
Machines 2020, 8, 69 19 of 28

or multiobjective optimization). In this sense, the problem of maximizing the cutting speed within the
WEDM process (for example, in the case of the need to ensure high productivity), of minimizing the
height of the machined surface asperities, and of maximizing the machining accuracy (in case of a high
accuracy cutting) were all addressed.
A problem of interest for optimizing the WEDM process was the one in which it was necessary to
identify the path of the relative movement between the wire and workpiece to ensure a high machining
accuracy in the case of small width grooves in the workpiece. Such a problem has been addressed,
for example, in the situation of the manufacture of graphite discs with thin circular grooves, the WEDM
process was selected to be used [58].
To date, in the field of WEDM processes, researchers have addressed to a lesser extent monocriterial
optimization problems [50], however, they have more frequently addressed multicriteria/multiobjective
optimization problems, applied in this sense as different methods, such as:

- Taguchi method [81,84,89];

- Taguchi and analysis of variance [143,146];
- Taguchi and grey relational analysis [126,147];
- Box-Behnken design (considered a type of response surface methodology (RSM) designs)
method, showing that it is possible to reduce the number of experiments aimed at optimizing
the WEDM process [82,99];
- Grey-based response surface methodology [87];
- Grey relational analysis [148];
- Grey-fuzzy methodology [98];
- Response surface methodology;
- Response surface methodology coupled with grey relational analysis–Taguchi technique [152];
- Desirability function analysis (DFA) and Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal
Solution (TOPSIS) methods [127,153];
- Genetic algorithms [47];
- Non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm approach and Pareto method [138];
- Artificial neural networks [154];
- Teaching learning-based optimization [36,155–157];
- Analysis of the fractal dimension of the surface obtained by WEDM [158], etc.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) has been used relatively often to highlight the significance of the
factors found concerning one or more of the objectives considered functions [150].
The grey relational analysis is based on evaluating the quantitative relationship between the two
series’ elements, one of the series, including the entities of the best quality. The grey relational analysis
method is used when at least two output parameters of the WEDM process are considered. Each of the
output parameters is associated with a certain distinguishing coefficient that highlights the importance
of each output parameter in an overall assessment. The sum of the distinguishing coefficients is
equal to 1. Most research has taken into account two [147] or at most three output parameters of the
WEDM process. It may also be of interest to optimize the WEDM process using grey relational analysis,
which considers even more than three process output parameters.

9. Evolution Trends of WEDM Processes

Over the last decade, many researchers have focused their research on optimizing the wire EDM
process for machining specific materials such as superalloys (austenitic nickel–chromium-based,
nickel-based, etc.), nickel alloys, titanium alloys, shape memory metallic materials such as
nickel–titanium alloy, porous metallic materials, metal matrix composites with ceramic reinforcement,
tungsten carbide, boron carbide, and silicon wafers. Their work was developed using various
scientific tools such as response surface methodology, multiple regression analysis, neural artificial
Machines 2020, 8, 69 20 of 28

networks, Taguchi method, analysis of variance (ANOVA), grey wolf optimizer, fuzzy method,
maximum deviation method, particle swarm optimization, Monte-Carlo simulation, etc.
Although the first wire EDM machine was introduced to the industry around 1976, the WEDM
process continues to be a research topic today, with the number of published works constantly increasing.
Thus, according to the ScienceDirect database filters, over 5700 papers have been dedicated to wire
EDM to date. For 2020 alone, over 850 papers on this topic have been published. This increased interest
in wire EDM is due to its versatility in ensuring complex shapes, both in soft and hard conductive
materials. WEDM can cut both solid and low stiffness parts.
A suggestive image of the development of research in the WEDM process can be seen in the
diagram in Figure 10. This diagram was also developed by taking into account the existing information
in the ScienceDirect database. It was found that in recent years there has been an impressive increase
in Machines
the number of papers addressing issues related to the WEDM process.
2020, 8, x 21 of 29

Machines 2020, 8, x 21 of 29

Figure 10. Evolution of the number of scientific papers related to the WEDM process in the
Figure 10. Evolution of the number of scientific papers related to the WEDM process in the
ScienceDirect database.
ScienceDirect database.

Appreciating that it is of interest to the research direction regarding the optimization of the WEDM
process, Figure
Figure10.11Evolution
was made. The
of the increase
number in the number
of scientific of papers
papers related to the whose
WEDM titles
processaim to approach some
in the
ScienceDirect database.
problems of WEDM process optimization can be observed.

Figure 11. Increasing the number of papers addressing WEDM process optimization issues in the
ScienceDirect database.

10.Figure 11. Increasing the number of papers addressing WEDM process optimization issues in the
Conclusions
Figure 11. Increasing
ScienceDirect database.the number of papers addressing WEDM process optimization issues in the
Wire electricaldatabase.
ScienceDirect discharge machining is a way of applying electrical discharge machining. In
WEDM, a reduction in the influence of tool electrode wear was achieved using a moving wire along
its10. Conclusions
axis, which usually unwinds from one storage roller and is wound on another roller. The
expansion
Wireofelectrical
the WEDM process
discharge has been issignificantly
machining favored electrical
a way of applying by the emergence
discharge and development
machining. In
ofWEDM,
numerical control subsystems.
a reduction in the influence of tool electrode wear was achieved using a moving wire along
its Currently,
axis, whichthere is unwinds
usually an explosive
from development of research
one storage roller on theonWEDM
and is wound anotherprocess, being
roller. The
approached
expansion of inthe
different
WEDM directions
process hasof research.
been A brief
significantly statistical
favored by the analysis highlighted
emergence the great
and development
Machines 2020, 8, 69 21 of 28

10. Conclusions
Wire electrical discharge machining is a way of applying electrical discharge machining. In WEDM,
a reduction in the influence of tool electrode wear was achieved using a moving wire along its axis,
which usually unwinds from one storage roller and is wound on another roller. The expansion of
the WEDM process has been significantly favored by the emergence and development of numerical
control subsystems.
Currently, there is an explosive development of research on the WEDM process, being approached
in different directions of research. A brief statistical analysis highlighted the great interest of the
scientific investigation, application and optimization of the WEDM process. The research’s general
objectives were aimed at widening the possibilities of applying WEDM and improving the performance
of the WEDM processes. Thus, some research has sought to improve the various components of the
WEDM system. The diversification of WEDM processes is registered. The attempt to apply the WEDM
process in the case of very different materials and including for the machining of workpieces made of
materials characterized by a very low electrical conductivity were developed. Many types of research
have focused on identifying and characterizing how input factors act in the WEDM process. As output
parameters of the process, the process’s productivity, the roughness and accuracy of the machined
surfaces, the thickness of the heat-affected zone, the wear of the tool electrode, and the kerf width
were taken into account. Better knowledge of the influence exerted by the process input factors on
the output parameters’ values was followed by efforts to optimize the WEDM process. Monocriterial
optimization was approached, but most often, multicriteria optimization methods were used. Both in
the case of investigating the influence exerted by the input factors on the values of output parameters
and in research to optimize the WEDM process, mathematical models were developed using modern
mathematical tools.
The literature study has shown a significant increase in the number of works published in recent
years and addresses the issues related to the WEDM process. This trend is expected to continue in the
next few years. It is considered that the emphasis in the future will be on investigating the possibilities
of using new versions of the WEDM process and on using this process in the machining of materials
that will be identified in the future. Further efforts to optimize the WEDM processes are also expected,
including new requirements specific to the Industry 4.0 stage.

Author Contributions: L.S. conceived the general structure of the paper and investigated the aspects concerning
the modeling and optimization of the WEDM processes; O.D. investigated the aspects concerning the WEDM
equipment, process input factors, and parameters of technological interest; M.C. investigated the research issues
of the WEDM process in recent decades, G.N. elaborated the considerations concerning the evolution of the
scientifical and technical information concerning the WEDM; and I.B.B. synthesized the information concerning
the influence of different factors on the parameters of technological interest corresponding to WEDM processes;
A.H. investigated the improvements achieved in the last decades in the field of WEDM. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interests.

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