BICOL UNIVERSITY

College of Education

Asian Studies

CHINA
CONFUCIANISM

Confucianism is regarded as a moral philosophy and set of ethical system. It

originated in China about 500 B.C. and profoundly influenced Chinese culture. Confucianism’s
founder was Confucius, a great teacher and sage. Confucian teaching contains much
common sense about human relations, but they are a good deal more than that, reflecting
and shaping a highly distinctive set of values, norms, and sociopolitical patterns.
Confucian philosophy held that there was a basic order in the universe a natural
harmony linking man, nature, and the cosmos or heaven. Confucianism speak of a supreme
being (shangdi) who exerted great influence in the human world, by Confucius’s times,
references to shangdi had given way to a different concept of an impersonal “Heaven” (tian).
The natural world was seen as the model for the human world, both running by regular rules.
Nature was a nurturing power, not a hostile one, grander and more to be admired than human
works, something to which people should harmoniously adjust rather than attempt to
conquer. “Heaven does not speak”; it merely shows us a model of order and harmony to
emulate.
 Confucianism stresses the importance of living in harmony with others and adopting
certain virtues. One of the most important is humaneness, or a variation of the Golden Rule.
This belief system also stresses love of family, righteousness, honesty and responsibility and
meeting one’s obligation to society. Society is imagined as a set of relationships: ruler to
subject, father to son, husband to wife, older brother to younger brother, friend to friend. Each
side of the relationship has obligations to the other. A hierarchy of power and authority based
on age, gender, and status is assumed in all relationships. The dominant figure in each
relationship—rulers, elders, males—is expected to guide and protect the weaker, while the
weaker respects, obeys, and serves the dominant. Confucian idea also stress that a person
learns to be loving through experiencing live in his family. Becoming a moral person depends
on extending to others in an ever widening circle, the love and consideration that are fostered
in a natural way in the family itself.
In Confucianism, it tells that education makes people good, and good people act nobly.
Confucius believe that people are born naturally good and naturally inclined to virtue but need
education and the virtuous example of superiors to stay that way. Confucius emphasized
human-heartedness, benevolence, respect for superiors, filial loyalty, right relations, and most
of all learning as cures for chaos and as the formula for achieving great harmony that was his
chief objective.
Force and law are no substitutes for or guarantees of individual virtue or social
harmony, and indeed they were seen as ineffective as well as unnecessary in a properly run
society. People must want to do right, and that can be achieved only by internalizing morality.
When force or punishment has to be used, the social system has broken down. The doctrine
also allowed for individual ability and dedication, based on the conviction that everyone is born
with the seeds of virtue. By self-cultivation and by following virtuous examples, anyone can
become a sage. No priests are necessary, only self-development.
Loyalty to superiors was a Confucian tenet, but loyalty to moral principle was considered
a basic. The people has the right to rebel against immoral or unjust rulers who had forfeited
their legitimacy (what the first Zhou ruler had claimed as “the mandate of Heaven”) by their
lapse from virtue. Confucius advised sons who witnessed their fathers misbehaving to
remonstrate with them but not defy them. An immoral man could lose his claim to be a ruler,
but a son had a lifelong duty to help his father behave as a father ought to behave. Natural
calamities such as floods, droughts, or earthquakes were commonly taken as portents of
Heaven’s displeasure at the unvirtuous behavior of rulers and as pretexts for rebellion,
especially since they disturbed the Confucian sense of order and harmony, the greatest social
goals. Leaders sometimes must issue penitential edicts acknowledging their lack of virtue as
a ruler, real or fancied, in order to persuade Heaven to restore prosperity or the broken
harmony of society. If things went wrong lower down it was the result of the bad example of
lack of moral leadership of the superior men.
 These are how Confucian philosophies is manifested in the way of life of those who
believe and accept its principles.
The Chinese society reflected the basic as well as positive practical Confucianism view
of the world, where the greatest of all blessings was the enjoyment of a long life, or, more
accurately, the enjoyment of living. This included the particularly Chinese emphases on the
pleasures of good food, the production of children, and the attainment of a ripe old age
surrounded by one’s descendants. These are still notably Chinese values, and the culture built
around them has attracted the admiration of successive generations.
Many followers of Confucius in the Chinese societies in general merely extended
respect for one’s elders and to those who had gone before, valuing them as models and
performing regular rituals in small household shrines to keep their memory alive. It was the
duty of the eldest son to perform rituals on the death of his father, through successive
generations, keeping the ancestral chain intact and thus ensuring family continuity.
The teaching of Confucianism that of all the sins against filiality, the greatest is to have
to descendants. This attitude hampered recent Chinese efforts to reduce the birthrate, since
it clearly favors sons and may influence the parents of girls to keep trying for a boy.
The successive dynasties, emperor and leaders of China presided over annual rituals
at the imperial capital to intercede with Heaven for good harvests, to pray for rain, an end to
floods, pestilence, or civil chaos, or to commemorate the imperial ancestors. Confucianism in
general strikes an interesting balance between providing scope for individual self-
development or cultivation, and hence achievement, on the one hand, and on the other the
subjection of the individual to the greater good of the family and society.
Every society evolves its own balance between individual license and the need to
protect the group interest and to preserve order through rules. Following the principles of
Confucianism even up to this date no wonder why China persisted as a progressive country
and one of world’s most successful societies for a very long time because it accepted the
creed of Confucianism. It is important to remember, however, that the endurance of
Confucianism is largely due to its feeding into existing patriarchal values and by bolstering the
position of educated male elites in whose name the system evolved.
 TAOISM

Taoism also from China, is a philosophical and religious system that originated sometime
between the 300’s and 200’ B.C. It is traditionally traced back to Lao Tzu, he wrote Tao-te ching,
or Classic of Tao and its virtue, this work contains the basic Taoist teachings, has been one of
China’s most important books. Taoism developed several prominent themes and these themes
center on the Tao (or Dao), which is considered the source of everything in the universe. It refers
to people’s obligations to play their proper social roles so as to contribute to harmony in the
world. Tao also refers to the flowing energy and the natural orders of the universe. It has two
complementary aspects, yin and yang (dark and light). Being in harmony with the Tao requires
a proper balance of these energies, which Taoists maintain comes naturally to humans when a
simple, receptive approach to life is taken. This dualism appealed to the notions of harmonious
balance in all things and the principles of yin and yang, where yang is strong, assertive, active,
intellectual, bright and male, and yin is soft, gentle, passive, intuitive, dark, and female. Taoists
agreed that both nature and humans must approximate a balance of yin and yang elements,
and agreed also in seeing nature as a model for man.
Taoism believe that those who understand don’t talk; those who talk don’t understand.
Taoists figures did occasionally speak or write, it was usually in riddles or in parallels with nature,
all making the point that worldly strivings, and especially government’, are both futile and wrong.
Their message is to relax, go with the flow, stop trying to improve things, and model yourself on
water, flowing around obstructions, adapting to what is, and seeking the lowest places.
Whatever is, is natural and hence good. The observable, rational, human world is not what
matters; only the far greater cosmic world of nature matters. It is from the cosmos that one
must seek guidance.
Taoists do not agree on the ultimate destiny of humans. Some believe that the pattern
of energy that makes up our bodies and minds will dissolve and be redistributed among the
other life forms. Taoists believe in life after death and also in worship of numerous gods. These
gods grant a happy afterlife to those who behave well, acknowledge their failings, and
participate in religious festivals. Taoist urged acceptance of things as they are, confident that
human meddling could not improve on cosmic truth. The two most important of these festivals
are chai and chiao. The first is intended to deliver souls from hell and the second is intended to
win favor from the gods. Most Chinese were Confucian when things went well (or when they
were in office), and Taoist when things went badly and in retirement or old age—workday
Confucians and weekend Taoists.
Taoism focus on spiritual and natural elements of life, including nature and observing
how the natural world works. That’s why Taoism had influence on people’s literature and the
arts, but the biggest area of Taoist influence was in science. Society search for medicinal herbs
and their varied experimentation contributed importantly to the growth of Chinese medicine and
other technologies. In this they deviated from their supposed founder’s injunctions to accept
nature without questioning and began instead to probe for its secrets.
 JAPAN
BUDDHISM

Buddhism is one of the world’s oldest and most widespread religion. Buddhism is a
very pragmatic religion; it has no central authority or organizational structure. It does not
focus on the origin of human life, nor does it deify any being, as do many religions. It focuses
on the individual’s journey to enlightenment, and it observes everyday life with great detail.
The most important Buddhist teaching are incorporated in the Four Noble Truths, which is its
core principles. The consist the following: (1) Unenlightened life is suffering. (2) The origin of
suffering is ignorance and desire. (3) Suffering can be brought to an end in enlightenment
and in nirvana. (4) There is a path to the attainment of enlightenment and nirvana. Buddhist
believe that everything in life is in a constant state of change. People do not realize they are
actually part of the flow of the universe and struggle to maintain a sense of permanence for
their separate selves. However, nothing is separate or permanent – everyone dies and is
reborn an indefinite number of times. The effects of one’s past actions (karma) determine
the quality of life a person experiences each time.
The history of Buddhism in Japan can be seen through the development of different
strands of the religion. Zen Buddhism developed in Japan and corresponds to the Chinese
strand, Chan Buddhism. When Buddhism was introduced into Japan, it had to contend with
the beliefs and traditions that were already in place. As the Japanese people adopted
Buddhism, different branches developed which concentrated on specific aspects of the
religion. One of these groups was Zen Buddhism.
Zen is not an easily explained religion. At times it seems elusive or contradictory. It
differs from other types of Buddhism by focusing on the individual’s inner spiritual
experience, and on achieving satori. Satori is the unfolding of a new world hither to
unperceived in the confusion of a dualistic mind. Zen aims to achieve a lack of supposition
by clearing and shutting down the conscious mind and allowing the unconscious to take over.
If one is able to empty the conscious mind, the unconscious receives more energy and its
contents can break through to consciousness. To accomplish this goal, one must discipline
his mind, and work toward achieving enlightenment.
 The basic idea of Zen is to get in touch with the inner workings of the self in the most
direct way. Zen does not worship any images, not even the Buddha. Followers are not taught
to meditate and concentrate on any one thing. Thoughts should be fixed on nothing. Zen aims
to achieve an inner spiritual experience and believes in the inner purity of man.
Zen Buddhism particularly emphasizes direct experience and meditation rather than
texts and explanation, as it is impossible to put teachings into words. Instead, Zen teachers
employ a sort of riddles, puzzles and questions that challenge one’s usual thinking patterns
in order to overcome barriers of enlightenment.
This concept of Zen Buddhism informs the Japanese tea ceremony. Every movement
and every object is treated with the utmost importance. Zen teachings emphasize that
everyone can achieve enlightenment, but mundane thoughts stifle it. They believe that
enlightenment can be found in the midst of everyday activities. Drinking tea therefore was
like a kind of “meditation in action. The room provides no distractions or anxiety for the
participants. It is merely a space to accommodate the tea ceremony. The ceremony utensils
are given great importance. Each utensil, the water pot, the kettle, the bamboo spoon, the
whisk, and the tea bowl are related to tea and are highly prized. The instruments are not
chosen for their utility, but for their simplicity and natural beauty. The tea ceremony cannot
be wholly appreciated without an understanding of Zen Buddhism. Zen is infused into every
aspect of the tea ceremony. It is a tradition rooted deeply in the Japanese culture and requires
insight not only in Zen philosophy, but also in ceramics, garden architecture, and cultural
traditions. The tea ceremony played an important role in ancient times and is still significant
today.

SHINTOISM

The philosophy of religion in Japan is best known by its Chinese name, Shinto, which
means “The Way of the Gods.” In Japanese it is called Kami-no-michi, which means the same
thing. Shinto began many centuries ago, when the Japanese thought their islands were the
only inhabited places on Earth. They believed in a number of nature gods and goddesses.
Until they believed that their emperor was descended from these deities. Shinto is a
consolidation of local nature-worship cults and ritual practices that centered around worship
of nature. The most important sacred books of Shinto are Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters),
and the Nihon-gi (Chronicles of Japan). Assembled in the early 700’s they are collections of
myths of a time when the world was young and the gods mingled with the Japanese people.
 Shinto has never been an organized body of thought or even what we might call a
religion. It never developed a clear moral code or coherent philosophy but did preserve early
notions of ritual purity. Shinto priests performed exorcisms and acted as diviners and
mediums. Physical dirt, death, childbirth, illness, menstruation, and sexual intercourse were
all seen as polluting, and bodies that experienced them had to be ceremonially cleansed,
often done through visits to shrines. In the approaches to every temple and many shrines
is a torii, or simple open gateway, to signal sacred ground ahead. Worship at Shinto shrines
and temples is equally simple: clapping the hands to attract the god’s attention, bowing,
and usually leaving a small gift as sacrifice. At the same time, shrines and temples are often
the sites of festivals with a carnival atmosphere, booths selling food, large and sometimes
noisy crowds, and various amusements, accompanied by a good deal of drinking and high
jinks.
Shinto attributes divinity not only to the forces of nature but also to its
manifestations, such as mountains, big trees, waterfalls, or unusual rocks, all of which are
said to contain kami, or a divine spirit. Earlier fertility cults, or aspects of them, were also
incorporated, including a rice god and phallic symbols. The concept of kami is important in
Shinto. Kami can be many things, including certain animals, and objects, forces of
environment, and spirits of the dead. They help connect humans to the wider social and
natural world. To follow the way of kami is to embrace what is pure. This includes the virtues
of sincerity, respects for others and nature, and gratitude towards one’s elders and
ancestors. It is also important to avoid impurities such as elfishness, dishonesty, disease,
and death.
Modern Japanese society is still notable for its insistence on cleanliness, at least at
home and in what is referred to as private space, if not always in public space. Water,
especially running water, is still seen as pure and purifying—hence the tiny spring
(sometimes artificial) and pool with dipper provided in the forecourt of every temple and
shrine (not just Shinto ones), where the worship per or tourist can cleanse him/herself
before entering the sacred area proper. This is a very Shinto notion, and it is possible that
the Japanese fondness for bathing, especially for hot baths as the proper close to a day,
may go back to early Shinto or pre-Shinto origins. This is still more plausible when one
considers the great number of natural hot springs in this volcanic country, still much visited
and used for bathing, and the obvious power of nature that they represent, a kind of opening
into the navel of the earth where titanic forces were generated, as in volcanic eruptions,
which of course are closely linked to hot springs.
All over Japan one can see beautiful Shinto shrines, beautiful not only because they
celebrate nature and because they are located in natural beauty spots but also because of
their classically simple architectural style. Most of the shrines are surrounded by tall trees,
others are tiny things the size of a large birdhouse, with natural bark-covered roofs, dotted
in the mountains, far from human habitation. They celebrate numerous festivals throughout
the year. These festival have also contributed to a strong sense of national and ethnic
identity among the Japanese.
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