I.

(A) Personal Details

Role Name Affiliation

Principal Investigator Prof. Sumita Parmar Allahabad University, Allahabad
Paper Coordinator Prof. Reicha Tanwar Kurukshetra Univesity, Kurukshetra
Content Writer/Author (CW) Prof. Nirupama Amity University, Noida
Prakash

Content Reviewer (CR) Prof. Reicha Tanwar Kurukshetra Univesity, Kurukshetra

Language Editor (LE) Dr. Sonal Parmar Independent Editor New Delhi

(B) Description of Module

Items Description of Module

Subject Name Women’s Studies
Paper Name The Discipline of Women’s Studies
Module Name/ Title Role of United Nations in Establishing Gender
Equality

Module ID Paper-1, Unit-5, Module-24

Pre-requisites The learner may have the knowledge of gender
equality and inequality and United Nations.
Objectives To become aware of the role of UN in promoting
gender equality, UN conferences and conventions
and current debates on women’s issues.

Keywords Gender Equality, UN, CEDAW, Human Rights

II.

1. Gender Equality1

Gender equality, also known as sex equality, sexual equality or equality of the genders, refers to
the view that men and women should receive equal treatment, and should not be discriminated against
based on gender, unless there is a sound biological reason for different treatment. This is the objective of
the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which seeks to create equality in law and in
social situations, such as in democratic activities and securing equal pay for equal work.

1.1 Efforts to Fight Inequality2

Many international bodies define gender equality in terms of human rights and economic
development. UNICEF describes that gender equality "means that women and men, and girls and boys,

1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality
1
enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and protections. It does not require that girls and boys, or
women and men, be the same, or that they be treated exactly alike."3
The United Nations Population Fund has declared that men and women have a right
to equality. "Gender equity" is one of the goals of the United Nations Millennium Project, to end world
poverty by 2015; the project claims, "Every single Goal is directly related to women's rights and societies
where women are not afforded equal rights as men can never achieve development in a
sustainable manner."4
Thus, these bodies see gender equality as an important constituent towards greater economic
prosperity and hence they promote gender equality on international forum. Their message is clear that
discrimination on the basis of gender will not be accepted and promoted by them, under any criterion, for
example, some nations of the Middle East were warned in a 2008 United Nations-sponsored Report for
denying equality of opportunity to women. The report also suggested that this disempowerment of women
is a critical factor crippling these nations' run to the first rank of global leaders in
commerce, learning and culture. Reasons being western bodies are less likely to conduct commerce and
trade activities with these nations as they retain culturally accepted attitudes towards the status and
function of women in their society which is a hindrance in empowerment of women and development of
society as a whole.
Gender equality is part of the national curriculum in many European countries, Great Britain
being one of them. Issues on gender equality are a part of personal, social and religious studies, health
education and language acquisition curricula. These area address gender equality and its effect on society
as a very serious topic for discussion and analysis.
To promote gender equality and fix the problems of discrimination on the basis of sex,
The European Union, in 2010 launched the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE)
in Vilnius, Lithuania.

2. Role of United Nations in Establishing Gender Equality5

The United Nations has taken many steps to promote gender equality, some of its responsibilities
include actions to promote and protect gender equality and women empowerment. These efforts by UN to
establish gender equality and the rule of law for all on the basis of equality are essential to this
end. Ending discrimination on the basis of gender and empowerment of women are widely recognized, as
UN goals of human rights protection, sustainable economic and social development and peace.

Gender-based discriminations are visible in many countries and across many cultures; it is even
included in laws, policies and practices of many societies. For example; in some countries women don’t
enjoy the right of inheritance to property, they cannot vote or they cannot take decision on their personal
life such as education, career or marriage. Even though the constitutions of these countries provide equal
rights to man and women and protect women’s rights but these stigmas against women are deep rooted in
societies due to discriminatory practices by law enforcement, security services, courts, lawyers and social
services. Such practices serve as major obstacles to women’s security and access to justice. Such

3
http://www.unicef.org/gender/files/Overarching_2Pager_Web.pdf
4
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality
5
http://www.unrol.org/article.aspx?article_id=28
2
customary and traditional norms and practices which are deep rooted in the social formation of these
cultures along with informal justice mechanisms contribute to gross violations of the rights of women.

2.1 United Nations Charter

The Charter of the United Nations which was signed at the San Francisco War Memorial and
Performing Arts Center in San Francisco, United States, on 26 June 1945, by 50 of the 51 original
member countries, is the foundational treaty of the international organization called the United Nations
(The other original member, Poland, which was not represented at the conference, signed it two months
later.) The Charter entered into force on 24 October 1945, after it was ratified by the five permanent
members of the Security Council viz the Republic of China under Chapter II of the United Nations
Charter (and currently by the People's Republic of China), France, the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (later replaced by the Russian Federation), the United Kingdom, the United States and a
majority of other signatories.6
As a charter, it is a constituent treaty, and all members are bound by its articles. Furthermore,
Article 103 of the Charter states that obligations to the United Nations prevail over all other treaty
obligations. Most countries in the world have now ratified the Charter.
2.1.1 Preamble7

The Preamble to the treaty reads as follows:

2.1.1.1 We the Peoples of the United Nations Determined

· to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has
brought untold sorrow to mankind, and
· to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person,
in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and
· to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from
treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and
· to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
2.1.1.2 And for these Ends

· to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors, and
· to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and
· to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force
shall not be used, save in the common interest, and
· to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social
advancement of all peoples,
2.1.1.3 Have Resolved to Combine our Efforts to Accomplish these Aims
Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assembled in the city of San
Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the

6
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Charter
7
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Charter#Preamble
3
present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known
as the United Nations.
Although the Preamble is an integral part of the Charter, it does not set out any of the rights or
obligations of member states; its purpose is to serve as an interpretative guide for the provisions of the
Charter through the highlighting of some of the core motives of the founders of the organization.

2.1.2 Summary of United Nations Charter8

The Charter consists of a preamble and a series of articles grouped into chapters.
The preamble consists of two principal parts. The first part contains a general call for the
maintenance of peace and international security and respect for human rights. The second part of the
preamble is a declaration in a contractual style that the governments of the peoples of the United Nations
have agreed to the Charter. Below is the summary of Chapters of the Charter

· Chapter I sets forth the purposes of the United Nations, including the important provisions of the
maintenance of international peace and security.
· Chapter II defines the criteria for membership in the United Nations.
· Chapters III-XV, the bulk of the document, describes the organs and institutions of the UN and
their respective powers.
· Chapters XVI and Chapter XVII describe arrangements for integrating the UN with
established international law.
· Chapters XVIII and Chapter XIX provide for amendment and ratification of the Charter.

The following chapters deal with the enforcement powers of UN bodies:

· Chapter VI describes the Security Council's power to investigate and mediate disputes;
· Chapter VII describes the Security Council's power to authorize economic, diplomatic, and
military sanctions, as well as the use of military force, to resolve disputes;
· Chapter VIII makes it possible for regional arrangements to maintain peace and security within
their own region;
· Chapters IX and Chapter X describe the UN's powers for economic and social cooperation, and
the Economic and Social Council that oversees these powers;
· Chapters XII and Chapter XIII describe the Trusteeship Council which
oversaw decolonization;
· Chapters XIV and Chapter XV establish the powers of respectively, the International Court of
Justice and the United Nations Secretariat.
· Chapters XVI through Chapter XIX deal respectively with XVI: miscellaneous
provisions, XVII: transitional security arrangements related to World War II, XVIII: the charter
amendment process, and XIX: ratification of the charter.

8
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Charter
4
2.2 Conventions and Treaties on Women’s Rights9

The United Nations (UN) deals with a number of issues of international concern, human rights
and women empowerment beingsome of the most important issues. UN has established several
specializeddepartments and agencies dealing specifically with concerns related to women. Some of these
departments are discussed below:-

2.2.1 The Commission on the Status of Women (CSW)

The Commission on Status of Women or CSW is an intergovernmental body that forms part of
the Economic and Social Council of the UN (ECOSOC). CSW consists of 45 members elected by
ECOSOC for a period of 4 years. The process of selection of members is done by nomination by the
respective national government followed by election on the following basis: thirteen from African states;
eleven from Asian states; four from Eastern European states; nine from Latin American and Caribbean
states; and eight from Western European and Other states.

Every year, the representatives of member states gather at United Nations Headquarters in New
York to evaluate progress on gender equality, identify challenges, set global standards and formulate
concrete policies to promote gender equality and the advancement of women worldwide. In these
meetings, the member states of CSW set a priority for that year and develop a document called ‘Agreed
Conclusions’. The document contains an analysis of the priority theme of concern and a set of concrete
recommendations for governments, intergovernmental bodies, NGOs and other relevant bodies, for
implementation at the international, national, regional and local level.

2.2.2 The Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW)

The Division for the Advancement of Women or DAW is part of the UN Secretariat. It works
with all international Conventions and Treaties relating to women, including CEDAW, and the CEDAW
Optional Protocol. The DAW specializes in issues concerning the status of women; it emphasizes on the
improvement in status of women worldwide and advocates their equality with men.

The DAW acted as the secretariat for the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in
1995, the largest conference in the history of the UN. The Conference which was the culmination of
twenty years of work by the global women’s movement resulted in the Beijing Platform for Action
(BPFA). The BPFA is one of the most influential, international policy documents regarding women’s
human rights. The BPFA has been considered one of the most progressive blueprints for achieving gender
equality for women. It was negotiated and adopted by 189 countries that attended the Beijing Conference.

The DAW was responsible for the preparations for the three previous World Conferences on
Women (Mexico, 1975, Copenhagen, 1980, and Nairobi, 1985) and has since done the preparatory work
for the 23rd Special Review Session of the UN General Assembly in 2000, commonly known as Beijing
+ 5, and assisted CSW to conduct the Ten-year Review and Appraisal of the Beijing Platform for Action
in 2005.

9
http://www.humanrights.gov.au/publications/women-s-human-rights-united-nations-convention-elimination-all-
forms-discrimination
5
2.2.3 UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)

UNIFEM is a specialized agency of UN that works with national governments to promote

women's empowerment and gender equality. It was formed in 1976 and since then it has supported
numerous projects and initiatives on women empowerment and gender equality. UNIFEM’s mandate is
based on international women’s rights documents, particularly CEDAW and the Beijing Platform for
Action.

Since its inception UNIFEM has been supporting the idea of developing a world that promotes
the political, economic and social empowerment of women. This has been done by supporting small
grassroots enterprises, creating improved working conditions for women, women access to public
education campaigns and the design of new gender-sensitive laws and marketing campaigns.

Recently UNIFEM has funded a project in Cambodia to facilitate handicraft development and
upgrade productions and marketing skills of women producers of baskets and clay pottery UNIFEM has
also supported projects in Indonesia, China and other parts of the Asia-Pacific region. UNIFEM has
worked with the objective of improving the collection of statistics on gender issues.

2.2.4 UN Conferences on Women including Beijing Conference10

During the first three decades of its formation, the United Nations work based on women were
focused primarily on the codification of women's legal and civil rights, and the gathering of data on the
status of women around the world, however, with time, it became increasingly apparent that only laws,
were not enough to ensure the equal rights of women11.More needs to done to ensure gender equality and
give protection to women.

The struggle for equality entered a second stage with the convening of four world conferences by
the United Nations to develop strategies and plans of action for the advancement of women. Several
efforts were taken by UN, which went through several phases and transformations. Women were regarded
exclusively due to their essential contribution in the entire development process. It was greatly felt and
emphasized women need special recognition due to their imperative role in the development of world.
Women empowerment and promotion of women rights were greatly advocated by United Nations in its
agenda .These agendas were advocated by United Nations in its four world conferences on women, the
conference took place in Mexico City in 1975, Copenhagen in 1980, Nairobi in 1985 and Beijing in 1995.
The last was followed by a series of five-year reviews.

The 1995 Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing marked a significant turning point
for the global agenda for gender equality. The Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action, was
unanimously adopted by 189 countries, it has an agenda for women’s empowerment and has been
considered the key global policy document on gender equality. It sets strategic objectives and actions for
the advancement of women and the achievement of gender equality in 12 critical areas of concern as
stated in conference:

10
http://www.unwomen.org/en/how-we-work/intergovernmental-support/world-conferences-on-women
6
 · Women and poverty
· Education and training of women
· Women and health
· Violence against women
· Women and armed conflict
· Women and the economy
· Women in power and decision-making
· Institutional mechanism for the advancement of women
· Human rights of women
· Women and the media
· Women and the environment
· The girl-child

The Beijing conference consolidated the five decades of legal advances securing the equality of
women with men in law and in practice. It was built on political agreements reached at the three previous
global conferences on women. The conference was attended by more than 6,000 government delegates
along with more than 4,000 accredited NGO representatives.

2.2.4.1 Initiatives taken before Beijing Conference

1975: The Commission on the Status of Women called for the organization of the first world conference
on women to coincide with International Women’s Year. The World Conference of the International
Women's Year was subsequently held in Mexico City; it was attended by 133 governments, while 6,000
NGO representatives attended a parallel forum, the International Women’s Year Tribune. World Plan of
Action was defined in the conference for the implementation of the objectives of the International
Women’s Year. These actions offered a comprehensive set of guidelines for the advancement of women
through 1985.

1980:Mid-decade World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women in Copenhagen was
organized and attended by 145 Member States. The conference aimed to review the progress of actions
that were laid down in the first conference. Progress in implementing the goals of the first world
conference was evaluated. Women employment, health and education were focused in the conference. A
programme of action was negotiated to call for stronger national measures to ensure women’s ownership
and control of property, as well as improvements in protecting women’s rights to inheritance, child
custody and nationality.

1985: The third World Conference to “Review and Appraise” the achievements of the UN Decade for
Women took place in 1985 in Nairobi. The conference was attended by 1900 delegates from 157 member
states. ; a parallel NGO Forum attracted around 12,000 participants The mandate of the conference was to
establish concrete measures to overcome obstacles in achieving the Decade’s goals. Governments in
different nations adopted the Nairobi Forward-Looking strategies for women empowerment and
advancement which outlined measures for achieving gender equality at the national level. These strategies
became the benchmark for these nations for promoting women’s participation in peace and development
efforts.

7
2.2.4.2 Follow-up to Beijing Conference

2000:In start to review the Beijing Platform for Action and to consider future actions and initiatives, The
United Nations General Assembly decided to hold a 23rd special session in which five-year review and
appraisal of the implementations were organized. The conference was entitled “Women 2000: Gender
Equality, Development and Peace for the Twenty-First Century” was held in New York. Discussions on
achievement till date were held in the conference and a political declaration was made. Decisions were
taken on further actions and initiatives to implement the Beijing commitments.

2005: A 10-year review and appraisal of the Beijing Platform for Action was conducted as part of the
49th session of the Commission on the Status of Women. Delegates adopted a declaration emphasizing
that the full and effective implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action is essential
to achieve the internationally agreed development goals, including those contained in the Millennium
Declaration.

2010:In the 15-year review of the Beijing Platform for Action the participant member states adopted a
declaration that welcomed the progress made towards achieving gender equality. It pledged to undertake
further action to ensure the full and accelerated implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform
for Action. This took place during the Commission’s 54th session in 2010.

2015: In mid-2013, the UN Economic and Social Council requested the Commission on the Status of
Women to review and appraise implementation of the Platform for Action in 2015, in a session known as
Beijing+20. As part of deliberations, the Council also called on UN Member States & regional
commissions to undertake comprehensive national reviews.

2.2.5 CEDAW

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
was adopted in 1979 by the UN General Assembly and entered into force on 3 September 1981. India
signed the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women on 30th July
1980.11

CEDAW defines discrimination against women as:

Any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose
of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital
status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the
political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field. (Article 1)

CEDAW is also often described as an ‘international bill of rights’ for women. Its preamble and
30 Articles include the key principles of equality as an agenda for national action to end discrimination
against women. CEDAW’s principals are based on the belief that basic human rights include the true
equality of men and women. As of July 2011, 187 countries are parties to CEDAW12.

11
MWCD CEDAW Report: Draft 20 Nov 2011 (http://wcd.nic.in/cedawdraft20nov2011.pdf)
12
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimin
ation_Against_Women
8
 The rights of women included in the principals of CEDAW broadly cover many aspects of
women’s lives. These rights include participation in political matters, equal reach to health, education and
employment; they also include issues like marriage, family relations and equality before the law.

Nations on becoming parties to the Convention, commit themselves to undertake a series of

measures in order to end discrimination against women some of these commitments include

· To abolish all such laws which observe discrimination on the basis of gender, and to incorporate
the principle of equality of men and women in their legal and social system, and hence encourage
measures which prohibits discrimination against women;

· To establish institutions like tribunals and such public bodies to ensure effective protection of
women against discrimination at any forum, whether workplace, social system, law or at home;
and

· To ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination against women by persons, organizations or

enterprises

The Convention gives a clear message that their responsibility of providing protection to women
and eliminating gender bias, extends to both public and private life. One of the biggest obstacle in
protection women right in the past has been the perception that state cannot interfere in public lives or in
the private realm of family relation, but the convention has made it clear that if discrimination is observed
in private lives, then the state can take measures. . The Convention has recognized that there exists gender
inequality in society due unequal power relations within the private sphere which makes women’s lives
vulnerable; hence it directs states to take measures that will correct this power imbalance. 13

2.2.5.1 The CEDAW Committee

Countries that have become party to CEDAW are required to submit their reports to the CEDAW
Committee every four years. The CEDAW Committee is made up of 23 elected members who serve in
their personal capacity as ‘gender experts’. These reports hence submitted by the member states detail the
measures that their respective governments have taken to comply with its obligations under the
Convention. The CEDAW Committee meets at least twice a year to address specific topics related to
CEDAW and to monitor and report on the progress of individual countries that are party to CEDAW.

3. Current Debates on Women’s Issues and Approaches14

Although a number of successful steps have been taken by many bodies for development and
empowerment of women, yet numerous issues still exist in cultural, political, legal and economic areas.
For example, women work as efficiently as men, yet they are paid less for the same kind of job in certain
sectors. Gender discrimination affects girls and women throughout their lifetime; they are the ones who
are often subjected to poverty, malnutrition etc. most of the times. 15

Even after thirty years of adoption of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), girls and women in many nations do not enjoy equal

13
http://www.unifem.org/cedaw30/about_cedaw/index.html
14
http://www.globalissues.org/article/166/womens-rights#LackofProgress
15
http://www.globalissues.org/article/166/womens-rights#Progress
9
treatment and opportunities despite legal procedure in place. Many countries deny inheritance of property
rights to women, they are often subjected to social exclusions like “honor” killings, female genital
mutilation, trafficking, restricted mobility , early marriage etc. Women are often denied access to resource
like health, education, information. They face increase an illness and death throughout the life-course16.

A report from Human Rights Watch describes that, although some nations claim equal right and
respect to women but they hardly implement such policies. Women’s rights have not been observed in
some countries as much as expected; either the policies are not changed enough or not changed at all,
hence such nations undermine the rights of women.

3.1 Women Work More Than Men But Are Paid Less17

Majority of women spend most of their time in household chores. Since most of their working
hours are taken by unpaid household work, they are left with less time for remunerative employment.
Even if they work in labor market for paid employment, the responsibilities of household work is on their
shoulders and they have to devote a major portion of their time in taking care of their families, which
makes their life difficult as a wage earner.

When women work outside their household for earning, on an average, they are paid far less than
men for the same kind of job. Their capabilities and capacity are often underestimated. They are also
more likely to work in more precarious forms of employment with low earnings. They have little financial
security and few or no social benefits.

Women not only earn less but also tend to own fewer assets as compared to men. Little salaries
and less control over household income constrain their ability to accumulate capital. Women are hardly
given any right of inheritance to property & assets Even if they acquire it. It is underestimated or under
rated. Such practices leave women at greater risk of poverty.

16
Dr. Margaret Chan, Director-General, World Health Organization, Equal rights and opportunities for women and
girls essential for better health, International Women’s Day, March 8, 2010
17
UNICEF, State of the World’s Children, 2007, p.36
10
Paid employment for women do not ensure better life for them and their children. Factors such as amount
of time women spend working outside the household, salaries they are paid, working condition ,
practicality of labour laws, security and protection at workplace and the fact that who controls the income
they generate determine how the work undertaken by women in the labour market affects them and their
children’s wellbeing.

Source: UNICEF, State of the World’s Children, 2007, p. 41, Figure 3.3

Estimated earnings are defined as gross domestic product per capita (measured in US dollars at 2003
prices adjusted for purchasing power parity) adjusted for wage disparities between men and women.
Some numbers rounded for display purposes.

11
3.2 Gender Discrimination Throughout a Lifetime

The above-mentioned 2007 Report on state of the world’s has an informative section on how
women are discriminated against at various stages through life, summarized here:

3.2.1 Foeticide and Infanticide

UNICEF notes that “Where there is a clear economic or cultural preference for sons, the misuse
of [pregnancy diagnostic tools] can facilitate female foeticide.” In many countries these ill practices of
female foeticide and infanticide exists. Although these practices are abolished by the law, secretly these
practices still exists. The reason behind such ill practices are gender discrimination in society, which
favors preference and privilege to the male child.

3.2.2 The Middle Years

“A principal focus of the middle years of childhood and adolescence is ensuring access to, and
completion of, quality primary and secondary education. With few exceptions, it is mostly girls who
suffer from educational disadvantage.” Many societies often deny education to women, due to many
prevalent social stigmas. This hinders development of women and society as a whole. Hence initiative for
girl child and women education will benefit the society on a large scale.

3.2.3 Adolescence

Abuses, exploitation, violence, lack of knowledge about sexual, reproductive health and Sexually
Transmitted Diseases (STD) including HIV/AIDS are some of the greatest threat, which adolescents are
facing today. These are the specific areas highlighted by UNICEF Some female specific threat areas
concerned by UNICEF includes female genital mutilation/cutting; child marriage and premature
parenthood; sexual abuse, exploitation and trafficking; sexual and reproductive health; and HIV/AIDS.

3.2.4 Motherhood and Old Age

Motherhood and old age are the two key periods in many women’s lives when the pernicious
effects of both poverty and inequality can combine.” These are the most vulnerable stages of women’s
life. While motherhood is concerned with the health of women where she require medical attention and
support, old age is concerned with social status. Shockingly, “It is estimated that each year more than half
a million women—roughly one woman every minute—die as a result of pregnancy complications and
childbirth,” 99% of which occur in developing countries. Old women are often at threatening position in
society and often become victim to the miscreants of the society.

12
3.3 Feminization of Poverty

There are more poor women in the world than men. The “feminization of poverty” is a
phenomenon that is unfortunately on the increase. Basically, women are increasingly the ones who suffer
from poverty, due to their weaker status in the society.

3.4 Women, Militarism and Violence

It is often argued—and accepted—that since women are the “gentler sex”, and typically are the
one who give to the society due to their natural tender, gentle and caring nature , they are less aggressive
than men , and are not fit for places which require aggression, power and physical strength. However
feminists often argue that women, if given appropriate and full rights and freedom of choices, could
counter-balance a male-dominated world which is characterized by aggression in attitudes, thoughts,
society and ultimately, war. Women are emotionally and mentally more stable and think logically.

13