Data

Communication
Session -2
BY
PRUTHVI KUMAR K R
 Differentiate Communication and
Transmission?
Through Transmission the data gets transferred from source
to destination (only one way). It is treated as the physical
movement of data.
Communication means the process of sending and receiving
data between two media (data is transferred between source
and destination in both ways).
 What is the difference between Hub, Switch, and
Router?
Hub Switch Router
Hub is least expensive, least intelligent and Switches work similarly like Hubs but in a The router is smartest and most complicated
least complicated of the three. more efficient manner. out of these three. It comes in all shapes and
sizes. Routers are similar like little computers
It broadcast all data to every port which may It creates connections dynamically and dedicated for routing network traffic
cause serious security and reliability concern provides information only to the requesting
port

In a Network, Hub is a common connection Switch is a device in a network which Routers are located at gateway and forwards
point for devices connected to the network. forwards packets in a network data packets
Hub contains multiple ports and is used to
connect segments of LAN
 Analog and Digital Signal
An analog signal, information can also be represented by a digital signal. For
example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more
than 1 bit for each level.
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level?
 Problem on bit rate
A digitized voice channel, is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice
signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples
per hertz). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit
rate?
Modes of transmission
Unicast
◦ Information sent from one sender to one receiver
◦ Use standard unicast applications e.g. ftp, http, smtp and telnet
Broadcast
◦ Information sent from one sender and all other connected receiver
◦ ARP uses broadcast to resolve address
◦ 255.255.255.255
Multicast
◦ Information sent from one or more sender to a particular set of users.
◦ E.g. video server transmitting TV channels
Transmission Impairment
Attenuation

Propagation delay

Distortion

Noise

Crosstalk

Jitter
Attenuation
Reduction in strength of signals also referred as Loss
Signals traveling on long distance looses their strength.
Signals losses some of their energy and signals are converted into heat.
Represented in Decibels
Cables measured in ‘decibels per foot’.
More efficient cable = less attenuation per unit distance.

Repeaters are used to overcome attenuation.

Propagation delay
Delay from the time signal transmitted and the time signal received.
Measured in milliseconds.
Varies from medium to medium
 Distortion
Change in shape of signal
Noise
Addition of external factors in signals
Noise can disturb data.
Two wires can generate voltage noise which affects data.
Noise which corrupts data can be:
◦ Thermal noise (signals generated by electrons by random motion)
◦ Induced noise (generated by motors and appliances)
◦ Crosstalk (affect of one wire on another)
◦ Impulse noise (generated by power lines)
 Crosstalk & Jitter
One line induces signal into another
Mostly happens in pair cables.
Jitter
Variation in the signals or data packets at destination with variation of time. E.g. application at destination is time
sensitive like audio or video stream.
Jitter can be of two types
◦ Amplitude jitter
◦ Small constant change in amplitude, can be caused by power noise
◦ Phase jitter
◦ Small constant change in phase of signal,
 Performance
Bandwidth
◦ Bandwidth in hertz
◦ Range of frequencies contained in signal
◦ Bandwidth in bits per second
◦ Number of bits per second a channel or network can transmit
Throughput
◦ How fast a data can be sent through a network
◦ Bandwidth and throughput are different
◦ Link with bandwidth 1Mbps but device can only process 200 Kbps.
Performance
Latency
◦ Delay between the message transmitted and message received.
◦ Latency can be caused due to:
◦ Propagation time
◦ Transmission time
◦ Queuing time
◦ Processing time.
 Time
Propagation time
◦ Time required by bit to travel from source to destination
◦ That is total distance per unit speed
Transmission time
◦ Time required to send complete message
◦ Measured in message size per unit bandwidth available
Queuing time
◦ Time required by intermediate device to processes data.
◦ varies with load on network.
◦ E.g. packets queuing
Transmission media
Two types of media
Guided
◦ Uses cabling system to guide data signals to a specific path.
Unguided
◦ Data signals travels not to a specific path.
Types of Guided media
◦ Open wire
◦ Twisted pair
◦ Coaxial cable
◦ Optic fiber
Open wire
Open electric wires

No shielding or protection from external noise

Cannot be used for data transmission but for less distances.

 Coaxial cable is used as a transmission line for radio
frequency signals. Its applications include feedlines
connecting radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas,
Coaxial cable computer network (e.g., Ethernet) connections, digital audio
(S/PDIF), and distribution of cable television signals.

Outer shield protects inner shield from outer electric signals.

Similarly insulator between two conductors protects them from noise generated by either
conductor.
Cable has 10 – 100 Mbps speed
Inexpensive
Maximum cable length 500m.
Coaxial cable offers several advantages for LAN.
Run longer distance then other cables.
Twisted pair
Wires are twisted in pairs
Each pair carries +ve and –ve signals
Noise appearing on one wire will also occur on other wire of same pair.
Noise appeared on both wires of pair will cancel its affect.
Twists of pair cancels the noise affect.
Increase in the number of turns per foot reduces noise interference.
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and
data channels.
Types of Twisted Pair
Shielded twisted pair
◦ STP cable combine the techniques of cancellation, shielding and twisted wires.
◦ Each pair wrapped in metallic foil, then two pairs are wrapped in overall metallic foil.
◦ STP reduces
◦ Electric noise within pairs and outside noise
◦ crosstalk
◦ STP provide protection from all kind of noises
◦ It is expensive and hard to install.

0 – 100 Mbps Speed

Maximum cable length 100m before signals attenuated.
Unshielded Twisted pair
Eight cables, Four pairs
Each cable is covered with insulating material
Each pair is twisted around each other for cancellation effect.
Advantages include
Speed 10 – 100 – 1000 Mbps (depend on category)
Les expensive and easy to install.
Maximum length 100 m
Uses RJ-45 connector.
Electric noise may occur.
 Optical fiber is used by many
telecommunications companies to transmit
telephone signals, Internet communication
Optical Fiber and cable television signals. .

Data or information is transmitted as light pulses.

Carries more data for longer distances and much more speed as compare to other media.

Requires more protection.

There are two modes of optical fiber.

Multimode

Single mode

Multimode used for short distances whereas single mode is used for longer distances.
Optical Fiber
Optical fiber is not affected by outer noise.

No crosstalk.

Attenuation is caused by tight bends

Bends causes cracks in the cladding and light rays are scattered.

Scattering, absorption, dispersion, improper installation causes fiber losses.

Line coding schemes

4.24
 Unipolar
All signal levels are on one side of the time axis - either above or below
NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of this code. The
signal level does not return to zero during a symbol transmission.
Scheme is prone to baseline wandering and DC components. It has no
synchronization or any error detection. It is simple but costly in power
consumption.

4.25
Unipolar NRZ scheme

4.26
 Polar - NRZ

The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.

Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two voltages.
E.g. +V for 1 and -V for 0.
There are two versions:
◦ NZR - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol and negative
for the other
◦ NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in polarity
determines the value of a symbol. E.g. a “1” symbol inverts the
polarity a “0” does not.

4.27
Figure 4.6 Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

4.28
Note

In NRZ-L the level of the voltage

determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion
or the lack of inversion
determines the value of the bit.

4.29
Polar RZ scheme

4.30
 Polar - Biphase: Manchester and Differential
Manchester
Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-L and RZ
schemes.
◦ Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from high to low or low
to high. Uses only two voltage levels.
Differential Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-I
and RZ schemes.
◦ Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the level at the
beginning of the symbol is determined by the symbol value. One symbol
causes a level change the other does not.

4.31
Figure 4.8 Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

4.32
Note

In Manchester and differential

Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.

4.33
 Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary
Code uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to represent the symbols (note
not transitions to zero as in RZ).
Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the other alternates
between + & -.
Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the “0” symbol is
represented by zero voltage and the “1” symbol alternates between
+V and -V.
Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.

4.34
Figure 4.9 Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

4.35
 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL
CONVERSION
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Delta Modulation (DM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Figure 4.28 The process of delta modulation

4.40
Delta modulation components

4.41
Delta demodulation components

4.42
 Quiz
The physical layer concerns with
bit-by-bit delivery
Which transmission media has the highest transmission speed in a network
optical fiber
Bits can be send over guided and unguided media as analog signal by
digital modulation
The physical layer translates logical communication requests from the ______ into hardware specific
operations.
data link layer
It is responsible for sending bits from one computer to another. This layer is not concerned with the
meaning of the bits and deals with the setup of physical connection to the network and with transmission
and reception of signals.