Summary
ENERGETICS
enthalpy
change, ∆H
heat energy exchanged
with surroundings at
constant pressure
To IONIC COMPOUNDS
on next page
enthalpy change of reaction (∆Hr):
heat given out or taken in when molar
amounts of reactants react together
bond enthalpy:
heat taken in when one mole
of covalent bonds, in a gaseous
molecule, are broken
bond enthalpy values
for a given type of bond
are averaged over many
compounds
exothermic gives out heat to Products have lower energy than reactants,
reaction surroundings so are more stable.
endothermic takes in heat from Products have higher energy than reactants,
reaction surroundings so are less stable.
To ENTROPY on
next page
To SPONTANEOUS
REACTIONS on
next page
standard enthalpy change: standard conditions:
enthalpy change for molar P = 100 kPa
amounts of substance under
standard conditions
– negative for exothermic reaction indicated by the symbol 
– positive for endothermic reaction
q = mc∆T
types of enthalpy tools for enthalpy specific heat capacity:
change calculations energy required to raise
the temperature of 1 g of
substance by 1 K
Hess’s law:
enthalpy change of combustion the enthalpy change
(∆Hc): accompanying a reaction is
heat given out when one mole of independent of the pathway
substance is completely burnt in taken from reactants to products
oxygen
enthalpy change of formation ∆H r  = Σ∆H f (products) − Σ∆H f (reactants)
(∆Hf):
heat given out or taken in when The standard state of an element is the
one mole of substance is formed pure substance at 100 kPa and a specified
from its elements in their standard temperature.
states
For an element in its standard state:
∆H f = 0
– bond breaking is endothermic
– bond making is exothermic
∆Hr = Σ(bonds broken) − Σ(bonds made)
O2 has a higher bond enthalpy than O3 and so
absorbs shorter wavelength UV radiation
5 ENERGETICS/THERMOCHEMISTRY 239
 Summary – continued
HL
IONIC COMPOUNDS tools for enthalpy calculations Born–Haber cycle

Standard enthalpy change

of atomisation (ΔHat) is the
enthalpy change types of enthalpy enthalpy change when one
of solution (∆Hsol): change mole of gaseous atoms is
heat given out or taken in formed from an element under
when one mole of a solute standard conditions.
is dissolved into excess
solvent to form a solution 1st ionisation energy:
of infinite dilution 1st electron affinity: heat taken in when one electron
heat given out when is removed from each atom in
one electron is added to one mole of gaseous atoms
each atom in one mole of
gaseous atoms
lattice enthalpy (∆Hlatt): is the result of electrostatic
ΔHsol(XY) = ΔHlatt + ΔHhyd(X+) + ΔHhyd(Y−) heat taken in when one interactions between the ions
mole of an ionic compound
is broken apart into its
ΔHhyd is more constituent gaseous ions higher charge/smaller ions
exothermic for more – higher lattice enthalpy
highly charged ions
and smaller ions

ENTROPY, S depends on the number of ways units: J K−1 mol−1

the available energy can be
distributed among the particles

∆S   = ΣS  (products) − ΣS  (reactants)

gas > liquid > solid

– if number of gas molecules

increases: ∆S is +ve
– if number of gas molecules
decreases: ∆S is −ve

SPONTANEOUS occur without any outside

REACTIONS influence

∆G  is negative
If ∆S is positive, the reaction becomes
more spontaneous as T increases.
∆G   = ∆H   − T∆S 
If ∆S is negative, the reaction becomes
less spontaneous as T increases.

∆G = Gibbs free energy change The value of ΔG is related to the position of equilibrium.

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