Sandstone

Sandstone is a sedimentary rock that is primarily composed of mineral or rock grains that are the size of
sand. Quartz and feldspar are the most common minerals found in the Earth's crust, the majority of
sandstone is composed of these minerals. Sandstones are formed by clastic activity. They are formed
from cemented grains that may be fragments of a pre-existing rock or mono-minerallic crystals,
depending on the type of grain used. The cements that hold these grains together are typically
composed of calcite, clays, and silica, among other minerals.

A. (n.d.). What is Sandstone? Artistictile. Retrieved July 29, 2021, from

https://www.artistictile.net/store/info-sandstones.html

According to King (n.d.), sandstone is a common sedimentary rock found in sedimentary basins
worldwide. Rivers deliver sandstone deposits to the basin, but so can waves or wind. It is possible that
some sand grains are organic particles produced within the basin.

If the sandstone is hard enough, it can be crushed and used in construction. If it contains a lot of quartz,
it may be crushed and used to make glass. Sandstone layers beneath the Earth's surface can serve as
aquifers for water or as oil and gas reservoirs.

King, H. M. (n.d.). Sandstone. Retrieved July 29, 2021, from

https://geology.com/rocks/sandstone.shtml.

According to the United States Geological Survey (n.d.), sandstone production in the United States in
2005 totaled 192,000 metric tons worth $24.3 million, with flagstone or dimension stone accounting for
the lion's share of that total at 121,000 metric tons worth $9.75 million.

USGS Minerals Yearbook: Stone, Dimension PDF

Minerals Education Coalition.org

Sandstone. (2017, April 03). Retrieved July 31, 2021, from

https://mineralseducationcoalition.org/minerals-database/sandstone/
Types of Sandstone

Gray Sandstones

They are composed of a mixture of dark and light grains, resulting in a rock that is gray in color and not
as hard as other types of sandstone, for the most part. The hardness of a material can be determined by
breaking the core and examining the edge of the broken core. Because the gray sandstone core is
relatively weak, the edge of the core crumbles when touched or subjected to minor impact. Cores of
other sandstone types fracture with sharp edges or shatter into small sharp fragments when they are
exposed to the elements.

White gray SANDSTONE sedimentary rock - Mini Me Geology. (n.d.). Retrieved July 31, 2021,
from https://www.minimegeology.com/sandstone-sedimentary-rock-white-to-gray

Crystallized Sandstones

In addition to being white and sweet, they are also very hard and brittle in many cases. This type of rock
has a smooth, polished appearance because the grains have been welded together by the cored rock's
high temperatures.

Hard Sandstones

They have characteristics that are halfway between gray sandstones and crystallized sandstones, being
light to dark gray in color like gray sandstones but hard and brittle like crystallized sandstones. They are
formed by the weathering of sandstones and are found in a variety of environments.
Hard sandstone rock walls in Wadi Gnai - Sinai Peninsula, Egypt

Ravera, S. (n.d.). Hard sandstone rock walls in Wadi Gnai - Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. Retrieved
July 31, 2021, from https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-hard-sandstone-rock-walls-in-
wadi-gnai-sinai-peninsula-egypt-36089924.html

Carbonate Cemented Sandstones

Their presence is relatively uncommon, and they are typically composed of gray sandstones in which the
grains are held together by either calcium or iron carbonate cement. Such cements make the core hard
and often leave a brown or yellow stain on the sides of the core as a result of the chemical reaction.
Labaume, Pierre & Sheppard, Simon & Moretti, Isabelle. (2001). Fluid flow in cataclastic thrust fault
zones in sandstones, Sub-Andean Zone, Southern Bolivia. Tectonophysics. 340. 141-172. 10.1016/S0040-
1951(01)00144-5.

A. (n.d.). SANDSTONES, PEBBLY SANDSTONES AND CONGLOMERATES. Retrieved

July 29, 2021, from https://www.uky.edu/KGS/pubs/SappCoreBook/html/sandstones.html

Classification of Sandstone

Framework Grain-based

The mineralogy of the framework grains of the sandstone, as well as the percentage of clay matrix in
between the grains, are taken into consideration by Dott's classification scheme for sandstone. Quartz,
feldspar, and lithic grains have been the primary focus of it.

Arsenites

In between the framework grains, there is less than 15 percent of the clay matrix present. It can be
further subdivided into the following categories:

-Quartz Arsenites: These are arsenites that contain more than 90% quartz or siliceous grains.

-Feldspar Arsenites: These are arsenites that contain less than 90% quartz grains.

-Lithic Arsenites: These are arsenites contain a high concentration of lithic fragments.

Arkose:

It contains feldspar in concentrations greater than 25%. The grains are rounded in an unsatisfactory
manner and are only partially sorted here.

Greywacke:

Quartz grains, feldspar grains, and lithic fragments are mixed together in a heterogeneous mixture that
is surrounded by fine-grained clay matrixes.

Cement-based Classification

It is a mineralogy that is based on cement. Consequently, the mineral content of the cementing material
is more important in these types of classification that are most commonly used in the industry by
experts.

It is as follows:

-Siliceous - It has a high concentration of silica or quartz particles in its composition.

-Calcareous – It has a high concentration of calcites that is present in the cementing material.

-Argillaceous - It is composed primarily of clay particles in large quantities.

-Ferruginous - It contains a high concentration of ferrous ions.

World of Stones USA. (2020, December 16). Sandstone - meaning, uses, facts, properties &
color. Retrieved July 30, 2021, from https://worldofstonesusa.com/blog/sandstone/

Composition of Sandstone

Sandstones are composed of mineral grains or small rocks that were once part of a larger rock
formation. Consequently, it appears reasonable to assume that all rock-forming minerals
have an equal chance of becoming sandstone component minerals. Although this is true in
theory, in practice, the ability of minerals to withstand weathering varies greatly from one
another.

Sandatlas. (n.d.). Sandstone. Retrieved July 30, 2021, from

https://www.sandatlas.org/sandstone/

Small grains of minerals or rocks, usually the size of sand grains, make up sandstone, which is
composed of very small grains. Individual grains are typically between the sizes of.00394
and.07874 inches in diameter. The color of sandstone is determined by the materials that it
contains. Among the most frequently encountered colors are brown, yellow, red, white, gray, and
tan, with yellow and tan being the most prevalent. Feldspar and quartz are the minerals that are
most commonly found in sandstone.

London, J. (n.d.). Characteristics of sandstone. Retrieved July 30, 2021, from

https://www.ehow.com/info_8501824_characteristics-sandstone.html

The chemical composition of sandstone is typically dominated by quartz framework grains,

which are the dominant mineral in clastic sedimentary rocks. Their physical properties,
such as hardness and chemical stability, are exceptional due to their composition. The
physical properties of these quartz grains have been shown to withstand multiple recycling
events, as well as allowing the grains to exhibit a degree of rounding.

Geology Science. (n.d.). Sandstone. Retrieved July 30, 2021, from

https://www.google.com/amp/s/geologyscience.com/rocks/sandstone/

When transported as sand grains, many rock-forming minerals are simply dissolved by the water
present in the air. In certain dark-colored igneous or metamorphic rocks, pyroxenes and
amphiboles are abundant minerals; however, they are relatively rare in sandstone.
Feldspars are even more common than quartz and are also more resistant to weathering
than calcite. As a result, feldspars are quite common in sandstone, despite the fact that their
abundance is significantly reduced. It is called arkose if it contains more than 25 percent
feldspar in its composition. While quartz is a common rock-forming mineral (although not
as widespread as feldspars), it is almost completely insoluble in water and has a physical
hardness comparable to that of diamonds. Because of this, sand contains a high
concentration of quartz. The quartz grains that make up some sandstones (such as quartz
arenite) are almost entirely made up of quartz. Micas are common minerals found in rocks,
 and they account for a significant portion of the mineral composition of certain micaceous
sandstones.

Plutonic rock, which is felsic in origin, and older sandstones that have been recycled are the
sources of quartz grains' evolution. Feldspathic framework grains are the second most
abundant mineral on the planet.

Feldspar can be divided into two types of subdivisions. It is made up of alkali feldspars and
plagioclase feldspars, respectively. A petrographic microscope is used to distinguish
between the minerals feldspar and quartz.

-Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the chemical composition of the mineral can
range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8, resulting in a solid solution that is completely
insoluble in water.

-Plagioclase feldspar is a complex group of solid solution minerals with compositions ranging
from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8 that are found in a variety of environments.

Characteristic of Sandstone

Texture - a rustic feel (only noticeable with a microscope).

Grain size ranges from 0.06 to 2mm; clasts are visible to the naked eye and are often distinguishable.

Hardness varies from soft to hard, and is determined by the clast and cement composition.

Depending on the mineral content and cement used, the color can range from grey to yellow to red to
white and back again.

Clasts consist primarily of quartz and feldspar (orthoclase and plagioclase), with lithic clasts and varying
minor amounts of other minerals as minor constituents.

Other characteristics include a gritty texture to the touch (like sandpaper).

The University of Auckland 2005. (n.d.). Sandstone. Retrieved July 30, 2021, from
https://flexiblelearning.auckland.ac.nz/rocks_minerals/rocks/sandstone.html

TDS

Total dissolved solids (TDS) shows the total concentration of dissolved substances present in water. TDS
is composed primarily of inorganic salts, with a small amount of organic matter thrown in for good
measure. Inorganic salts that are commonly found in water include cations such as calcium, magnesium,
potassium, and sodium, as well as anions such as carbonates, nitrates, bicarbonates, chlorides, and
sulfates.

A high concentration of dissolved solids is rarely harmful to health. Many people buy mineral water,
which has naturally high dissolved solids levels. TDS is a secondary standard, meaning it is a voluntary
guideline in the United States, according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). TDS, like other
contaminants that cause aesthetic, cosmetic, and technical effects, has only a guideline.

Most people consider TDS an aesthetic factor. In a study of World Helath Organization, a panel of tasters
came to the following conclusions about the ideal TDS level in water:

Taste of Water with Different TDS Concentrations;

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/tds.pdf

Total dissolved solids in Drinking-water

Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality

However, very low TDS concentrations give water a flat taste, which many people dislike.

Hancock, N. (2018, August 15). TDS and pH. Retrieved July 30, 2021, from
https://www.safewater.org/fact-sheets-1/2017/1/23/tds-and-ph

Factors Affecting Total Dissolved Solids

Geology and Soil in the Watershed

When water flows over certain types of rock and soil, ions such as calcium (Ca2+) and carbonate (CO32-)
are released into the water. For example, if acidic water tends to flow over rocks that contain calcite
(CaCO3), such as calcareous shales, calcium (Ca2+) and carbonate (CO32-) ions will dissolve into the
water. As a result, the total dissolved solids will rise. Some rocks, like quartz-rich granite, are, on the
other hand, extremely resistant to dissolution and do not dissolve readily when water is passed over
them. The total dissolved solids (TDS) of waters draining areas where the geology is primarily composed
of granite and other resistant rocks would be low (unless other factors are involved).

Urban Runoff

Flooding of streams and rivers can occur during storm events when pollutants such as salt from
roadways, fertilizers from lawns, and other materials are washed into the waterways. In urban areas,
natural settling places have been eliminated due to the abundance of pavement, and dissolved solids
are transported to creeks and rivers via storm drainage systems.

Fertilizer Runoff

In stormwater, fertilizer can dissolve and be transported to surface water, where it can contribute to
total dissolved solids (TDS).

Wastewater and Septic System Effluent

Dissolved solids (DS) are introduced into a stream by the effluent from wastewater treatment plants
(WWTPs). The wastewater from our homes contains both suspended and dissolved solids, which we
dispose of down the drain in our homes. The majority of suspended solids are removed from water at
the WWTP before it is disposed to the stream, but WWTPs only remove a portion of the total dissolved
solids (TDS). Phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic matter are all important elements of the TDS load from
wastewater treatment plants.

Soil Erosion

It is caused by the disturbance of a land surface that results in soil erosion. Various activities such as
building and road construction, forest fires, logging, and mining can result in soil erosion. Because the
soil particles have been eroded, they may contain soluble components that can dissolve and be
transported to surface water by stormwater runoff. The total dissolved solids (TDS) of the water body
will rise as a result of this.

Decaying Plants and Animals

As plants and animals decay, dissolved organic particles are discharged into the environment, where
they can contribute to the total dissolved solids concentration (TDS).

Water Quality Standards Regarding Total Dissolved Solids

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) establishes a secondary standard for total
dissolved solids (TDS) in drinking water of 500 mg/l. Secondary standards are guidelines for pollutants
that may cause cosmetic or aesthetic effects in drinking water that are not legally enforceable, but are
still recommended. High total dissolved solids (TDS) concentrations can cause laxative effects and give
water an unpleasant mineral taste. In addition, high TDS concentrations in water make it unsuitable for
a wide range of industrial applications.

Murphy, S. (2007, April 23). General Information on Solids. Retrieved July 30, 2021, from
http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/NUTRIENTS/info/TDS.html

TSS

Total suspended solids (TSS) are particles in the water column that are larger than 2 microns in size and
are present in large quantities. A dissolved solid is defined as anything with a diameter smaller than 2
microns (the average filter size). Organic materials account for the vast majority of suspended solids,
though bacteria and algae can also affect the total solids concentration.
These solids include anything that is drifting or floating in the water, including sediment, silt, and sand,
as well as plankton and algae. Organic particles derived from decomposing materials can also contribute
to the concentration of TSS in the environment.

Fondriest Environmental, Inc. “Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids and Water Clarity.” Fundamentals of
Environmental Measurements. 13 Jun. 2014. Web. https://www.fondriest.com/environmental-
measurements/parameters/water-quality/turbidity-total-suspended-solids-water-clarity/

Factors affecting Total Suspended solids

High Flow Rates

The flow rate of a water body is a significant factor in the concentration of TSS in the water. Rapidly
flowing water can carry a greater number of particles and larger-sized sediment. Heavy rains can
transport sand, silt, clay, and organic particles (such as leaves, soil, and tire particles) from the land to
surface water, where they can pollute the water. A change in flow rate can also have an impact on TSS;
for example, if the speed or direction of the water current increases, particulate matter from bottom
sediments may be resuspended, increasing the concentration of TSS.

Soil Erosion

Soil erosion occurs when a land surface is disturbed. Soil erosion can be triggered by construction of
buildings and roads, forest fires, logging, and mining. Stormwater can carry eroded soil particles to
surface water. This will result in an increase in the water body's TSS.

Urban Runoff

Soil particles and debris from streets, industrial, commercial, and residential areas can be washed into
streams during storm events. Due to the densely packed nature of urban areas, infiltration is reduced,
velocity increases, and natural settling areas are eliminated. Sediment is carried directly to streams and
rivers by storm drains.

Wastewater and Septic System Effluent

The effluent from Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) can contaminate streams with suspended
solids. Our household wastewater contains food residue, human waste, and other solid matter that we
dispose of down our drains. While the majority of solids are removed from water at the WWTP prior to
discharge to the stream, treatment cannot eliminate all solids.

Decaying Plants and Animals

As plants and animals decompose, suspended organic particles are released into the environment,
which can contribute to the TSS concentration.

Bottom-Feeding Fish

As they consume vegetation, bottom-feeding fish (such as carp) can stir up sediments. These sediments
may contribute to the formation of TSS.

Water Quality Standards Regarding Total Suspended Solids

Neither the United States of America nor the United Kingdom TSS in drinking water is regulated by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or the State of Colorado. Regulations (5 CCR 1002-31) of the
Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment's Water Quality Control Division (CDPHE-
WQCD) state that suspended solids levels will be regulated through Effluent Limitation Regulations,
Basic Standards, and Best Management Practices (BMPs).

Factors Affecting Turbidity

High Flow Rates

The flow rate of a water body is one of the most important factors affecting turbidity concentrations in
the water. Rapidly flowing water can carry a greater number of particles and larger-sized sediment.
Large amounts of sand, silt, clay and organic particles can be carried away by heavy rains and deposited
in surface water bodies. Additionally, turbidity can be affected by changes in flow rate; for example, if
the speed or direction of the water frequency increase, particulate matter from bottom sediments may
be resuspended.

Soil Erosion

It is caused by the disturbance of a land surface that results in soil erosion. Various activities such as
building and road construction, forest fires, logging, and mining can result in soil erosion. Stormwater
can transport eroded soil particles to surface water, where they can pollute the water. The turbidity of
the water body will increase as a result of this.

Urban Runoff

Soil particles and debris from streets, as well as industrial, commercial, and residential areas can be
washed into streams during a storm. In urban areas, natural settling areas have been eliminated, and
sediment is carried away in storm drains and into creeks and rivers by runoff from the pavement.

Wastewater and Septic System Effluent

The effluent from Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) can contaminate streams by introducing
suspended solids and organic material. Water from our homes contains food residue, human waste, and
other solid material that we flush down our toilets and drains. The majority of solids and organic matter
are removed from the water at the WWTP before it is discharged into the stream, but treatment cannot
remove everything.

Decaying Plants and Animals

Because of the death and decay of the plants and animals that are present in a water body, suspended
organic particles are released into the water, which can contribute to turbidity.

Bottom-Feeding Fish

Bottom-feeding fish (such as carp) can cause sedimentation to be stirred up as they consume vegetation.
These sediments have the potential to contribute to turbidity.

Algal Blooms
It is possible that algae blooms will contribute to turbidity. When nutrients are released from ground
water during seasonal turnovers and changes in the water current, algal production is stimulated.

Water Quality Standards Regarding Turbidity

The Surface Water Treatment Rule of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires
systems that use surface water or ground water that is under the direct effect of surface water to (1)
disinfect their water and (2) filter their water or meet the requirements for avoiding filtration so that
turbidity does not exceed 5 nephelometric turbidity units at any point during the treatment process
(NTUs). Systems that filter must guarantee that the turbidity does not exceed 1 NTU (0.5 NTU for
standard or direct filtration) in at least 95 percent of the daily samples taken in any given month, unless
otherwise specified.

Adsorption

Adsorption is a method of removing a wide variety of compounds from industrial wastewater.

Adsorption is most frequently used to remove or reduce the concentration of non-biodegradable
organic compounds in groundwater, drinking water preparation, process water, or as a tertiary cleanser
following biological water purification, for example. Adsorption occurs when molecules in a liquid form a
bond with the surface of a solid. Adsorbents have a very large internal surface area, which enables them
to adsorb.

Adsorption techniques. (2010, February). Retrieved July 31, 2021, from

https://emis.vito.be/en/bat/tools-overview/sheets/adsorption-techniques

It is the process by which a substance is accumulated on the surface of a solid (adsorbent, or sorbent).
The adsorbate can exist in either a gaseous or a liquid state. It is unsaturated forces at the solid surface
that act as a driving force for adsorption and have the potential to form bonds with the adsorbate.
Electrostatic or van der Waals interactions are the most common types of these forces (reversible).
Greater interactions involve direct electron transfer between the sorbate and the sorbent, while weaker
interactions involve indirect electron transfer (irreversible). The strength of this interaction determines
how easy or difficult it is to remove (desorb) the adsorbate in order to regenerate the adsorbent and
recover the adsorbate from the adsorbent. For a given component in a feed mixture, the selective
nature of an adsorbent is primarily determined by the relative access to the surface and the strength of
the surface interaction. The solid acts as a mass-separating agent, and the separating mechanism is the
partitioning of the fluid and solid phases that occurs during their separation. In order to reverse the
process and regenerate the sorbent, an energy-separating agent, typically a pressure or temperature
change, is applied to the mixture.

Noble, R., & Terry, P. (2004). Adsorption. In Principles of Chemical Separations with
Environmental Applications (Cambridge Series in Chemical Engineering, pp. 182-213).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511616594.008

Advantages of Adsorption Method

 - High performance
- Low-cost
- Wide pH range
- Easy operation

Disadvantages of Adsorption Method

- Waste product
- Weak selectivity

Sadegh, Hamidreza & Ali, Gomaa. (2018). Potential Applications of Nanomaterials in Wastewater
Treatment: Nanoadsorbents Performance. 10.4018/978-1-5225-5754-8.ch004.

Filtration

Filtration is used in the treatment of drinking water. When it comes to water treatment and purification,
the process of filtration can become a time-consuming and expensive endeavor. Maintenance and a lack
of regulatory oversight can both be significant drawbacks of filtration. In addition, because water
treatment filters are not governed by any health commission or department, the effectiveness of
filtration and purification can differ widely between manufacturers and even within the same
manufacturer. The advantages of filters, on the other hand, make them a viable mechanism for water
treatment and purification.

Byjus. (2020, September 28). Filtration - Filtration MEANING, Process, Method, examples.
Retrieved July 31, 2021, from https://byjus.com/chemistry/filtration/

Advantages of Water Filtration

It is extremely simple and straight forward to use this program.

Maintaining a water filtration system is not expensive, and it does not require a lot of money.

The water's odor and taste will improve as a result of this. Walter filtration removes chlorine from hard
water as well as other impurities.

In addition, the method ensures that harmful toxins are removed from the hard water source.

Disadvantages of Water Filtration

Not all germs and contaminants are removed from filtered water, and this is especially true for tap
water. It is possible for extremely small particles to pass through the membranes that are used to filter
water while the process is taking place.

It is critical to thoroughly clean and maintain the equipment in order for it to be able to carry out the
water softening process without a hitch.
After the water softening process is completed, all of the cartridges must be disposed of. These
cartridges contain potentially harmful toxins that have been removed from hard water. If they are
disposed of in any manner, they may end up polluting the environment.

Biotechwater. (2016, October 30). Advantages and disadvantages of water filtration. Retrieved
July 31, 2021, from https://biotechwater.com/advantages-disadvantages-water-filtration/

Sediment Filtration

A sediment filter is a device that is used to remove suspended solids, which are also known as sediment,
turbidity, and particulate matter. A sediment filter is similar to a net in that it captures unwanted dirt
particles as the water passes through it throughout the system. At the point where water enters your
home, a sediment filter is attached to it. A bed of natural media is used to filter the water (sand,
anthracite, etc.). Unwanted dirt particles become trapped in this bed as the water passes through it. The
water moves through the filter, leaving the sediment behind, and then out of the filter, resulting in
water that is free of particles that enters your home.

Sediment filtration vs Carbon Filters: Metro water filter. (n.d.). Retrieved July 31, 2021, from
https://metrowaterfilter.com/faq/sediment-filter-different-carbon-filter/

When sediment filters function, a process known as mechanical filtration is employed. Mechanical
filtration prevents unwanted particulate matter from infiltrating your water supply by physically blocking
it. Consider it to be similar to a screen door on your home. Even though you want the cool breeze to
blow through your home, bugs and leaves aren't something you want flying around with it. The screen
door serves as a mechanical filter in this situation. A sediment filter, on the other hand, has enough
porosity to allow water to flow into your home while also capturing the dirt and sand that the water is
transporting. Sediment filters are the nets that catch the particles of matter that are carried through
your water supply.

Woodard, J. (2019, August 15). What is a sediment filter and how does it work? Retrieved July
31, 2021, from https://www.freshwatersystems.com/blogs/blog/what-is-a-sediment-filter-
and-how-does-it-work

Pros: Sediment filters are one of the most widely used types of filters on the market today. This is due to
the fact that sediment filters are typically inexpensive, which is why you may see them used in filtered
water pitchers. Additionally, sediment filters are simple to replace, and you can find them in a variety of
micron levels, which refer to the size of the filtered particles as measured by the micron scale.

Cons
While sediment filters are ideal for people who are simply looking to remove particles from their water,
they may not be able to completely purify the water they are filtering. Any particles or contaminants
passing through the filter with a size smaller than one micron will pass through the filter without being
captured by the filter. As a result, you may need to use a sediment filter in conjunction with other types
of filters in order to obtain the purest possible water.

Advantages:

- Low cost

- Straightforward replacement procedure

- Micron ratings that differ from one another

Cons:

- It is not capable of removing chemicals smaller than 1 micron in size;

- It may be necessary to combine it with other types of filters.

Sediment filtration vs. reverse osmosis. (2020, May 14). Paragon water. Retrieved July 31, 2021,
from http://www.paragonwater.com/sediment-filtration-vs-reverse-osmosis/