GOLDEN QUESTIONS ON MATHEMATICS - FOR Post-graduates, Graduates, Honours, Engineers & all the competitive examinations BY MISBAH KHALID M.Sc Mathematics ILM-O-IRFAN PUBLISHERS 34-Urdu Bazar, Lahore. Tel: 042-7352332.7232336 Rs. 200/- E-Mail: ilmoirfanpublisners@hotmail.comALL RIGHTS RESERVED All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduged. translated, stored in a retrieval system..or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior.permission in writing of author. First Edition .° .1997° _ Sécond Edition. 1999: Third Edition 2004 ~ Fourth Edition 2009ALGEBRA ~ CONTENTS Groups.. a Rings... 44 Vector Space wT TOPOLOGY - Topological Spaces Separation Axioms. Compaciness ... Conriected Spaces. METRIC SPACES. Countable & uncountable sets. Metric Spaces... Convergence in metric spaces FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS Normed space: Linear operator 28 Hilbert spaces... : : 42 COMPLEX ANALYSIS Complex numbers... Limit, continuity and differentiability .. Analytic Functions Elementary transcendental functions. Complex integration. Power serie: Singularities and calculus of residues . Contour Integration . Expansion of Function & Analytic continuatiot Conformal mapping ... REAL ANALYSIS The Real Number system Numerical Sequence & Serie Limit and Continuity ..... Sequence and Series of Functions Differentiation... Real valued Functions of Severable Var 233 The Riemann Stieltjes Integrals 237 Improper Integrals. 242 VECTOR ANALYSIS. 251 New Mechanic: + 287 ‘Tensors...Tensor Analysis $ Transformation . “ Ranks | Application to Vectors Various Theorems VIVA VOCA : . Section A . Section B. Section C .ALGEBRA - Groups. Rings Vector SpacesFrou. 1) 2) ‘we a 4 BINARY OPERATION Define binary operation. | Let G be a non-empty set. Then an operation 2s “*" on anon- empty set G is said to be binary operation, if . acG, beG => atbeG Va,beG ~ When a binary operation is said to be over a set? Let X bea non-enipty set. A mapping *: X x XY is said to bea binary operation, defined over a set X such athat 9(x1,%2) = xx. EY V xx2EX Define’ commutativity of a binary operation over a set, Give example and its counter examples. Leta binary operation ‘e’be defined over a noreemply set X.‘e! is s said to be commutative over X, if XtuX2= X0X1 V xux2EX . eseyp en ‘ Ordinary addition and multiplication defined-over thé _ sets of real, complex, integers, rational and natural numbers aré commutative. The binary operation of addition over.the set Mmm Of all mm square matrices is commutative. ” Counter examples:- y 1) The binary operation of matrix multiplication (square matrices) is not commutative, 2) Compostion of non-identity mapping or Permutation over a. finite set Qi: is not commutative. : . Qa Define associativity of a binary operation over a set arid i give its . example and counter examples. Ans. A binary operation ‘*’ over the set X is said to be assocative if (x1 * x2) # x3 = x14 (x2 * x3) _V x15 x2, x3 EX Examples:- The binary operation of ‘+* fand‘e'are associative over OR . and C. where:, * N= Set of natural numbers , Z = Set of integers = Set of rationalnumbers , R = Set of real numbers °C =Set of complex numbersGroups Counter example:- ‘The binary operation of ‘--’ and ‘+’ are not assocative over N.Z,QR and C. SYSTEM Qa Define an algebraic system. Ans, The pajr (G,*) of a non-empty set G together with the binary’ operation +, is said-to form an algebraic system. OR . x Anon-emty set G along with one or more binary operations on Gis called an algebraic system. Q Give examples of algebraic system. Ans. — Each one of the system (N,+), (Q *), (R,+, ¢) and [P(A),U,9] is an algebraic structure, Q Define closed system and give example and counter example. Ans. A system in which closure law holds with respect to binary operation is called closed system. Example:- Addition ‘+ isa closed binary operation over the sets N ,QR & G ‘ Counter eoaimiples . . . ; . 1) Subtraction ‘~’ is not closed over N, the set of all natural numbers. 2) +" division is not closed over Q, the rationals. Q Define one-operational or two-operational systern. Ans, _One-operational system: A system in which only one operations is used iscalled one- | operational system. i Two-operational system:- A system in which two operations are used ata time is called tw o-operational system. © “+ “Q > _ Define Groupoid. ‘Ans!’ The algebraic systém (G,*) consisting ofa non-emply set, G and a tine, operation « defined on G is called Groupuid,Gre Ans. Ans. gO Q Ans. «ave example of Groupoid. -Set of natural numbers. Define Semi-group. A groupoid (G+) s called a semigroup, if the operation on ¢ Gis associative. Give examples of Semi-group. a D (N, +) isa semi-group. M1) The set of nxn matrices over complex number under: multiplication(or addition) of matrices. Define Monoid. A semi-group (G,*) in which the composition admits an identity element in G, is called a monoid. Give an example & counter example of monoid. 1), (N, +) is nota monoid. Ml) (N, *) isa monoid (1eN) Is every groupoid form semi-group? Yes. 2 Do the set of all vectors in the plane form a groupoid under the “binary operation of thier dot (-) or cross (x) product? No = Give an example of a groupoid that is not a semi-group. N (The setof natural numbers) Give some exanigie of groupotds that are also semigroup. 2.4) (RAC. 4 (C9 where: _ = Set of integers Set of real numbers Set of complex numbers c Cana system be en semi group without being groupoid? NoAns. Ans. Ans, Ans. im, GROUPS Define Group. Let (G, *) be an algebraic system. Then (G,*) is called a group, if Gr is closed over G: i gitg2eG a VgugeeG 1 Gx ‘s’ is associative overG. | - | ie. gi*(gates) = (e1*g:)*gs Ven g2gseG Gx ‘*" observes the identity property over G. ie. ” there exist an element CeG, such that a | e*g=gre=g , VgeG _The element ’e’ is called identity element or natural element. Gu ‘#’ observes the inverse property over G. i.e. for each | element geG, there exist an element g” the inverse of g, such that gtg?= g'*g=e Give example, of group of order 1,2,3.& 4 Group of order 1: G=l[e} * Group of order 2: + G={a,a?=e} Group of order 3: - G={(1Lw,w?},. (wis a complex cube root of unity) (G, *) forma group Group of order 4: G=(1,-1, i-i} ‘ (G,*) isa group Can an empty.set form a group? No ° Locate some system that are not groups. (C.*) set of complex numbers under multiplication (R,*) set of real numbers under multiplication (Qs) set of rational numbers under multiplication are not groups. . But they are semi-groups. What types of niatrices forma group under ‘+’ and under ‘e’ as well? All non-singular square matrices under ‘+’ & ‘e’ form group.Ans. z© Grows __. SS _ Define an abelian group. " A group (G,*) is said to be an abelian group if’*’ observes the comunutative property over G, : “ ie. 8182 = g2"g1 ' ¥g1.g26G Such groups are commonly known as commutative groups. "Give examples of abelian groups. 1) G= (1, -1,i-i} under ’e’ es 2) G=(1, 0,07} under’e’ G={1, 0, @} Where w is a complex cube root of unity. 3) Klien 4-group under multiplication G = {a,b,ab,c} Give example of non-abeliiins group. G=(Lo¥, 92. oF, GY} Where g3= 42 = (gf)? =] Give example of order 5,6,7 groups Order 5: G=(b,b? bY bt, b= e} under ‘e’ Order 6; G=(Lo,¥, 92 oF, oP) Where 3 = ¥2= (9})2=] . Order 7: G=(a,a2........, a7 =e} under ‘e’ Who was N.H. Abel? He was a great mathematician. The idea of. abelian group has been given by him. The name ‘Abelian’ is given after the name of a Norweigian mathematician N.H. Abel (1802-1829) as a Tecogniation of his work in this field, Do the polynémials form a group under that usual addtion & multiplication? . No under ‘e multiplication. + Yes under ’+' addition. Define Cartesian product, ©. If A&B are two non-empty sets, then the set of all ordered pairs (a,b) such that aeA and beBis called the Cartesian product of A&B and dentoed by AxB. Thus © ~ . AxB.= (a,b): acA & beB} In general AxB BxA What can you say about commutativity of i Wh of Cartesian product? | Le AxXB= BxA Where Aan Rae‘Groups Ans. ge. Ans. AxB#BxA ~ In general Give atvexainple of previous question. IWA=(0,1) , | Beft,2,3) AxB = {(0, 1), (0, 2), (0,3), (1, 1), (1-2) (1 3) BxA = ((1, 0),-(1,1), (2, 0), (2,1), (3,0), @ D} “Clearly: AxB + BxA - Define an ordered pai. 3 A set of two elements whose elements have been listed in a * ,° specific order is called an ordered pair and denoted by (a,b). ‘ : ve » . r “ m “Isittrue? (a, b) =.(b, a) _ Ingeneral : re. (a, b) # (b, a) What is equality.and addition of ordered pair? Equality:- / aot pe {a1, bs) = (a2, b2) & asa. & bi=b2 Addition: a Ss (a, b) + (c,d), = (ate, b +d) - Does RxR ‘form a group under their usual addition? © - Yes ( The Cartesian product RxR is the setof Cartesian,co- ordinates of all points in the plane.), Define order of a group. The number of elements in the group G, asa set is called the order of the group G. °S Ei . Find a group of smallestorder. . 7. + {e} , where ¢ is the identity of the group... Define finite infinite group groups. We shall call a group (G, *) finite or infinite according as the 4 underlying set Gis inifite ov finite. Give example of finite & infinite- Finite groups:- ‘ y) {L -Li-i} : 2) Klien four group 3) - fe‘Ans, Ans. Ans: Ans. Ans. Infinite groups:- 1) (Z, +) set of integers under ‘+ 2) (Q +) set of rational under ‘+’ 3) >. _ (R, +) setof reals under ‘+’ Define order of an element of a group Let aeG. A +ve integer n is said to be the order of ‘a’ if an = =e and nis least +ve.integer. i.e. Ofa) =n 3 Define symmetric group: The set S, of all permutations on a set X with n elements isa group under the operation of composition of permutations. . The group S, is called symmetric group of order n. What ace know about order of symmetric group? Sal =n! * Where n is the number of elements. Define dihedral group. The group of symmetrics of a regular poWian P, of nsides is called the dihedral group of degree'n and is denoted by D,. How can we represent Dn? Dn = Is klien group a special case of Da? Write the special case. Yes. 7 5 When n=2inD, then itis klien group. » ie. Dy = What is Octic group? When n= 4 in D,, then itis called gctic group. Define p-groups for a prime number P. = 7° A group which can be wrilten in the power of single prime p. . Pefine finite p-group. oS Let P be a prime number. A finite Prgroup, isa group of order: p’, a2t. What are infinite p-groups? - . - Infinite p- groups are groups in which every element has order a power of p._ee Grew mp Q Give examples of finite p-groups. Ans. 1) Klien 4-group =” ~ G=(e,a, b, ab) where a?.= b? = (ab)? =e 2) Group of quaternon G2 {t1,+i,t)+K . where 2= j= ke=-1, =k, ji=-k 'Q Define cyclic group. - thee _Ans. AgroupGis said'to bea cyclic group if all of its elements can be obtained, or generated as. powers of a single element g of G. The element geG ig called ¢ generator of G and is denoted.by G=. Q Give examples of cyclic group. Ars. 1) G= (i-th =< : is a cyclic group of order 4. 2) The group Z of all integers un’ gfoup, where . .Z=e. der + is an infinite cyclic Q _- Whatis quaternion group? ; G=(t1,4i.4)2h) where i2=j?#k?=-L, ij =k, jic-k Q= ‘ Here a= ij bsj # er are there in any finite cyclic Q How many elements of ord group of order n. Ans. at)? = an =e n/2elements of order 2. Q How many identities are there ina group? Ans, Only one. " : . : ie. Identity is always unique: .- Q How many inverses are there of an element of @ group? Ans. Onleone. 5 . - be. Inverse is always unique. 2 Which of them are true? os ~ An. i) D1 Fo. x? (False) ii) (oy? xt | (False) iii), OTF x (True) = -2x (False) iv) -(-x)Groupe. Ans. - Ans. vy) x) = 0 x (ue) “Define reflexive, symmetric, transitive, equivalence and anti- symmetirc relation over a set (group). Let R be a binary relation on a set A. Then R is said, to be i) Reflexive: ifaRa,.YacA - ie. (a,ajeA , vaca 2) Symmetric : ifaRb=> bRA : ie. (a, bjcR=>(b.a)eR 3) Transitive : ifaRb, bRe => aRe te. @ BIER, (b,)cR=(a,ceR- 4) Anti-symmetric: ifaRb, bRa>a=b ie. (a, b)cR, (bya)eER>a=b Equivalence Relation: A relation which is simultancously reflexive, symmetric and transitive is known as an equivalence: relation, Define partial order relation A relation which is reflexive, anti symmetric and transitive is known as a partial order relation. ; Give example which is 1) Equivalence relation. ~ 2) Symmetric, transitive but act » 3) Reflexive, transitive but not symuztetric. * 4) Reflexive, symmetric but not transitive. 5) Reflexive but neither synunctric nor transitive. 6) Transitive but neither, reflexive nor symmetric. Satisfies none of the properties of reflexivity, symunetry and transitivity. Let A= {1, 2, 3} TAXA = ((1, 1), (1,2), (1.3), (2,1), (22). (2,3). (3, 1), (3,2), 3,3))° 1) 1, 1), (22), (3, 3), (1, 2); (2.1)} 2. 1, 1), (22), (1.2), (2.1)) 3) 1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2)} 4) 1,1), 2,2), G3) 222382) - 3) Rs = ((1, 1), (2,2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3)) 6) Rs = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (3, 2)} 7 Re=((1, 1), (1,2), (23)} Whith is called a neutral elements ina y; Identity element.urems. Q Ans, Ans. Ans. Ans. _ 19 Which are those elements of a group whose inverses are the element themselves? The element of order 2 are the inverses of themselves. Give an example of cyclic group that is also.a p-group. * Group of order 4 = 22 & 512 = (2.2, 23,....-2%2 Y : ’ Is (Q +) a cyclic groyp? if yes find its generators? {Q, +) isnot a cyclic group. . "Js every'cyclic group abelian? Support with an example. Yes, every cyclic group is abelian. y G={1,-1, i, -l) = under multiplication © 2) G={1,0, a} = Xis called a permutation on x. How can you write the inverse a the cyclic permutation of length n? Define a cyclic permutation. a, ay. wd A permutation of the form =a = J a, a. a is called a cyclic permulation or. cycle af length k & is writter'as a= (ay 29 aj) - Can each permutation be enprenei asa product of cyclic perm. Yes. Do permutation form a group? what will be the binary operation under which they form a group? : Yes, under the operation of composition of permutations. Define transposition. . é A cycle of length 2 is called transposition.: 13 Qa What are even and odd permutations? Ans: ~ Even permutation: A perm is said to be an even permutation if it can be written as a product of an even no of transpositions. -Odd permutation: A permutation is said’ to. be an odd permutation if it can be. written as a product of an odd number of transposition Which of them are true? ‘ ns i, Odd permutations over (1,2,....n-1,n} do not froma group. (True). ii. If o=(1 2 3), thena-l =(1 3-2) (True) iii, . Sg iscyclic (False) iv. Permutation is a (1-1) function (True) v. S3 is abelians (False) 20 Give an example of a permutation group which is non-abelian S3, symmetric group of degree 3. Give an example of a permutation group which is abelian. Sp, symmetric group of degree 2. ‘Do the disjoint cycles of Sn commut2, Yes Ifa &P are disjoint cycle, there i ap=Ba i, aBeBa ( 2 ‘y then a ay a, a: at{*s a, *) 1 fa = (:2 a (129) - - : 3207 cre then af =? “ 123 Ans: a B= 312 i toot Fe 9 s 7.ae Ans: ze SUB-GROUPS Define sub group of a group. Let (G,9 be a group & H be a non - empty subset of G, If H is itslf a group with the induced binary operations on G, then'H is called a subgroup of G. : e *Give examples of subgroup...” i: (Z+) set of integers under '+' is a sub group of (Q+) set of rationals under '+'. . ii, (Q+) set of rationals under '+' is a sub group of (Ryt) set of reaFnumbers under '¥'. Whatis the sub group criteria? Let (G, *) be a group. Then a non-empty subset H of G is a sub group ifacH, beH —> abl cH. + Define coset of a group by its sub group. Let'H bea sub group of a group G & a EG. Then the set aH= (ah; heH} : is acalled a left coset of H is G determined by a. Similarly Ha — = (ha: HEH} . is called a Right coset of H in G determined by a. Give example of coset. Let -G= {1,-1,},-i} -& ~ Let H = {-1,1] be a subsp of G. Right cosets determined by iare groups _ Hi. =lii) Hi =H. . , - H(¢1) =H , toe “HCD =(-iei} Left Cosets are : 1H =H 1H =H iH = (ii) iH ={-i,i} Define index of a group by its subgroup.- Ans: a a . \5 The number of distinct left (or light) cosets of a,sub group H of a group G iscalled the index of H in G, é& is denoted by [G:H]. ‘What do you know about finite & infinite index? If the number of right Cosets of H in G is finite then H is called a sub group of finite index. Otherwise, H is said to have infinite index in G. Do the cosets make the partitions | ofa a grow ip? Yes. Which of them are true? i, Any two left (or right) cosets of a subgroup are either . disjoint or identical. (True). ii, The number of distinct right cosets of H in G, is same as . . the number of distinct left cosets.of H inG (True). iii. If xy €G (a group) and x ~ y: iff xy"! €H (subgp of G) then is the relation .. ..reflexive, symmetric and transitive . over G, (True). ‘iv. In = case of group (G,+) a right cosetis - = (ha | heH] (Faise) ve in the case of group (G,*)a Tight coset i is H+as5{(h+a:heH). vi. eH#He. , (False) : His a subgp of group G & e is the identity element. Is it true?. ‘The sub group H of a group G itself is both a left coset and a Tight coset of H in G, for eH=He=H. Yes. - State Lagrangels Theorem. The order and index of every subgroup of a finite group divides the order of the group. . What about converse of Lagrauge's Theorem? Converse is not true. The converse of Lagrange' 's Theorem holds i in case of finite cyclic groups. Is HOK a sub group of group G, if H&K are two subgroups of G? Yes.Groups. Ans: Ans: Ans: Ans: Ans: Ans: Multiplication. —- - 16 Is HUKa subgroup of group G, if H&K are two subgroup of G? No. When any two cosets (left or tight) will concides? In case of abelian group. Define quétient set? The set of all cosets (left or right) of a group G by its subgroup H . ‘is said to form the quotient set & is denoted by G/H i.e. G/H=(H, gr H, gH}... If group Gis finite, then about will be quotient set? If G is finite & has n cosets by its subgroup H, then G/H= (Hg Be gsH. ‘Do the cosets of a group by its subgroup haves same order? Yes. Do all the cosets of a group G by its subgroup f forma group, if yes, then what is identity?. Yes. 'e' is an identity some where ‘I’ is an identity element. What is the binary operation under which the quotient set G/H form a group. What is G/G or G/I? G/G is also a quotient set ie G itself. G/lis also a quotient set i.e G itself. What do you understand by the contre of a group? The centre of a group G devoted by Z(G) consists of those . elements of G which commute with every element of G. Thus 2(G)=(geG| gx=xg, VxeG}. Is centre of a group, its subgroup Yes. - If group G isabelian, what is its centre? Z(G)=G, if Gis abelian. Is the centre an abelian subsgroup of group G? YesGrows. °Q@ Ans: ye pe 70 Fo-Fo Fe FO Fo j. 2 toe ox __ 1 Define centralize of an element of a group Let x be a non-empty subset of group G. Then the centralizer of X in G denoted by Cg (x) is the set of those elements in G which commute with every element of x. Thus : Co (X= [ geG| gx=xg, vxeX). Iscentralizer always non-empty? yes. Centralizer is always non-empty, because identity commute with every element. Incase of abelian group, whatis centralizes? If the group G is abelian, then Ca(x) =G. Is.centralizer a subgroup of a group G? “Yes Co (x) isa subgroup of group G. - Define Normalizer of a subgroup of a group G, Let G be a group and X bea non-empty subset of G. Then the normalizes of X in G denoted by Ne (x) is the set of those elements in G (geG). which Permit with x. \ ie NG (X= (geGl gx=xg). Is Nc (X) always non-empty? yes Ng (X) is always non-empty, because identity eeNc (X). If group Gis abelian, then what will be NG (X)? NG®)=G - If X= {a} : . then whatis relation between centralizer & notmalizer? Co) = Ng (a) : . Does Ng (x) forma subgroup? Yess: : Define Normal subgroup? Let H be a subgroup of a group G. H is said to be a normal (self Conjugate or invariant) subgroup of G, if it concide, with all its Conjugate subgroups in G. Thus his normal in G iff gHg-1= H, .gcH,Groups. Q. Ans: Q Ans: . If group is abelian, then find its normal subgroup? If group G is abelian, then every subgroup is normal. Every group has atleast ----—normal subgroups. i. One ii. Two ~~ . . « iil. Four : What are trivial Normal subgroups? Every group has atleast two normal subgroups i. Identity ; ii. ‘The group itself ian These are known as trivial normal.subgroups. Let G be a group of order 2p, where p is prime. Then G has a normal subgroup of order—- i 2 ii p.—~ - iii. p/2 iv. 2p . What are the normal subgroups of S3? Let G = (Lo, oY, OY, 279) where == Tt Hi =. (1, 6, $2} is normal in G & Hz = (1, P} is not normal in G +. only Hy is normal is G. i Define Hamiltonian group. If every subgroup is normal in group G. Then G is called Hamiltonian group + Give example of Hamiltonian group. Quater nian group , G=(+1+i, +j+ where P=7= 1 + jak. ji ‘ Define Quotient group. If H is a normal subgroup in G. Then the set G/H of all the cosets of H form a group,. Called the quotient group or factor group. > : XN y= Groups —~ ~ Thus * G/H = (aH/aeG} . form a group under multiplication. Q Does the centralizer of an element ina group form its subgroup? Ans: Yes Q: . How does centralizer of group G help to count the number of 2 elements in a conjugate class of that element? Ans: If Gis finite group, then Ical= _Ic * where | No (al Cy = Conjugacy class. No (@)= normalizet, Q Is HK a muerte a of a group G, if H & K are two subgroups of “ * G2 . “Ans: Yes - Q If Gis finite group, find the number of elements in HK? \ luk = HLL oS Hak] - Q If HK = KH, then HK is the—subgroup containing both H&K. Ans i Smallest »-~ Largest Normal Q ° Let H&K be subgroups of group G then HnK is the-—subgroup, of G contained in both H&K. . Ans: i. Smallest Largest Normal Qa The— subgroup containing H&K is the subgroup generated by HUK. Ans: :i, - Smallest ° Largest NormalGroups. : 20 Q@ Define simple group. Ars: A group which has no proper normal subgroup is called simple group. ~Q Give exam, ple of simple group. ‘Ans: - Every group of prime order is simple Q@ Give counter example of simple group. e Ans: i, Acyclic group of composite order is never a'simple group. ii, An abelian group of composite order is never a simple group Q@ What is the centre of simple group? Ans: The cenfre of a simple group is either identity or the group itself. Q_ 18S, simple for all n? ‘ ‘Ans: No, Sp issimp]e only forn=2, Q Is Ay simple for all n? Ans: No, Ap is simple for n25. Q: . Whatis the condition on ns.t Ap is simple? Ans: Apis simple n25. Q@ Is a group of order 96 simple? Ans:' No. . . Qa -Are these simple group? Ans: i” Group of order 63 No ii Ji. Tt 56 No Wott 36 No Mt 1986 ~ No vie ALD 204 No vi // Ad >, 25400 C No° Q Is a group of order p.q (p.q's are distinct primes) simple? Ans: No Q Can a p-group has trivial centre? Ans: No *Q@ Is every p-group abelian? Ans: NoQ@ Ans. Ans. Ans: Ans, Ans: Ans. Ans: Ans: Ans: Gromps. .. Ans. . -—— Ts: A group G having order p2, where p is prime is always—-. - i, Abelian ii. Normal : | iii, Nonabellan . A finite p-group — —centre. i. * + Trivial ii, \. Non-trial ~~ Does the number of eleménts of each conjugate class of G divide the order of G. - -Yes If G is—, then all the elements of finite order in a group G form its subgroup. i. Abelian 7 ii, Non-abelian iii, Normal Every subgroup of an abelian group is-—-- i, Abelian ii. Normal. +—~ iti. Non-abelian If |G| =n, then what could possible orders of its subgroups be? All the divisors-of n could be possible orders of its subgroups. If a group Gis non-abelian, then there is no—-~subgroup of G. i Abelian - ii. Non-abelian iii. Cyclic iv. Normal If Hand K are two normal subgroups then is HK normal? Yes If H isa subgroup of index—, therr His a normal subgroup of G. if. 4 iii. 7 Is the union of two subgroups of G another subgroup? No sGrew — Q@ Ans: Qa Ans: 20 ze 70 Fe Cyelic | Abelian _ Let be derived subgroup of group G, Then G/G is-—- i; — Nonabelian ii, - Abelian - 22 P-sylow subgroup of a group * ; Paes a finite oe of order n and p be a prime divisor of n, A subgroup H of Gis said to be a sylon-p subgroup of G, if lH| =P & P*|n wherea21 where . Pata : Also P* is the highest power of p which divides a Give example of sylow p-subgroup | Ss = (1g, YO, OY | where $3,=2=(p)2=1 Let . Hi = (1 4) He = 7} are sylow P subgroups, All the sylow p-subgrpups are-—-, i Conjugate w" °- Normal. Cyclic - Define complete group. -| A-group G is said to be complete if Z (G) = {e) and eve automorphism of G is an inner automophism i.e Ginn (G) = Aut (G). . Define derived subgroup of group G. z } The subgroup of G generated ‘by the set of all commutatory in ( is called the commutator or derived subgroup of G. | ie, abal bl (vabec. Whatis the derived subgroup of an abelian group? Identity element, . . let G be the derived sul ibgroup of group G. Then Gis — inG i 7 Normal < . iii, NormalGroups. _ Ans. 20 Ans. eo MAPPINGS Define a mapping from one set into another. Let A and B be any sets. A rélation from A to B is called a, mapping (or a map or a function) from A to B if for each element x in A there is exactly one element y in B (Called the image of x under f) such that x is in relation f to y. “ \ When a mapping is called well -defined? If two pre-images have different images, then the mapping is called well-defined. Define equality of two mappings. Two mappings f: A > B and g:’C - D are said to be equal, Written fg if. A = C, B = Dandf(x) = g(x), Vx eA. Is there any difference between a mapping and a function ? No. Every mapping is a function and every function is mapping. The difference is only that of its usage in different branches of mathematics. In analysis & calculus, the term function is used,’ while in algebra & other related branches, the term mapping, is . preferred. . When a mapping is called one-to-one and onto a set? One-one (or injective) mapping: A. mapping f: X — Y is said to be (1-1) if different elements in x have distinct images in Y. Thus, fis(1-1)) f(x) = f(x:) > x1 = x2 ONTO (or surjective) mapping: A mapping f: X — Y is said to be an onto mapping, if every clement in Y has at least one pre-image in X. Give example of (1 1) mapping The mapping me f:{1,2,3) — {24,68} . f(x) = 2x is (1-1). Give example of onto mapping. f:{-1,1,2,3} > [1,4,9} on f(x) = 8 is an onto mapping.Grows. Ans. Ans. Ans. “ Ans, Pe Oh eres se Define an identity map over «1 set. . The mapping Ie x +x - LQ) =x ,VxeXx - is called an identity mapping onX. . Is identity mapping (1-1) & cnto? Yes. Define many-one mapping. If f is a mapping from X to Y, then it is not possible that a singl element in X may have two images in Y. In the other hand, it is quite possible that two or more than two} elements in X may have the. same image and in this case th mapping is.said to be many- »ne. Give example of many-one mapping. ‘The mapping : (4. Aza) — {149} feo. is many-one. Give examples of mapping which are (1-1). but not onto. iy Let g:N— N defined by 9(n) =2n VneN = set of natural numbers, * qis(1-1) butnotonto. iy | Themap y:R-+R defined by Ym) = 2 Vme R = set of real numbers.” _ is (1-1) but notonto. e * . Give examples of injective, surjective or bijective mappings over the real or complex set. Injective mapping: Let 9:N-—>N -° defined by - g(n) =2n VneN & the set of natural numbers “gis (1-1). : Surjective mapping: Themap y:R'->R defined by y(x) = logx is surjective where R = set of real numbers R° = set of the real numbers. . Bijective mappings: % : Themap y:R—>R ~ defined by y(m) =2m +1 ° Vme R’=set of real numbers.is bijective.Groupe. Q Ans. a z0 Ans. Give example of map which is neither (1-1) nor bnto. i, The mapping f:R-»R defined by f(x) = Cosx Vx € R=set of real numbers. is neither (1-1) nor onto. . ii, Themap f:C +R defined by {(Z)=|Z] vZec wheréC = setof couplex numbers R = set of real numbers * is neither (1-1) nor onto.” Give example of map which is ontp but not F(-1). The map f:N ->{1) such that ° : F(x) =1 »VxeEN. where N = set of naturals, is onto but not (1-1). GROUP HOMOMORPHISM Define group homorphism. Let (G, *) & (G/, *) be two groups. A map ¥: G->G' from G into Gis said to be a group homorphism if for every p1,g2 in G & their respective images w (gi), y (g2) inG’) * ¥ (greg2) = v(e) * ¥(g2) - - Give example of group homomorphism Amap y:(R,+)— (R*,) defined by w(m) =e" ., VmeR i a homontorphism. : Define Monomorphism, Epimorphism, Isomorphism. Monomorphism: If the homomorphism is (1-1), then the mapping is said to be a monomorphism . < Epimorphism: * If the homormorphism is $ ONTO, then the mapping is said to be an epimorphism Isomorphism: If the homorphism is both (1-1) «« ONTO, then the-mapping is said to be on Isomorphism. " Define Endomorphism, Automorphism, Endomorphism: Let G be a group. Thena homomorphism of a group iG into itself is called an endo morphism.Greys Q. _ Ans. Ans. »Q. Ans. Q * Ans. “y(m)=2m WmeR _ isnot endomorphism. Automorphism: Let G be a group. The an Isomorphism of a group G into itself is called an aytomorphism. Every automorphism is endomorphism what about converse?. Converse is not true. Every endomorphism is not automorphism. When endomorphism is then it is automorphisme. i. (1-1) &onto ~~ i, (14) . iii. onto. . Give example of monomorphism. i Let ° g:(Z,+) >(Z,+) | defined by i p(n) =2n > VneZ = set of integers ii, Amap y: (R,+) > (R’,.) defined by: “y(m) =em, Give example of epimorphism : i. Let 9: (Z, +) >(G,.) = {£1,+U be defined by- 9(n) =i" 7 V ne Z=set of integers : ii,” Let —:(Z,+) > (Z,+)_be defined by . o(n) = 2n /V ne Z-=set of integer rm Give example of Iso niorphism A 0:(Z, +) >(E, +) defined by Gy @(n) =2n Vine Z=setofinteger “a : & E = set of even integer. | ii 9: (ZAHN3(ZA) by : Q(n) =-n _ ne Z=set of integer. Give éxample of endomorphism and also counter example. The map é . 3 me i gZ2Z3Z bé defined by @(n) = Kn V neZ=set of intger’ where K is any constant. + ii, Letw:(R',.)>(R,.) ‘by, Give example of Auto morphism. i. Let G= {tri}27 @G3G be defined by . 9? @) : : 9 (1) 9) gi) = : ii, Themap - w:(R,+)> (R+) defined by .2 0° (mM) 52m Vm €-R =set of real numbers, Is the identity map automorphism? Yes, ~~ Is isomorphism between two groups an equivalence relation ” Over the set of all groups?. —- yes. Have 'the two isomorphic groups same structure?, Yes, . Isa honiomorphism on a monomorphism if kei: v=(IcG. What about its converse? Yes. Converse is also true. »_Define Kernel. - Let. g: Gi > G. bea homomorphism, Then: the set of all those ~ elements in G; which are mapped into the identity of G: is called the “kernel of homomorphism . Thus Ker @= (gr | 9 (gi) =e) : where ez.is the identity of Go. ex = (é1). Is Kernel always non-empty? yes, because it contains at least one element i.e. identity. Do the homomorphism form a group under the binary operation of their composition?. : . yes, What is natural homomorphism? Define a mapping u:G+G/K by . ae “w(g) = gk 2085 Then y is an epimorphism of G to G/K and is called the natural or cononical homomorphism of G onto G/K.Groups. Is it true 1o that for every norinal sub-group H of G there exists an epimorphism y: G -» G/H?. : . Yes Define Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism. : Let N be a normal subgroup of G. let y.: G > G be: an epimorphism with ker Me =N Then G/N= Is Ker y asub group (normal sub group) of its domian? yes. . . State 2nd Isomorphism Theorem. Let H and K be sub groups of the group G where H is normal.in G. Then HK/H = K/HNK. ~ Is HAK a normal sub group of G, if H é K are two normal sub groups of G, : Yes. Define 3rd lsomorphism Theorem. Let Hand K be normal sub groups of G where H¢K.Then . G/H = G/K K/H . What will be the the kernel of a (1- group Homomorpnate The identity of the domiain. What is the identity of the quotient group of Gbyit its normal sub group H? The identity of the quotient group of G by its normal sub group HssalwayeH: ie. ,eHs H. Under what conditions HK/K= H/HhaK holds in a group G fo its subgroup H & K. * The conditions are it . Kisnormal in HK, © ii, “ HmKisnormalin HL Do Automorphism of a group form a group? * Yes. .Gromps_ a. . : - - 29 Q. Define Inner and Outer automorphism of a group. Ans. “Inner Automorphism: i Teta bea fixed element of the grou; we associate a mapping. GG defined by _ . % (8) =agat veeg P G with this element a eG Then g, isan automorphism This type of a ‘tomorphism is éalled an inner The set of all inner automorphism is denoted by 1(G). Quter automo: hism: On automorphism which is not an inner automophism is called an outer automorphism, Z , Q Every outer is inner automorphism @, : 8 aga! = g in group. . = . Ans. i, abelian... 7. i eyclic. iii. non. abelian , Q. If Sroupis ere isno inner automorhpism Ans. i, abelian . ii, cyclic, . . . iii, Ronvabelian. & : . io : <\ 7 Q — Let 1 (G) be the inner autoriorphism & A (G) be the set of all automorphism then which of them are true?. i Ans. IGca (GS). : (True) 1(G) is normal in A (G).° (True) 1(G) is not normal in A(G) (False) iv. G/Zeq=1 (C) « * (True) where Z(G) = centre of group G, Q Is Inn (G) a normal sub- Sroup of Aut (G). we Ans. Yes, end Q Define External Direct Products, And. Let G, and Gz be any two, groups having identities @ and e, q Consists of all ordered pairs (81-g2) of elements Of Gi and G es . ie GixG = (ge) | gr © G1, gre Ga} - Let (g1.g2) & (fi) © GixG, If we define aur OPeration (multiplicatidin\ af su»Groups —- Ans. * ii, GinG = [el _ Ans. “Q) Ans, Ans. _—i0 GixGe by (gre (Gudi) = Gh Bre) then Gix G; forma group ie G=Gi XG: is called the external direct product of Gi & G2, The group G& Gz are called the direct factors of G. Define Internal Direct Product. LetGi ‘and G; beany two grou) G, and G2 if ‘ i. Gand G2 are normal sub groups of G1 x G2. ps G1 x G2 is the direct product of should be expresable as gt gr iii. Every element of Grx Ge ternal direct where gi € G1, g2 € G. This G is called the in product. : Give an example of internal direct product, Let G=(eabab) © . where a2 = b? = (ab)?-e. - 5 Let Gr= (ea) ,G2= [e,b] Gi, Gzare normal sub groups of G. Gi AGz={e}. Hence G=GeG . Is internal direct product of groups isomorphic to external direct product? No. Is klien 4- group internal direct product?. yes”. =. Is relation of “isomorphism of” over sub- groups of a group isan equivalence relation? ~ Yes. isomorphic groups have same order i. Two. * ii, Three Five Define Fully Invarient Sub group in a group G- A sub group F of a group G is said to be fully invarient if F is mapped into itself under every endomorphisni on G._ . ie. If a: G 9 G is any’ endomorphism. Then a sub group F of G is fully invarient if « (FCF.Crome : “Neem cL 31 Q Ans, Q * Ans.” Give example of fully invarient sub group. ‘The commutator sub group of a group is fully invarient. Define characteristic sub group of a group. A sub group H of a group Gis said to be characteristic subgroup of g, if H is mapped onto itself under every automorphism on G, ie. Hischaracteristic sub group of G if a (H =H -forevery aeA (G),where A (G) = set of all automorphism. Give example of characteristic sub group. i. The centre of a group Gis characterstic. | ii, G’commutator sub group of group G is characteristic. Which of them are true. . : Every fully invarient subgroup is characteristic. : (True) ‘The cenre of a group is characteristic. (True) + The commutator subgroup is fully invarient subgroup. (True) Every characteristic is fully invarient. “(True) There is no relation between fully invarient and characteristic subgroup. (False) Is every characteristic subgroup a normal subgroup? Yes. Is Z(G) fully invarient? Yes, When are the subgroups (proper) of a group its normal subgroup? : Left Coset = Right Coset Is every fully invarient subgroup characteristic? + Yes. Define double cosets. ‘ . Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. Then for any element _ a €G, the set H a K whose elements are of the form ha k, wher h ¢ kiscalled a double coset in G, mod (H,K) determined by the element acG, Thus Hak= (hak | he k,k ek} Which of them are ture? .Gromps paige ee sg hoa 32 Ans. . i) Double cosets are just the generalization of the cosets. (True) ° ii) The double cosets partition the cosets. . (False) iii) The double coset partition the whole group G. (True) iv) | HaKN HbK=G_— ,Va,beG (False) v) HaKN HbK=$ ,WabeG (True) Q Can any two double cosets have the same number of elements? Ans. Yes. Q Is a group G partitioned into its double cosets? Ans. Yes. Q If His the only one P-sylow subgroup of a.finite group G, then - cHisinG. Ans. i) Normal ~ ° ii) cyclic iii) Abelian - Q>: State Cayley's Theorem. . Ans, Every finite group is isomophic to a permutation group. ; : Q State Cauchy's Ist Theorem (for abelian groups). Ans. _ If p isa prime divisor of the order of a finite abelian n group G. Then G has an element of order p. State Cauchy’s 2nd Theorem (for non-abelian groups). If p isa prime divisor of a finite group G having order n thenG - has an element with order p. 70 Does converse of the Lagrange’s Theorem hold in p groups. Yes. : Q Ans. °Q Why converse of the Lagrange’s Theorem holds true in'p groups? ‘ Ans. Due to sylow theorem. Q State Sylow’s Ist Theorem. Ans. If pis the prime divisor of the order of finite group G Then G . contains a sylow p subgroup. Q ‘State 2nd Sylow's Theorem. Ans. Ina finite group G, any two sylow p subgroups are always conjugate. .Groups _* fas wns ———___ ee “StL Q State 3rd Sylow’s Theorem, Ans. The number K of sylow P subgroup ofa finite group j congruent to 1 mod Pand isa factor of the orderRINGS Qa Define a Ring. ' Ans. Anon-empty set R with two binary operations *+’ and *e' is said to from a ring, if i) Under addition (R,+) is an ableian group. ii) Under multiplication (R,-) isa semi group. ie VabeR===>abeR and Va,bc €R,====>a(b.c) = (a.b).c iii) The two distributive laws hold in R: Le. a(b.c) =a.b+a.c and (btc)a=b.atcaV a,b,ceR If all these axioms are satisfied in R, then (R, +,) is called a ring. How many binary operations needed to form a ring? ‘There are two binary operations needed to form a ring. Does an empty set form a ring? No. What is difference between ring structure é& group structure? The main difference is: There is one binary operation to form a group but there are two binary operations to form a ring. zo Fe Fe Give some examples of ring. i) (Z, +,¢) isa ring | Where Z = set of integers. i. ii) (E, +, ©) isa ring Where E = set of even integers. iii) (R, +, ¢) isa ring Where R = set of real numbers. © iv) (C, +, *) isa ring Where c = set of complex numbers. g° . , Does the set of the +ve intergers form a ring? Ans. No. Q Give some counter examples of ring. Ans. _ i) The numbers of the form bVZ, b ¢ Q(Q= set of rationals) do not forma ring with respect to “+ & °«35 Rugs aa ee tare ii) The fourth roots of unity under the ordinary *+' & * « do not form a ring. i 2 Which of them are true? 7 Ans. i) The numbers of the form a + bY2; a & b intergers w.r.t “+ &°e! forma ring, ° (TRUE) ii) The numbers of the forma + bV2a & b rationals w.r.t “He “a! (TRUE) iii) The numbers of the form 3m, m an integer forma ring wart +! be’, (TRUE) - iv) The numbers of the form a + ib; a & b integers and i=V7I forma ring. (TRUE) v) The numbers of the form a + ib; a & b rationals and i= VT forma ring. (TRUE) Q The set { 0} can form a ring or not? Ans. Yes. The set { 0 } forma ring. Q Define null ring. Ans. The set {0} consisting of zero alone, forms a ring under the binary operations of addition & multiplication of numbers. It is called Null-Ring, which is the smallest ring structure. Q Which is the smallest ring? Ans. Null ring. Q _Isnull ring forma field? Ans. No. Q When a ting is called a commutative ring? Ans. _ If the binary operation *.' multiplication is commutative ie Ifab=ba VaberR in R. Then R is called a commuiative ring. Q Give examples of commutative ring. Ans. i) The set of all even integers E = (0, $244.0) ii) ThesetR={a+bv2] a,b eZ} where Z = set of integers is commutative ring . iil) The sets Q, R, C of all rational, reals & complex nos, are commutative rings. A a Let R be a\ring with identity, what does it mean? If under multiplication, the identity element exist in R. ielf1 € R; then Risa ting of unity,