IGNOU Poverty and Social Dynamics

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UNIT 13 POVERTY AND ITS SOCIAL

DYNAMICS
Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Poverty as a Social Problem
13.3 Definition and Approaches to Poverty
13.3.1 Definition
13.3.2 Approaches
13.4 Causes of Poverty
13.4.1 Inequality and Poverty
13.4.2 Vicious Circle Theory
13.4.3 Geographical Factors
13.5 Consequences of Poverty
13.5.1 Poverty and Its Consequences
13.5.2 Culture of Poverty
13.5.3 Poverty in India
13.5.4 Inequality of Income Distribution
13.6 Poverty Alleviation Programmes
13.6.1 The IRDP and Employment Programmes
13.6.2 Women and Youth and Area Development Programmes
13.7 Let US Sum Up
13.8 Key Words
13.9 Further Readings
13.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
13.0 OBJECTIVES
After you have studied this unit you should be able to :
z describe poverty as a social problem;
z define poverty;
z explain the causes of poverty;
z discuss poverty and its consequences; and
z explain some poverty alleviation programmes.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last block we talked about social problems pertaining to different types
of labour, viz. industrial, rural, women and children. In this block we are going
to talk about the problems related to patterns of deprivation and alienation. 7
The first unit of this block has to do with poverty and its social dynamics. In
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Patterns of Deprivation this unit we define poverty and indicate categories for its measurement. Next
and Alienation
we look into the causes of poverty, the vicious circle theory and geographical
factors. Next we deal with the consequences of poverty . This includes a
coverage of the culture of poverty, poverty in India, and inequality of income
distribution. Finally we deal with poverty alleviation programmes which include
the IRDP, employment programmes, women and youth area development
programmes and urban areas.
13.2 POVERTY AS A SOCIAL PROBLEM

There has been poverty in all societies over a long period. However the ‘extent’
of poverty is more in some countries than others. Every society, however,
affluent, has people who are poor. In the USA more than 25 million are said to
live in poverty (12-15%). It was only in the 60s that there was recognition of
the prevalence of poverty. A programme of ‘War on Poverty’ was then started
in USA. In England, the Poor Law was passed in 1601 A.D. The law provided
for the establishment of a work-house to provide work to those who were
without any means to meet their basic needs. The conditions and the pay in the
work-house were depressing. However, this an be said to be the beginning of
the idea of public assistance to the poor. For example USA an affluent society
has poverty too. But by and large these countries prosperous. In India however
poverty is a major problem. Thus the concept of poverty is relative. It has
been so much with us that not much attention has been paid to it. It was
considered a normal aspect of any society. Till recently there has been little
sense of social responsibility for dealing with poverty. On the other hand there
has been a rationalisation of poverty. The poor were believed to be responsible
for their own plight. Unemployment was considered a sign of laziness. The
Karma theory suggested poverty was a consequence of wrongs or sins comitted
in earlier births. When poverty has been voluntary it has been praised by society.
In such a case one cannot call it poverty per se because it is part of a saint’s life
style. Mahatma Gandhi lived in ‘voluntary poverty’. So did the Buddha. This
is different from involuntary poverty where the necessities of life are in very
short supply.
In recent times there has been an acceptance of poverty as a social problem.

India with the coming of independence has made some efforts to raise the
level of income of people living in poverty. In 1960 the concept of poverty
line was emphasised by Dandekar and Rath (1971). Specific programmes of
poverty alleviation were initiated in the 4th plan.
Systematic study of the poverty is a recent phenomenon. It has been suggested

that there were four questions that need to be answered to understand poverty.
i) What is poverty ?
ii) What is the extent of poverty ?
iii) What are the causes of poverty?
iv) What are the solutions ?
To (iii) one may also add what are the consequences of poverty? This unit will
8 look at poverty using these questions as a framework. The effort will be to
look at the sociological aspects.

Poverty and its Social Dynamics

13.3 DEFINITION AND APPROACHES TO
POVERTY
In this section we shall be discussing various definitions and approaches to
poverty. Let us define poverty first.
13.3.1 Definition
The approach to defining poverty has usually been in economic term – the
levels of income, property and living standards. People are said to be poor
when their income is such that it does not enable them to meet the basic needs
such as food, shelter, and clothing. The concept of “poverty line” used both in
India and USA fixed an income. If people fall below this line, they are
considered to be poor. The poverty line is arbitrarily fixed, hence there can be
questions about it. Nevertheless, it does provide one way of determining who
the poor are. Sometimes, the word “pauperism” is used to denote extreme
poverty. It describes a category of people who are unable to maintain
themselves. In recent times there are many dimensions that are considered in
looking at poverty. It is no longer seen as purely an economic phenomenon.
It is now realised that there are sociological, political, psychological and
geographical reasons as well as attitudes or value systems that need to be
considered to understand poverty.
We suggest that a minimum approach by government in any society which
has significant inequality must provide for raising minimum levels not only of
incomes but also self-respect and opportunities for social mobility and
participation in many forms of decision-making. What is being stated here is
that in dealing with poverty one is not only concerned with the income but
also with the individual’s political role, opportunities for his children and self-
respect. Poverty is not only a condition of economic insufficiency; it is also
social and political exclusion. Poverty is therefore to be seen not only merely
in economic terms but also in its social and political aspects. The concepts and
approaches to poverty have been dealt with in detail in Unit 12 of ESO-02.
There we have viewed poverty as a level of living that is so low that it inhibits
the physical, mental and social development of human personality. There it
has been pointed out that poverty has been with human culture and civilisation
since ages. In the beginning of the development of human society human beings
were at a low level of social organisation and technological development and
that the state of poverty was general in nature, faced by all members of society.
In the process of evolution of human society there have been enormous
developments in social organisation and technology. However the fruits of
this progress have not been equally shared by all sections of society. There
have been the rich and there have been the poor.
Thus poverty has been related to the prevailing socio-economic structure of
the society. Experts on poverty have broadly used two approaches. First the
nutritional approach. Here poverty is measured on the basis of minimum food
requirements. Second, the relative deprivation approach. Here poverty is seen
in terms of relative deprivation of a section of population against the
predeveloped sections. We shall be discussing these matters in detail in our
section on the measurement of poverty. 9

Patterns of Deprivation 13.3.2 Approaches

and Alienation
There are various approaches for the measurement of poverty. The major factor
considered in measuring poverty is income. The question that is asked is, what
resources can a particular income command? Does the income allow for
obtaining the basic necessities? Consequently, it has also been suggested that
the actual intake of food should be the criteria. If an adult person is unable to
have a certain number of calories (2,250) a day he is considered to be poor.
The economic aspect usually involves the judgment of basic needs and is
mentioned in terms of resources required to maintain health and physical
efficiency. Such an approach is now being questioned. Among the basic needs
are also include, education, security, leisure, recreation. When the resources
commanded by average individuals are so low that they are in effect excluded
from living patterns, customs and activities of the society, they are said to be
living in poverty. Among the ideas which have an objective and dependable
measurement of poverty is a concept of PQLI — (Physical quality of live
index). The three indicators used in PQLI are life expectancy at age one, infant
mortality and literacy. An index number is to be calculated for all countries
based on the performance of each country in these areas. The worst performance
would be designated by the in index number zero and the best performance by
100. In the 70s, the PQLI index for India was 43. Various important studies
have been conducted in India for the measurement of poverty. For example
Ojha in his study has used the average calorie intake as the basis for defining
poverty. To him persons who are below the poverty line have an intake of less
than, 2,250 calories per capita per day. Dandekar and Rath (1971) have
estimated the value of the calories (2,250) in terms of 1960-61 prices. They
observe that there would be variation in the extent of rural and urban poverty
in terms of financial index. Here they suggested that whereas the Planning
Commission accepts Rs.20/- per capita per month or Rs.240/- per annum as
the minimum desirable standard, it would not be fair to use this figure both for
rural and urban areas. They suggested a lower minimum of rupees 180/- for
the rural population and a higher amount of Rupees 270/- per annum at 1960-
61 prices.
i) Absolute Poverty
Absolute poverty refers to the inability of a person or a household to provide
even the basic necessities of life. It refers to conditions of acute physical wants,
starvation, malnutrition, want of clothing, want of shelter, total lack of medical
care. At times “absolute poverty” is also called “subsistence poverty”, since it
is based on an assessment of minimum subsistenc requirement. Nutrition is
measured by intake of calories and proteins, shelter by quality of dwelling and
degree of over-crowding, and the rate of infant mortality and the quality of
medical facility. With the broadcasting of the definition of poverty it is also
suggested that one should go beyond the physical need and also include cultural
needs—education, security, leisure and recreation.
It is difficult to fully accept the argument. The nourishment needs of a farm
labourer would be different from those of a clerk in an office. Similarly clothing
requirements will also differ. If cultural needs are also included then
measurements become more complex.
10

Box 13.01 Poverty and its Social Dynamics
The growth experienced after 1947 in India has been unparalleled in its own
history. However compared to other developing countries it has been a slow
and painful process. In the past 40 years mass poverty has also grown. It is
not a question of pockets of poverty, but a very large number of people
living below the poverty line throughout the country.
The poverty line is often defined as a minimum intake of calories (about
2400) to live and work per day. This measure therefore does not include
other subsistence needs such as housing, clothing health and education. It is
thus a real minimum.
ii) Relative Poverty
As there are difficulties in accepting “absolute poverty” fully, another term
“relative poverty” has been developed. Poverty according to this concept is to
be measured according to standards of life at a given time and place. The idea
is that standards of society can be changing standards. Definition of poverty
should therefore be related to the needs and demands of changing societies. In
1960 those who had a per capita income of Rs.20/- or less per month in rural
areas were considered to be below the poverty line. In 1990 those who have an
income of less than Rs.122/- per month are considered to be below the poverty
line.
The term “relative poverty” also refers to the fact that different societies have
different standards, hence it is not possible to have a universal measurement
of poverty. Those who are considered poor in USA by their standards, may
not be considered so in India.
Check Your Progress 1
i) How do we define poverty? Give your answer in 5-7 lines.
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ii) What is the minimum approach to poverty? Give your answer in 5-7 lines.
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Patterns of Deprivation
and Alienation 13.4 CAUSES OF POVERTY
The Human Development in South Asia 1999 reveals situation of glaring
poverty, inequality and deprivation in South Asia in general and India in
particular. According to this report South Asia, with 23% of the world
population is the planet’s poorest region. About 540 million people, or 45%
of the region’s population, are living below poverty line, with daily income of
less than one US dollar. India has the greatest number of the poor people with
53% people living below the poverty in 1999 (i.e. earning less than one US
dollar a day. This report also points out that there are dramatic desperation
and concentration of wealth and power among the richest members. The highest
income earning layer of 20% own 40% of total income in the region while the
lowest 20% owns only 10% In India the richest 10% earns 6 times higher than
the poorest 10% earns 6 times higher than the poorest 10% of the country
Poverty has direct linkages with social and economic deprivations. Some
indicators of these deprivations are highlighted below :
Indicators South Asia India
– Deprived to proper sanitary 879 million 661 million
facilities
– Deprived of safe drinking 278 million 178 million
water
– Child Birth death rate per 480 437
1,00,000 live birth
– Children under 5 years suffering 79 million 59 million
from acute malnutrition
– Children not enrolled in Primary 50 million 35 million
Education
There are many causes of poverty and we intend to discuss these in this section
and subsequent subsections. First is the nexus between inequality and poverty.
Then the vicious circle theory and finally geographical factors.
13.4.1 Inequality and Poverty

Earlier the effort was to study poverty by itself, that is, not relating it to the
total conditions of the society. It has been suggested by a British social welfare
expert that poverty should not be defined as income insufficiency, but the
focus ought to be on the degree in inequality in the distribution of wealth in a
society. Inequality is generated by the capitalist economy where wealth is
concentrated in the lands of a few according to Marx. These few gain control
of the means of producing wealth such as slaves, land and capital. They are
able to influence the political process, by which social inequality is managed.
Essentially poverty boils down to this fact that some people are poor because
others are rich. Since the rich have greater political power than the poor, the
government policy tends to favour them. The rich therefore tend to remain
12
rich and the poor tend to remain poor. Marx claimed that all history is a
history of class conflict; hence the situation can change only when the poor
have greater political influence.

There are others who believe that there are different roles to be performed by Poverty and its Social Dynamics
members of a society. Some roles required long training, (doctors, engineers,
lawyers, physicists etc.) They get higher rewards from the society. Others like
vegetable-sellers, sanitation workers, taxi-drivers, typists, receive lower
rewards. There is inequality but as it happens to maintain the society, it is
considered functional. All these jobs have to be performed to meet the needs
of the society.
13.4.2 Vicious Circle Theory

This theory argues that the poor are trapped in circumstances which make it
difficult for them to escape poverty. The poor have inadequate diet which
makes for low energy and hence poor performance in school and at work.
Poor diet also makes them vulnerable to illness. They have poor housing and
often have to go long distances for their work. They cannot afford or are not
allowed to stay near the place of work. The circumstances combine to make
the poor continue to be in poverty. Discussing the problem of poverty in rural
areas of India a leading authority in rural development asks the question :”Does
the policy in rural development considers integrated rural poverty?” Aspects
of which include poverty, physical weakness, vulnerability, isolation,
powerlessness. As this theory suggests the poor cannot get over their poverty.
But it is difficult to accept such a deterministic view, a view suggesting that
they cannot escape poverty. Sometimes this explanation of poverty is called
“Situational Theory” in the sense that poor find themselves in a particular
situation and have great difficulties in getting out of it, if at all.
13.4.3 Geographical Factors

Poverty is explained at times by the geographical conditions in which people
live. The resources are scarce and people are unable to overcome the problems
of lack of resources. The desert areas, the hill areas are good examples. In
India, certain areas have been designated as drought-prone areas. Survey in
these areas indicate that not only that the conditions are poor but in spite of
hard work they are unable to overcome the situation.
Neither of these theories by themselves can explain the totality of the
phenomena of poverty. They do however provide some analysis and
understanding as to why poverty exists.
13.5 CONSEQUENCES OF POVERTY

As mentioned earlier the rich have influence to continue to be rich. In them
there is a vested interest in the continuance of poverty. Poverty survives in
part because it is useful to a number of groups in society. Poverty benefits the
non-poor in general and rich and the powerful in particular. There are a number
of functions of poverty:
i) Poverty ensures that ‘dirty work will get done, there are many menial
jobs that have to be done in society. It is the poor who take up such jobs.
ii) Poverty provides a market for inferior goods and services-second-hand
clothes, stale food material, poor houses, and services from unqualified
13
persons.

Patterns of Deprivation iii) Poverty facilitates a life style of the affluent. The work done by the cooks,
and Alienation
gardeners, washermen, house cleaners etc. enable the upper lasses to lead
a life of comfort.
iv) Poverty provides a group that can be made to absorb the political and
economic causes of change. Technological development means more
unemployment for the unskilled. Building of dams displaces the areas
where the cannals are built. People with no land get no compensation.
Policies which change, when there is a tight budget situation, are the
welfare programmes. The rich and often the government itself has a vested
interest in the continuation of poverty. As it tends to provide for the
maintenance of the stability of the society.
1) What are the causes of poverty? Give your answer in 5-7 lines.
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2) What are the functions of poverty ? Give your answer in 5-7 lines.
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13.5.1 Poverty and its Consequences
Poverty and its consequences are discussed in the subsection below. First there
is the culture of poverty which is discussed. We specify this discussion with
poverty in India. Finally there is the inequality of income distribution.
13.5.2 Culture of Poverty

In the previous paragraphs discussions has been with regard to the causes of
poverty. The structural or the vicious circle theory suggests that poor find it
almost impossible to get out of the situation. How do people in such sad
conditions manage to live? One explanation is that poverty forces them to
develop certain patterns of behaviour enabling them to survive the sordid
conditions of poverty. This pattern has been termed ‘Culture of poverty’. The
14
concept was developed by an anthropologist, Oscar Lewis, based on his studies
in Mexico. He suggests that the poor develop a culture of their own, or rather

a subculture which is not part of the behaviour pattern or the value system of Poverty and its Social Dynamics
the society in which they live. Lewis says that the poor tend to be socially
isolated. Apart from the family, no matter what other group they belong, their
outlook remains narrow. They do not relate themselves to total society in which
they live or to the poor in other parts of the country. The individual who
grows up in this culture has strong feelings of fatalism, helplessness, dependence
and inferiority. Their orientation is to living in present, they hardly think of
the future. In brief it can be said that the culture of poverty is both an adaptation
and a reaction of the poor in the marginal position. It is an effort to cope with
the feeling of hopelessness and despair due to a realisation that it is almost
impossible to achieve success according to values of the high societies. Their
isolation also means lack of participation in the activities of the society-political,
social and economic. There is also a suggestion that children are socialised
into such a culture and hence are not willing to make use of opportunities to
improve themselves they would feel insecure in a new situation.
There are many criticisms of this concept. One of the questions that is relevant
is as to whether the culture of poverty applies to the rural conditions. Lewis
develops the concept on the basis of his studies in slum areas. There is some
evidence that the poor in rural areas also have developed a subculture, and
defense mechanisms. Some feel that the poor do not participate not because
of the culture that they have developed but because the larger society in a way
prevents their full participation. Participation in social institutions requires
certain levels of resources which the poor do not have (for example-participating
in religious festivities). Another criticism is that the concept of culture of
poverty tends to put the blame on the poor for being poor, rather than holding
the social system responsible. Earlier there has been a discussion of how
inequality is perpetuated in society. It also suggests that the culture of the
poor is a consequence or a result of the poverty rather than the cause of poverty.
Activity 1
Visit the houses of a potter or a washerman or a dishwasher. Ask them
regarding whether they have a social circle of friends. Try to find out all
you can about the culture of poverty. Write down your findings in two
pages and then discuss them with other students in the Study Center.
13.5.3 Poverty in India

There has been a substantial discussion of poverty in India sine about 1960
when Dandekar and Rath focused the attention on the number of people who
were below the poverty line. At that time they had calculated that if the income
per capita per month was less than Rs.20/- the person was said to be below the
poverty line. Separate figures are mentioned for rural and urban areas (For
Bombay the amount indicated is Rs.200/- per month in 1960). The amount is
based on what is needed to buy the required calories of 2400 per person per
day. For rural areas, the figures was RS.122/- in 1988.
There are various estimates of the number of people below poverty line in
rural areas. In 1977-78 it was estimated that 51% of the rural population (252
millions) were below the poverty line. In 1987-88 it was estimated that about
45% (261 millions) were below the poverty line. Although percentage-wise 15
there is a fall, but in absolute numbers there is an increase as the population
has increased. Although there are different estimates, it is generally accepted

Patterns of Deprivation that there are substantial number of people living in poverty. (In the urban
and Alienation
areas the number of people living in poverty). In the urban areas the number
of poor in 1987-88 was estimated 77 million (38%); in 1990, it is estimated
that in rural and urban areas together about 350 millions are below the poverty
line.
Table 1: Poverty prevalence Ratios by Rural-Urban Location: All India and 14 Major
States (1993-4 to 1999-2000)
(Percentage of Population Below the Poverty Line)
States Rural Urban

1993-94 1999-2000 1993-94 1999-2000
All India 39.36 36.35 30.37 28.76
Andhra Pradesh 27.97 25.48 35.44 32.28
Assam 58.25 61.78 10.13 12.45
Bihar 64.41 58.85 45.03 45
Gujarat 28.62 26.22 28.86 21.7
Haryana 30.52 14.86 13.4 13.79
Karnataka 37.73 38.5 32.41 24.55
Kerala 33.95 26.5 28.2 31.89
Madhya Pradesh 36.93 39.35 46.02 46.29
Maharashtra 50.21 50 33.52 32.16
Orissa 59.12 62.67 36.99 34.27
Punjab 17.61 14.24 6.79 6.74
Rajasthan 25.92 15.01 30.6 24.36
Tamil Nadu 37.27 39.37 37.83 29.82
Uttar Pradesh 39.08 29.87 34.23 36.39
West Bengal 54.15 56.16 20.97 16.74
Notes: State specific poverty lines for 1993-94 have been adjusted for inflation by reference
to the Consumer Price Index for Agricultural Laborers (for rural population) and
the Consumer Pries Index or Industrial Workers for the urban population.
Source: Sundaram, K. ‘Employment and Poverty in 1990s: Further Results from NSS 55th
Round Employment-Unemployment Survey’, 1999-2000, Economic and Political
Weekly, 11 August 2001, pp. 3039-49.
In recent years there has been a decline in the proportion of people living
below the poverty line at the all India level. However, those are several regional
variations among the state. Again in some of the state while the extent urban
poverty has declined the rural poverty has increased, for example the state of
Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. However in the case of
Haryana, Kerala, while rural poverty has decline urban poverty has marginally
increased. In the case of Assam and Madhya Pradesh extent of poverty has in
creased both in the rural and in the urban areas.
13.5.4 Inequality of Income Distribution

Income distribution is very unequal. The share of the bottom 20% is 4% of the
16 total income in rural areas whereas the share of the top 10% is 36%. Similarly
in urban areas while the share of the bottom 20% is 9% that of the top 10% is

42%. The situation is indicative of the wide gap between the rich and the poor. Poverty and its Social Dynamics
The consumption expenditure also shows the same pattern. While the top
20% of the population accounts for 42% of the consumption, the bottom 20%
accounts for about 10%. The pattern of land distribution confirms the wide
difference between “haves” and “have not”. About 15% of the cultivators
own nearly 50% of the cultivated land whereas 50% own less than 20%. There
are questions about the exact figures–but there is general agreement of the
overall pattern of maldistribution of wealth, income and consumption pattern
among the people.
The maldistribution of assets leaves at least one-third of the population without
effective means of satisfying their basic needs. The net result is that a large
number of people lie just below the poverty line or above the poverty line.
And a few keep on accumulating assets. Because of such a phenomenon, one
wonders whether the gap between the poor and the rich can be bridged. Poverty
is the result of unequal distribution of production assets, entitlements and
surpluses reinforced by a power structure of closely knit economic, political
and bureaucratic forces and vested interests. When discussing the causes of
poverty one of the major ones mentioned was inequality. Poverty is therefore
not merely an economic phenomenon but also has political and social
ramifications.
13.6 POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES

Planning in India has always had some concern about high levels of poverty.
The approach in the earlier plan has tended to deal with the problem indirectly
i.e. increasing of GNP, land reforms, provision of services, minimum needs
programme etc. It is in the 6th plan that a specific poverty alleviation programme
was initiated. However, there is recognition that the problem is too deep to be
solved by a specific programme. The VIIth Plan documents says “Poverty
alleviation programmes have to be viewed in the wider perspective of socio-
economic transformation of the country. The present strategy of direct attack
on poverty through specific poverty alleviation programmes is justified on
account of insufficient percolation of benefits to the poor from overall economic
growth. It should be appreciated that the strategy of direct attack on poverty
cannot be sustained and would not yield the desired results if the growth of the
economy itself is sow and the benefits of such growth are inequitably
distributed. The economic betterment of the poorer section can’t be achieved
without social transformation involving structural changes, educational
development, growth in awareness and changes in outlook, motivation and
attitude.
The specific programmes which are described here should therefore be
understood in the perspective of the above statement. The programmes that
are mentioned here were operative in the VIIth Plan.
13.6.1 The IRDP and Employment Programmes
The Integrated Rural Development Programme was introduced in the late 70s.
The main objective of the IRD Programme was to evolve an operational
integrated strategy for the purpose-on the one-hand of increasing production
and productivity in agriculture and allied sectors based on better use of land,
17
water and light, and on the other of the resources and income development of
vulnerable section of the population in Blocks of the country.

Patterns of Deprivation The Integration is in terms of bringing various programmes which dealt with
and Alienation
specific programmes or areas, together. For example: Small Farmers’
Development, Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers, Drought-Prone
Area Programme. The programmes were to help the poorest of the poor i.e.
whose household income was less than Rs.4,800/= per year. If the cut off
point for the poverty line is Rs.240 p.a. how can this amount represent the
poorest of the poor? The specific activities were target group oriented. The
programmes of special rise programme, operation flood, programme for
handloom, sericulture etc. Steps were to be taken to increase the industries,
services and business. The financial assistance consisted of subsidies and
loans.
Unemployment is a major factor in poverty. In rural areas, agricultural labour
has work available only seasonally. The rate of unemployment has tended to
increase. In 1971 about 31/2million persons were unemployed. In 1983 it has
risen to 4.5 million. About 30 million are registered in the Employment
Exchange Centre all over the country. Employment Generation is therefore
an important programme in meeting the problem of poverty.
Two programmes in these areas were initiated namely, National Rural
Employment Programme (NREP) Rural Landless Employment Guarantee
Programme (RLEGP). In the later part of the 80s another programme Jawahar
Rojgar Yojana was introduced. The NREP was expected to generate 300-400
million mandays per annum. The programme envisaged creation of durable
assets such as irrigation canals, social forestry, soil conservation, roads, school
buildings, panchayat ghars etc. The RLEGP was introduced with the objective
of improving and expanding employment opportunities for the rural landless.
It aimed at providing guarantee of employment for at least one member of
every landless household up to 100 days, and also to create durable assets.
Housing, and social forestry, were among the activities to be undertaken in
these programmes. In the Jawahar Rojgar Yojana the employment was to build
community halls, panchayat ghars etc.
Activity 2
Visit a rural area or a slum and try to collect information on the poverty
eradication programmes initiated in these areas. Based on your information
write a short note of about 20 lines on the impact of poverty eradication
programmes in rural/slum areas. If possible, discuss your note with your co-
learners at the Study Center.
13.6.2 Women and Youth and Area Development Programmes

The Programme entitled Development of women and child in rural areas was
initiated as a Pilot Project in the early 80s. The purpose was to increase their
income and also to provide support, services, needed to enable them to take up
income generating activities. Employment, education and improvement of
health was the focus for improving the status of women. Training for rural
youth for self employment was also launched in the beginning of the VIth
Plan. The target group was youth between the age of 18-35 from families
living below the poverty lines. The number to be trained was 40 per block per
18
annum. Stipends to the selected youth were provided. Efforts were made to
provide training relevant to the needs of the geographical areas.

There are areas which are affected adversely because nature has not been Poverty and its Social Dynamics
bountiful to them, viz. drought-prone areas, desert areas, hill areas etc. The
incomes in these areas are subject to great fluctuations. Various programmes
have been initiated to help the poverty-stricken people in these areas. In DPAP
areas, for example, productive dry land farming, livestock development,
sericulture, were among the activities introduced. In the desert areas, the
activities included afforestation, animal husbandry, exploitation of ground water
etc.
The major emphasis in the urban areas was the environmental improvement of
the urban slums. Pre capita assistance of Rs.300/- per month was provided in
the infrastructure, roads, payments, water supply etc.
The description of the programmes is very sketchy. The purpose is only to
provide a general idea of the approach of the government to meet the problems
of poverty. There have been many evaluation studies of these programmes.
Most of these are of the view that while there is some improvement in the
situation, target set are far from being achieved.
1) Discuss poverty and its consequences. Use 5-7 lines for your answer.
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2) Discribe a poverty alleviation programme. Use 5-7 lines for your answer.
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13.7 LET US SUM UP

The unit is divided into various section to provide a conceptual and also a
pragmatic view of poverty. Definition of poverty includes how poverty is
measured. The causes and consequences of poverty have been described. In
the last section of the unit the extent of poverty in India and the policies and
programmes to overcome poverty have been briefly mentioned. Solution to
problems of poverty needs a multidimensional approach. These are also 19
discussed here.

Patterns of Deprivation
and Alienation 13.8 KEY WORDS
Absolute Poverty : Absolute poverty refers to the inability of a
person or a household to provide even the basic
necessities of life.
Area Programme : There are areas which are not bountiful by
nature. Various programmes have been initiated
to help poverty-stricken people in these areas.
Poverty : This has been defined in many ways—mainly
by a poverty line falling below which a person
is called poor. Now sociological, psychological
and political dimensions are also taken into
consideration.
Relative Poverty : Poverty according to this concept is to be
measured according to the standards of life at a
given time and place.
13.9 FURTHER READINGS

Marickan S.J. (Ed) 1988. Poverty in India, Xaier Board : Trivandrum.
Swamy D.S. and A. Gulati 1986. From Prosperity to Retrogression : Indian
Cultivators during the 1970’s. EPW, June 21-22, p.A-63.
13.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Poverty is defined relative to a ‘poverty line’ and if people fall below this
line they are considered to be poor. One drawback is that the poverty line
is arbitrarily fixed, hence we can question it. However, it does provide a
way of determining who the poor are.
2) The minimum approach to poverty is to try to raise to the minimum level
all those who are poor. It is to try and raise the self-respect and opportunities
for social mobility in many forms of decision-making.
1) There are many causes of poverty. The first of these causes is inequality
of distribution of wealth in a society. Next is the vicious circle theory
where the poor remain poor due to lack of funds. Finally the geographical
factors were the area where people are settled is unproductive and hence
leads to poverty.
2) There are a number of function of poverty. These are that :
i) it ensures menial labour
ii) inferior goods and services and purchased and manned by the poor
respectively.
iii) it facilitates the life cycle of the affluent
20
iv) it produces a group that is made to absorb the political and economic
causes of change.

Check Your Progress 3 Poverty and its Social Dynamics
1) Poverty has several consequences. One of these consequences is the culture

of poverty. In such a culture the poor learn to survive in solid conditions
of poverty. This subculture is not the same as in the society they live.
Further the poor tend to be socially located often living below the poverty
line.
2) The Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was introduced
in the late 1970s. The main objective of the IRD Programme was to
increase yields in agriculture and allied areas based on land. It was also to
develop the resources and income of vulnerable sections of society.
21

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UNIT 13 POVERTY AND ITS SOCIAL

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13.2 POVERTY AS A SOCIAL PROBLEM

In recent times there has been an acceptance of poverty as a social problem.

Systematic study of the poverty is a recent phenomenon. It has been suggested

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Poverty and its Social Dynamics

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Patterns of Deprivation 13.3.2 Approaches

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Box 13.01 Poverty and its Social Dynamics

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13.4.1 Inequality and Poverty

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13.4.2 Vicious Circle Theory

13.4.3 Geographical Factors

13.5 CONSEQUENCES OF POVERTY

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13.5.2 Culture of Poverty

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13.5.3 Poverty in India

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States Rural Urban

13.5.4 Inequality of Income Distribution

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13.6 POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMMES

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13.6.2 Women and Youth and Area Development Programmes

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13.7 LET US SUM UP

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13.9 FURTHER READINGS

13.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

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Check Your Progress 3 Poverty and its Social Dynamics

1) Poverty has several consequences. One of these consequences is the culture

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