Aninditas CS602 Semfile f1547139049931

Paper Name: Computer Networks Paper Code: CS-602
Institute of Engineering & Management
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Workbook
Paper Name with code: Computer Networks (CS-602)

Name of the Teachers: Anupam Mondal, Anindita Sarkar, and
Sourav Ghosh
Name of the Student:

Year: Section:
Class Roll No.:
University Roll No.:
1|Page Study Material, IEM, CSE Department

MAKAUT Syllabus
Paper name: Computer Networks

Code: CS602
Contacts: 3L
Credits: 3
Pre-requisites: CS604B, Data Communication, Semester V.
Module I
Overview of Data Communication and Networking: [4L]
Introduction; Data communications: components, data representation (ASCII,ISO etc.),
direction of data flow (simplex, half duplex, full duplex); network criteria, physical structure
(type of connection, topology), categories of network (LAN, MAN,WAN); Internet: brief
history, Protocols and standards; Reference models: OSI reference model, TCP/IP reference
model, their comparative study.
Physical Level: [6L] Overview of data(analog & digital), signal(analog & digital),
transmission (analog & digital) & transmission media (guided & unguided); Circuit
switching: time division & space division switch, TDM bus; Telephone Network;
Module II
Data link Layer: [5L]
Types of errors, framing(character and bit stuffing), error detection & correction methods;
Flow control; Protocols: Stop & wait ARQ, Go-Back- N ARQ, Selective repeat ARQ,
HDLC;
Medium Access sub layer: [5L]
Point to Point Protocol, LCP, NCP, Token Ring; Reservation, Polling, Multiple access
protocols: Pure ALOHA, Slotted ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA Traditional
Ethernet, fast Ethernet(in brief);
Module III
Network layer: [8L]
Internetworking & devices: Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches, Router, Gateway;
Addressing : IP addressing, subnetting; Routing : techniques, static vs. dynamic routing ,
Unicast Routing Protocols: RIP, OSPF, BGP; Other Procols: ARP, IP, ICMP, IPV6;.
Transport layer: [4L]
Process to Process delivery; UDP; TCP; Congestion Control: Open Loop, Closed Loop choke
packets; Quality of service: techniques to improve QoS: Leaky bucket algorithm, Token
bucket algorithm
Module IV
Application Layer [5L]

Introduction to DNS, SMTP, SNMP, FTP, HTTP & WWW; Security: Cryptography (Public,
Private Key based), Digital Signature, Firewalls.
Modern topics: [5L]
ISDN services & ATM, DSL technology, Cable Modem: Architecture & Operation in brief
Wireless LAN: IEEE 802.11, Introduction to blue-tooth.
Recommended books:
Text Books
1. B. A. Forouzan – “Data Communications and Networking (3rd Ed.) “ – TMH
2. A. S. Tanenbaum – “Computer Networks (4th Ed.)” – Pearson Education/PHI
3. W. Stallings – “Data and Computer Communications (5th Ed.)” – PHI/ Pearson
Education
Reference Books:
1. Kurose and Rose – “Computer Networking -A top down approach featuring the
internet” – Pearson Education
2. Leon, Garica, Widjaja – “Communication Networks” – TMH
Course Outcomes:
1. Students should be able to master the terminology and concepts of the OSI reference model
and the TCP‐IP reference model
2. Students should be able to master the concepts of protocols, network interfaces, and
design/performance issues in local area networks and wide area networks
3. Students should be able to be familiar with wireless networking concepts
4. Students should be able to be familiar with contemporary issues in networking
technologies, network tools and network programming
Day wise Lesson Plan with book reference:
S. Video Links Recommended books

Day Module Topic
NO. (Optional) for the topic
Introduction
https://www.youtube.c1. B. A. Forouzan –
Data Communications “Data
om/watch?v=g8iY36o
Components
Day nLeM&list=PLWPirh4 Communications and
1 Module I Data Representation
1 EWFpHJrW1D9UB24 Networking (3rd Ed.)
(ASCII, ISO Etc.)
wsbM3zx7QMx “ – TMH
Direction Of Data
Flow (Simplex, Half 2. W. Stallings – “Data

Duplex, Full Duplex). and Computer

Communications (5th
Ed.)” – PHI/ Pearson
Education
1. B. A. Forouzan –
“Data
Communications and
Networking (3rd Ed.)
Network Criteria “ – TMH
Physical Structure 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
https://www.youtube.c
Day (Type Of Connection,
2 om/watch?v=F35sSPT “Computer Networks
2 Topology) (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
ahS8
Categories Of Network Education/PHI
(LAN, MAN,WAN)
3. W. Stallings – “Data
and Computer
Communications (5th
Education
“Data
https://www.youtube.c Communications and
Internet:
om/watch?v=08Q97A Networking (3rd Ed.)
Brief History
HtzVo&list=PLWPirh
Day Protocols And “ – TMH
3 4EWFpHJrW1D9UB2
3 Standards
4wsbM3zx7QMx&ind2. W. Stallings – “Data
Reference Models: and Computer
ex=6
OSI Reference Model
Communications (5th
Education
https://www.youtube.c “Data
TCP/IP Reference om/watch?v=SPvMpv Communications and
Model XHfgA&list=PLWPirh
Day Networking (3rd Ed.)
4 Comparative Study 4EWFpHJrW1D9UB2
4
Between ISO-OSI And 4wsbM3zx7QMx&ind “ – TMH
TCP/IP. ex=8 2. W. Stallings – “Data
and Computer
Communications (5th

Education
“Data
Communications and
https://www.youtube.c Networking (3rd Ed.)
Overview Of Data
om/watch?v=n2zBQfm “ – TMH
(Analog & Digital)
ed0M&index=10&list
Day Signal (Analog &
5 =PLWPirh4EWFpHJr2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
5 Digital) “Computer Networks
W1D9UB24wsbM3zx
Transmission (Analog (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
7QMx
& Digital) Education/PHI
3. Leon, Garica, Widjaja
– “Communication
Networks” – TMH
om/watch?v=ULgKbL Communications and
WhgEM&index=2&lis
Day Transmission Media Networking (3rd Ed.)
6 t=PLWPirh4EWFpHJr
6 (Guided & Unguided) “ – TMH
W1D9UB24wsbM3zx
7QMx 2. Leon, Garica, Widjaja
Networks” – TMH
“Data
Communications and
“ – TMH
Day 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
7 Circuit Switching om/watch?v=b-
7 “Computer Networks
QwKW82vIc
(4th Ed.)” – Pearson
Education/PHI
Networks” – TMH
https://www.youtube.c1. B. A. Forouzan –
Day Time Division
8 om/watch?v=PEzhUtA “Data
8 Space Division Switch
sX0g Communications and

“ – TMH
2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
“Computer Networks
Education/PHI
Networks” – TMH
“Data
Communications and
Day TDM Bus Networking (3rd Ed.)
9 om/watch?v=9_LvrgK
9 Telephone Network “ – TMH
EnCM
Networks” – TMH
“Data
Types Of Errors https://www.youtube.c Communications and
Framing(Character om/watch?v=K9hRkly Networking (3rd Ed.)
And Bit Stuffing) aaOU&list=PLWPirh4 “ – TMH
Day
10 Error Detection & EWFpHJrW1D9UB242. W. Stallings – “Data
10
Correction Methods: wsbM3zx7QMx&inde and Computer
Block Coding, Linear x=54 Communications (5th
Block Codes Ed.)” – PHI/ Pearson
Module Education
II
https://www.youtube.c1.B. A. Forouzan –
om/watch?v=vNPBfq- “Data
gKHE&list=PLWPirh4 Communications and
Error Detection &
EWFpHJrW1D9UB24
Correction Methods: Networking (3rd Ed.)
Day wsbM3zx7QMx&inde
11 1D Parity “ – TMH
11 x=55
2DParity 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
Checksum
https://www.youtube.c “Computer Networks
om/watch?v=LECecV (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
BYJRk&list=PLWPirh Education/PHI
4EWFpHJrW1D9UB23. W. Stallings – “Data

4wsbM3zx7QMx&ind and Computer
ex=56
Communications (5th
Education
“Data
Communications and
https://www.youtube.c “ – TMH
om/watch?v=brTI93f7
Cyclic Redundancy 3KM&index=57&list=
Day “Computer Networks
12 Codes PLWPirh4EWFpHJrW
12 (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
Hamming Code 1D9UB24wsbM3zx7Q
Mx Education/PHI
and Computer
Communications (5th
Education
om/watch?v=zqhRMP
TAXIc&list=PLWPirh
4EWFpHJrW1D9UB21. B. A. Forouzan –
4wsbM3zx7QMx&ind “Data
ex=64 Communications and
om/watch?v=LBart8Z
Flow Control 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
X05w&index=66&list
Day Protocols: “Computer Networks
13 =PLWPirh4EWFpHJr
13 Stop & Wait ARQ (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
W1D9UB24wsbM3zx
Go-Back- N ARQ Education/PHI
7QMx
https://www.youtube.c and Computer
om/watch?v=49bb- Communications (5th
Vy8B2o&list=PLWPir Ed.)” – PHI/ Pearson
h4EWFpHJrW1D9UB
Education
24wsbM3zx7QMx&in
dex=67

om/watch?v=z6916H1 Communications and
SQik&index=68&list= Networking (3rd Ed.)
Day Selective Repeat ARQ
14 PLWPirh4EWFpHJrW “ – TMH
14 Piggybacking
1D9UB24wsbM3zx7Q 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
Mx
Education/PHI
“Data
HDLC om/watch?v=yOc8zh0 Networking (3rd Ed.)
Point To Point Hlls&index=72&list=P “ – TMH
Day
15 Protocol LWPirh4EWFpHJrW1 2. Kurose and Rose –
15
LCP D9UB24wsbM3zx7Q “Computer
NCP Mx
Networking -A top
down approach
featuring the internet”
– Pearson Education
om/watch?v=OrE5Sfw
GpGc&index=73&list
=PLWPirh4EWFpHJr
W1D9UB24wsbM3zx
7QMx 1. B. A. Forouzan –
“Data
Multiple Access
om/watch?v=g32GA0
Protocols: Networking (3rd Ed.)
Day YR26U&list=PLWPir
16 Pure ALOHA “ – TMH
16 h4EWFpHJrW1D9UB
Slotted ALOHA
24wsbM3zx7QMx&in2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
CSMA
dex=74 “Computer Networks
https://www.youtube.c Education/PHI
om/watch?v=OlfVpLG
ddOw&index=75&list
=PLWPirh4EWFpHJr
W1D9UB24wsbM3zx
7QMx
om/watch?v=myhgBN
Communications and
mZwjc&index=76&list
=PLWPirh4EWFpHJr Networking (3rd Ed.)
W1D9UB24wsbM3zx “ – TMH
7QMx 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
Day CSMA/CD “Computer Networks
17
17 CSMA/CA https://www.youtube.c (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
om/watch?v=wUqJ6b Education/PHI
YvGSg&index=77&lis
t=PLWPirh4EWFpHJr3. W. Stallings – “Data
W1D9UB24wsbM3zx and Computer
7QMx Communications (5th
Education
om/watch?v=DK4bE8 Communications and
OA8d8&index=79&lis Networking (3rd Ed.)
t=PLWPirh4EWFpHJr “ – TMH
W1D9UB24wsbM3zx
Token Passing 7QMx
Day
18 Reservation https://www.youtube.c “Computer Networks
18
Polling om/watch?v=1_VWkg (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
AH_AY&index=80&li Education/PHI
st=PLWPirh4EWFpHJ 3. W. Stallings – “Data
rW1D9UB24wsbM3zx and Computer
7QMx Communications (5th
Education
“Data
Communications and
Day Traditional Ethernet, Networking (3rd Ed.)
19 om/watch?v=3p-
19 Fast Ethernet(In Brief) “ – TMH
geaqgUZA
Education/PHI
om/watch?v=hIKWCO
-
_B28&list=PLWPirh4
EWFpHJrW1D9UB24
wsbM3zx7QMx&inde
x=84
om/watch?v=puFfREF Communications and
AWJo&index=85&list Networking (3rd Ed.)
Internetworking &
=PLWPirh4EWFpHJr “ – TMH
Devices:
W1D9UB24wsbM3zx
Repeaters 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
7QMx
Day Hubs “Computer Networks
20
20 Bridges
https://www.youtube.c (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
Switches
om/watch?v=7U_Ww Education/PHI
Router
CVyW_Y&list=PLWP 3. W. Stallings – “Data
Gateway
irh4EWFpHJrW1D9U and Computer
Module B24wsbM3zx7QMx&i Communications (5th
III ndex=86 Ed.)” – PHI/ Pearson
Education
om/watch?v=o_VwUO
p3svg&list=PLWPirh4
EWFpHJrW1D9UB24
wsbM3zx7QMx&inde
x=87
om/watch?v=ybl- Communications and
Addressing : HrXOUps&list=PLWP Networking (3rd Ed.)
Day IP Addressing irh4EWFpHJrW1D9U “ – TMH
21
21 Classless, Classfull B24wsbM3zx7QMx&i 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
CIDR ndex=92 “Computer Networks
Education/PHI
10 | P a g e Study Material, IEM, CSE Department

and Computer
Communications (5th
Education
“Data
Communications and
Subnetting om/watch?v=1Kwbo23 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
Day Supernetting RLGQ&list=PLWPirh “Computer Networks
22
22 Problems On IP 4EWFpHJrW1D9UB2 (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
Address Dividing 4wsbM3zx7QMx&ind Education/PHI
ex=93
and Computer
Communications (5th
Education
om/watch?v=EdkNL4 Communications and
Routing : LKKdc&index=97&lis Networking (3rd Ed.)
Day
23
23
Techniques, Static Vs. t=PLWPirh4EWFpHJr “ – TMH
Dynamic Routing W1D9UB24wsbM3zx2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
7QMx
Education/PHI
om/watch?v=S5u3vxe Communications and
Routing : 1i6o&list=PLWPirh4E Networking (3rd Ed.)
Day
24
24
Techniques, Static Vs. WFpHJrW1D9UB24w “ – TMH
Dynamic Routing sbM3zx7QMx&index= 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
98
Education/PHI
25 Day Unicast Routing https://www.youtube.c1. B. A. Forouzan –
25 Protocols: om/watch?v=2IizZ5lD “Data

RIP zkQ&list=PLFsFv9wv Communications and
OSPF nwMUws5fJX8SOXjz Networking (3rd Ed.)
BGP pCo2HSRag “ – TMH
Education/PHI
and Computer
Communications (5th
Education
om/watch?v=rIU2dKn
Communications and
Pd0E
Unicast Routing
om/watch?v=h- 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
Protocols:
Day cmEoMDi9s&list=PLF “Computer Networks
26 RIP
26 sFv9wvnwMUws5fJX (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
OSPF
8SOXjzpCo2HSRag&i Education/PHI
BGP
ndex=6
https://www.youtube.c3. W. Stallings – “Data
om/watch?v=_aLmzq- and Computer
23pE Communications (5th
Education
“Data
Communications and
https://www.youtube.c Networking (3rd Ed.)
Other Protocols:
om/watch?v=dfmLrY7 “ – TMH
Day ARP
27 Kvgo&list=PLfBbbqZ
27 IP 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
5NnUjiYWwDKqwas9
ICMP “Computer Networks
MqNQnDo_Yt
Education/PHI
and Computer
Communications (5th
Education
“Data
om/watch?v=WdxCa3 Networking (3rd Ed.)
W11XQ&index=96&li “ – TMH
Day
28 IPV6 st=PLWPirh4EWFpHJ 2. Kurose and Rose –
28
rW1D9UB24wsbM3zx “Computer
7QMx
Networking -A top
down approach
“Data
Communications and
Process To Process https://www.youtube.c Networking (3rd Ed.)
Day
29 Delivery: om/watch?v=ILKxzaK “ – TMH
29
UDP EsI0 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
Education/PHI
“Data
Communications and
“ – TMH
https://www.youtube.c2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
Day
30 TCP om/watch?v=oEUP7R “Computer Networks
30
XzxDY (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
Education/PHI
and Computer
Communications (5th

Education
“Data
Communications and
“ – TMH
Congestion Control: 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
Day Open Loop
31 om/watch?v=LI_BlYV “Computer Networks
31 Closed Loop Choke (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
Xv8c
Packets Education/PHI
and Computer
Communications (5th
Education
“Data
Communications and
Quality Of Service: https://www.youtube.c Networking (3rd Ed.)
Day
32 Techniques To om/watch?v=RE7aKe3 “ – TMH
32
Improve QoS mm9k 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
Education/PHI
om/watch?v=eyH600Y
U9dw&list=PLWPirh4 1. B. A. Forouzan –
EWFpHJrW1D9UB24 “Data
wsbM3zx7QMx&inde Communications and
Leaky Bucket x=70
Day Algorithm
33
33 Token Bucket https://www.youtube.c
“ – TMH
Algorithm om/watch?v=1GJtQ1If 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
U_M&index=71&list= “Computer Networks
PLWPirh4EWFpHJrW (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
1D9UB24wsbM3zx7Q Education/PHI
Mx
34 Day Module Introduction To DNS https://www.youtube.c1. B. A. Forouzan –

34 IV om/watch?v=tBuoqbE “Data
EtZc&index=100&list Communications and
=PLWPirh4EWFpHJr Networking (3rd Ed.)
W1D9UB24wsbM3zx “ – TMH
7QMx
2. Kurose and Rose –
“Computer
Networking -A top
down approach
“Data
Communications and
om/watch?v=D- 2. A. S. Tanenbaum –
Day SMTP
IfHG0DYnA&index=1 “Computer Networks
35 03&list=PLWPirh4EW (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
35 SNMP
FpHJrW1D9UB24wsb Education/PHI
M3zx7QMx
“Computer
Networking -A top
down approach
“Data
Communications and
“ – TMH
Day FTP
36 om/watch?v=7LfTWb2. W. Stallings – “Data
36 HTTP & WWW and Computer
Op5vU
Communications (5th
Education
“Computer

Networking -A top
down approach
and Computer
https://www.youtube.c Communications (5th
om/watch?v=QqTWyl Ed.)” – PHI/ Pearson
Security: 58Rvw&list=PLWPirh Education
Day
37 Cryptography (Public, 4EWFpHJrW1D9UB22. Kurose and Rose –
37
Private Key Based) 4wsbM3zx7QMx&ind “Computer
ex=104
Networking -A top
down approach
“Data
Communications and
Day Digital Signature
38 om/watch?v=TmA2Q2. Kurose and Rose –
38 Firewalls
WSLSPg “Computer
Networking -A top
down approach
“Data
Communications and
Day ISDN Services &
39 om/watch?v=4UQWR2. W. Stallings – “Data
39 ATM DSL Technology
1yYP0c and Computer
Communications (5th
Education

“Computer
Networking -A top
down approach
Cable Modem: https://www.youtube.c Education/PHI
Day
40 Architecture & om/watch?v=0qmaXdu 2. Kurose and Rose –
40
Operation In Brief dMxg
“Computer
Networking -A top
down approach
Wireless Lan: (4th Ed.)” – Pearson
Day IEEE 802.11 Education/PHI
41 om/watch?v=m_qTs_F
41 Introduction To Blue- 2. Leon, Garica,
Q_jU
Tooth Widjaja –
“Communication
Networks” – TMH
Course Information
PROGRAMME: UG DEGREE: B.Tech.

COURSE: Computer Networks SEMESTER: 6th CREDITS: 3
COURSECODE: CS602 COURSE TYPE: Compulsory

CORRESPONDING LAB COURSE

CONTACT HOURS: 41
CODE (IF ANY): CS692
DAY 1
Course: Computer Networks
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion:

Introduction, Data Communications, Components, Data Representation (ASCII, ISO Etc.), Direction
of Data Flow (Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex).
Course Outcomes: Students should be able to master the terminology and concepts of the
OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model
Lecture 1 (60 minutes)
Topics Covered:
1. Introduction
2. Data Communications
3. Components
4. Data Representation (ASCII, ISO Etc.)
5. Direction Of Data Flow (Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex).
Prerequisites:
 Basics of Computer Networking
 The Internet and the Web
 Transmission Modes in Computer Networks
Objectives: A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as

printers is called computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates
information sharing among them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired or
wireless media.
Notes:

Introduction
Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more
computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that
allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection between networked computing
devices is established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer
network is the Internet.
This tutorial should teach you basics of Data Communication and Computer
Network (DCN) and will also take you through various advance concepts related to Data
Communication and Computer Network.
A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers

is called computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information
sharing among them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless
media.
Data Communications
 Telecommunication : Communication at a distance.
 Data : Information presented in whatever form agreed upon by parties creating and
using the data
 Data Communications : Exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium.
Components
 Message: The information to be communicated.

 Sender: Devices that sends data messages.

 Receiver: Devices that receives the data message.

 Transmission Medium: physical path by which a message travels from the sender to
receiver.
 Protocol: set of rules that govern data communications. It represents agreement
between the communicating devices.
Data Representation (ASCII, ISO Etc.)

ASCII Code(s)
Towards the end of the 1960s, the American Standards Association (ASA) began to
consider the problem of defining a standard character code mapping that could be used to
facilitate the representation, storing, and interchanging of textual data between different
computers and peripheral devices. In 1963, the ASA – which changed its name to
the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1969 – announced the first version
of the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII).
However, this first version of the ASCII code (which is pronounced "ask-key") left
many things – such as the lower case Latin letters – undefined, and it wasn't until 1968 that
the currently used ASCII standard of 96 printing characters and 32 control characters was
defined as:

ISO and Unicode

Upon its introduction, ASCII quickly became a de facto standard around the world.
However, the original ASCII didn't include all of the special characters (such as á, ê, and ü)
that are required by the various languages that employ the Latin alphabet. Thus,
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in Geneva, Switzerland, undertook
to adapt the ASCII code to accommodate other languages.
In 1967, the organization released its recommendation ISO 646. Essentially, this left the
original 7-bit ASCII code "as was", except that ten character positions were left open to be
used to code for so-called "national variants."
ISO 646 was a step along the way toward internationalization. However, it didn't satisfy
everyone's requirements; in particular (as far as the ISO was concerned), it wasn't capable of
handling all of the languages in use in Europe, such as the Arabic, Cyrillic, Greek, and
Hebrew alphabets. Thus, the ISO created its standard 2022, which described the ways in
which 7-bit and 8-bit character codes were to be structured and extended.
The principles laid down in ISO 2022 were subsequently used to create the ISO 8859-1

standard. Unofficially known as "Latin-1", ISO 8859 is widely used for passing information
around the Internet in Western Europe to this day. Full of enthusiasm, the ISO then set about
defining an "all-singing all-dancing" 32-bit code called the Universal Coded Character Set
(UCS). Now known as ISO/IEC DIS 10646 Version 1, this code was intended to employ
escape sequences to switch between different character sets. The result would have been able
to support up to 4,294,967,296 characters, which would have been more than sufficient to
address the world's (possibly the universe's) character coding needs for the foreseeable future.
Direction Of Data Flow (Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex)
 Simplex: Communication is unidirectional. Only one of the two devices can transmit;
the other must receive.
 Half- duplex: Each station can transmit or receive, but not at the same time.
Like a one-land road with traffic allowed in both directions.
 Full-duplex: Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

Let’s learn by doing:
1
Describe the difference between Internet and Intranet communication techniques with
example.
Ans:
2
Show the difference between Simplex, Half duplex and full duplex communication.
Ans:
DAY 2
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion:
Network Criteria, Physical Structure (Type Of Connection, Topology), Categories Of Network (LAN,
MAN,WAN)
Course Outcomes:
Students should be able to master the concepts of protocols, network interfaces, and
Topics Covered:
 Network Criteria
 Physical Structure (Type Of Connection, Topology)
 Categories Of Network (LAN, MAN,WAN)

Prerequisites:
 Knowledge on Client
 Knowledge on Server
 Knowledge on Network
 Knowledge on Hub
Objectives: Computer Network means an interconnection of autonomous (standalone)

computers for information exchange. The connecting media could be a copper wire, optical
fiber, microwave or satellite.
Notes:
Network Criteria
The major criteria that a Data Communication Network must meet are:
a. Performance
b. Consistency
c. Reliability
d. Recovery
e. Security
Performance
Performance is the defined as the rate of transferring error free data. It is measured by the
Response Time. Response Time is the elapsed time between the end of an inquiry and the
beginning of a response. Request a file transfer and start the file transfer. Factors that affect
Response Time are:
 Number of Users: More users on a network - slower the network will run
 Transmission Speed: speed that data will be transmitted measured in bits per second
(bps)
 Media Type: Type of physical connection used to connect nodes together
 Hardware Type: Slow computers such as XT or fast such as Pentiums
 Software Program: How well is the network operating system (NOS) written

Consistency
Consistency is the predictability of response time and accuracy of data.
 Users prefer to have consistent response times, they develop a feel for normal
operating conditions. For example: if the "normal" response time is 3 sec. for printing
to a Network Printer and a response time of over 30 sec happens, we know that there
is a problem in the system!
 Accuracy of Data determines if the network is reliable! If a system loses data, then the
users will not have confidence in the information and will often not use the system.
Reliability
Reliability is the measure of how often a network is useable. MTBF (Mean Time Between
Failures) is a measure of the average time a component is expected to operate between
failures. Normally provided by the manufacturer. A network failure can be: hardware, data
carrying medium and Network Operating System.
Recovery
Recovery is the Network's ability to return to a prescribed level of operation after a network
failure. This level is where the amount of lost data is nonexistent or at a minimum. Recovery
is based on having Back-up Files.
Security
Security is the protection of Hardware, Software and Data from unauthorized access.
Restricted physical access to computers, password protection, limiting user privileges and
data encryption are common security methods. Anti-Virus monitoring programs to defend
against computer viruses are a security measure.
Physical Structure (Type Of Connection, Topology)
Type of network:- It is two types.

i) Clint server communication.
ii) Peer-to-peer computer network.
I. Clint server communication:- A network architecture into the computer or processor on
the network is either a Clint or a server. Each Clint of server connected to the network is
also referred to as known. It allows devices to share file and resources.
Clint Server

Characteristics of Clint:-
i) Activates master computer.
ii) Initiates request.
iii)Waits for and receives replies.
iv) Connect to one or more number of servers at one time.
v) Typically interacts directly with end. Users using a graphical user interface (GUI).
Characteristic of server:-
i) It waits for request from Clint.
ii) Upon received of request it process then offers replies.
iii)It usually accepts connection from a large number of Clint.
iv) It does not interact directly use end-users.
II. Peer to peer computer network:- It is a network in which the computer managed
independently of one network on have equal right for initially communication with each
other, sharing resources and validity users.
Use of Peer to peer network:- It is use for connection node sharing content files (Audio,
Video, Data or any digital format) is very common. Real time data such as telephone
graphic is also passed using peer to peer network.
Types of Peer to peer network:- It is classified in three categories -
a) Collaborative computing
b) Instant messaging
c) Affinity communities
a) Collaborative computing:- It is also referred to as distributed computing. It combines
the ideal or unused CPU processing power or free disk space of many computers in the
network. Collaborative computing is most popular.
b) Instant messaging:- Over very common form of peer to peer network is instant
massaging where software application (such as MSN messenger or AOL instant
messenger) allow user to chat via text massages in real time.
c) Affinity communities:- It is the group of peer to peer net based around files sharing and
became widely known be to the public legal issues surrounding the direct Napster.
Disadvantages:- It has poor security and lack of centralized files storage an back up
facilities.
Categories Of Network (LAN, MAN,WAN)
LAN:- It is a network that connects computer and devices in a limited geographical area
(such as home, school, office, building etc). Each computer or device on the network is a
node.
One LAN can be connected to other LAN’s over any distance via telephone line and
wireless circuit. Data rate is 100 MB bit/sec or more faster than telephone line. But the
distance is limited. Protocol are Ethernet, token ring etc used in LAN.

Advantages:-
i) LAN allow sharing of expensive resources (Coloured LESER Printer) and high capacity,
high speed, mass storage, among a no of users.
ii) It allows high speed for information exchange.
iii)Easy to develop.
iv) Less complicated.
v) Failure of frequency is less.
Disadvantages:-
i) It does not use for distance communication.
ii) Financial cost of LAN is high.
iii)LAN software requires memory space in each computer used on the network.
iv) Some type of security system must be implemented in order to protect confidential data.
Characteristics:-
i) LAN works in a restricted geographical area.
ii) It operates at relatively high speed.
iii)LANs are private network.
MAN:-It is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN and is not as larger as a
WAN, ranging from several blocks of building to entire cities. MAN can also depend on
communication channel of moderate to high data rate.
MAN means internetworking of LAN commonly used school campus, large
universities and large company with multiple building.
Ex:- Cable T.V network that are spread over a city.
Advantages:-
i) Easy to develop.
ii) It can be owned by someone.
iii)Less complicated than WAN.
Disadvantages:-
i) Expensive than LAN but less than WAN.
ii) Failure frequency rate is large.
iii)Basically used for official purpose.
WAN:-It is digital communication system which interconnect different sites, computer
installation and users terminal. It is developing to operate nationwide on worldwide. It
enables LANs to communicate with each other.
The transmission media used in WAN are microwave link, telephone line and
satellite links. WAN operates at speeds much higher than 19200 bps.
Function:-
i) Remote data entry:- It is possible to enter data for sales and transaction at the point of
sale terminals using WAN.
ii) Centralizing information:- It is often convenient for business to centralize
regional/national information using WAN.
iii)Facilitating communication:- Corporate in advance country use WAN to facilitate
employee communication to save long distance, letter writing, cut cost on preparing
written document and to overcome the time problems.
Types:- WAN are 2 types –
a) Hierarchical Network:- Many WAN configure computers in a hierarchic called
hierarchical network. The most powerful computer of a hierarchical network is usually a
large main frame site to handle, input/output, data communication and computer security
task of the system, enabling the back in process to perform the require data processing
jobs.
b) Distributed Data Processing Network:- This network place computers or terminals at
local or regional sites, thereby providing computer power to these location. Distributed
data processing system enables the sharing of many hardware and significant software
resources among several users.
HUB
HUB
Advantages:-
i) Flexibility:- It allows greater flexibility.
ii) Better utilization of resources:- Computer resources are easily available to the end user.
iii)Better accessibility:- It facilitates quick and better access to data and information where
distance is greater.
iv) Lower cost for communication:- Communication cost is lower.
Disadvantages:-
i) Lack of security:- There is lack of security control for protecting user program and data.
ii) Linking of different system:- Due to lack of adequate computing, it is not possible to link
with different system.
iii)Maintenance difficulties:- Due to decentralization of resources at remote sites,
management from a central control is very difficult.
1 Describe the various topologies in a network.

Ans:
2
Justify, which topology is better among the various topologies.
Ans:
DAY 3
 Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Internet, Brief History, Protocols And Standards,
Reference Models, OSI Reference Model
Topics Covered:
 Internet:
 Brief History
 Protocols And Standards
 Reference Models:
 OSI Reference Model
Prerequisites:
 Basics of TCP
 Flow control
 Error control
 Physical Addressing
 Logical Addressing
Objectives: Modern world scenario is ever changing. Data Communication and network
have changed the way business and other daily affair works. Now, they highly rely on
computer networks and internetwork.
Notes:
Internet
A global computer network is providing a variety of information & communication
facilities, consisting of interconnected networks using standardized protocol.
Characteristics of Internet:-
i) Complex Network:-Network of networks that comprises over 160 million computers.
ii) Disorganized:-Internet can be complex for the experienced user.
iii) De-centralized System:-Millions of individual networks and over 140 million of
individual computers connect throughout the world.
iv) Expanding Exponentially:-Growing at the rate of 12% per month.
v) Composed of billons of files.
vi) It is widely used.
vii) It has a scope in international.
viii) It is dynamic.

Brief History
Growth of Internet:-
ARPANET(Advance Research Project Administration Network):-This internet

started as a US government project in the year 1969 called ARPANET, which
supervised in the beginning. The ARPANET reached universities, research lab and
some military lab, in 1990 ARPANET was rejected.
After using TCP/IP, NCP protocol into ARPANET, ARPANET was evolved
into NSFNET. ARPANET was a first packet switching network to implement TCP/IP
protocol. ARPANET was initially founded by the Advance Research Project Agency
(later Defense Advance Research Project Agency-DARPA) of the US Department of
Defense (DOD) .
NSFNET (National Science Foundation Network):-In the late 1980, the NSF of US
founded the development of a network (using the IP) named NSFNET to connect the
super computer centers in the US. Many colleges and universities were encouraged to
connect to the network. There are more than 10000 sites in 1987 and more than 100000
in 1989. Protocols NSFNET are TCP/IP and OSI.
Protocols And Standards
A protocol is a set of rules exchanging the information over the internet. IP is

responsible for IP addressing and sending of data from one computer to another.
It is a method by which data is send from one computer to another over the network.
Each computer that is connected to the internet has at least one IP address which
uniquely identifies this computer from other computer.
Reference Models

OSI Reference Model

1. OSI Model(Open System Interconnection):- It is 7 types-
A. Physical Layer
B. Datalink Layer
C. Network Layer
D. Transport Layer
E. Session Layer
F. Presentation Layer
G. Application Layer
A. Physical Layer:- It is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (Node) to the
next.
a) Functions:-
i) Bit Representation:- Physical layer consists of a stream of bits (0’s or 1’s).
ii) Transmission rate:- The number of bits send per second.
iii) Synchronisation:- The sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronised.
iv) Physical topology:- It defines how device are connected to make a network.
v) Transmission mode:- It defines the direction of transmission between to devices-simplex, half
duplex, full duplex.
b) Protocols:- IEEE 802, IEEE 802.2, ISDN.
c) Network Components:- Repeater, Multiplexer, Hubs etc.
Datalink Layer:- It is responsible for moving frames from one hop(Node) to another.
a) Functions:-
i) Framing:- Datalink layer divides the stream of bits received from network layer into
manageable data unit, called frame.
ii) Physical addressing:- The datalink layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and
receiver of the frame.
iii) Flow control:- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at
which data are produced in sender, the data link layer apply a flow control mechanism to
avoid overflow.
iv) Error control:- The datalink layer adds reliability mechanism to detect and retransmit damaged
or losses frames. It also used to recognize duplicate frames.
v) Access control:- When 2 or more devices are connected to the same link, datalink layer
protocols are necessary to determined which device has control over the link at any given
time.
b) Protocols:- 802.1 OSI model, 802.3 CSMA/CD (Ethernet).
c) Network Components:- Bridge, Switch, ISDN router, Intelligent hub.
From Network layer To Network layer
H2 Data T2 Datalink layer H2 Data T2
To Physical layer From Network layer
B. Network Layer:- It is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to the
destination host.
a) Functions:-
i) Logical Addressing:- If a packet passes the network boundary, logical addressing system
distinguished the source and the destination system.
ii) Routing:- When links are connecting to create internetworks, the routers route or switch
packets to their final destination.
b) Protocols:- IP, ARP, RARP, ICMP, OSI etc.
c) Network Components:- Router, ATM switch, Brouter, Frame relay.
From Transport layer To Transport layer
H3 Data Network layer H3 Data
To Datalink layer From Datalink layer

C. Transport Layer:- It is responsible for delivery of message from one process to another process.
a) Functions:-
i) Process to Process Delivery:- it delivers message from process to process.
ii) Orderly Receiving Packets:- Here packets are received in order wise.
iii) Segmentation and Reassembly:- The message is divided into segments, each segments
containing a sequence number. This sequence number enables this layer to reassemble the
message correctly arriving at the destination.
iv) Connection Control:- It makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine
first before delivering the packets.
v) Flow Control:- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at
which data are produced in sender, the transport layer apply a flow control mechanism to
avoid overflow.
vi) Error Control:- The transport layer adds reliability mechanism to detect and retransmit
damage or losses messages. It also used to recognize duplicate messages.
b) Protocols:- TCP, ARP, RAIP, ATP etc.
c) Network Components:- Gateway, Advanced cable, Tester, Brouter.

D. Session Layer:- It is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

a) Functions:-
i) It establishes maintains and synchronize and terminates the communication system.
ii) Dialog control:- It allows to system to enter into a dialog, it also allows half-duplex and full-
duplex communication between to process.
iii) Synchronization:- It allows a process to add check points or synchronization point to a system
of data.
Example:- Sending 2000 pages check after every 100 pages.
b) Protocols:- Net BIOS, Male slots, RPC.
c) Network Component:- Gateway.
d) Presentation Layer:- It is responsible for translation, compression and encryption.

a) Functions:-
i) Translation:- The information must be changed to bit stream before being transmitted.
ii) Compression:- It reduces the number of bits contain in the information.
iii) Encryption:- It means that the sender transform the original information to another forms and
sends the resulting message out over the network.
b) Protocols:- NCP, LPP, ICA, APP etc.
c) Network Component:- Gateway, Redirector.
From Application layer To Application layer
H6 Data H6 Data
To Session layer From Session layer

E. Application Layer:- It is responsible for providing services to the user.

a) Functions:-
i) Network virtual terminal:- The application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the
remote host.
ii) File transfer, access and management:- It allows a user to access a file in a remote host to
retrieve files from a remote computer and manage files in a remote computer.
iii) Mail service:- It provides a e-mail forwarding and storage.
b) Protocols:- DNS, FTP, SNMP, SMTP, MIME, TELNET, NSF.
c) Network Component:- Gateway.
From User To User
X.600 FTAM ........... X.400 X.600 FTAM .......... X.400
H7 Data H7 Data message
To Presentation layer From Presentation layer

 Diagram of OSI model:-

1 Define Protocol and Interface?
Ans:
DAY 4
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: TCP/IP Reference Model, Comparative study

between ISO-OSI and TCP/IP
Topics Covered:
 TCP/IP Reference Model
 Comparative Study Between ISO-OSI And TCP/IP.
Prerequisites:
 OSI model
 Basics of TCP
Objectives: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the language a
computer uses to access the internet. It consists of a suite of protocols designed to establish a
network of networks to provide a host with access to the internet.
Notes:

TCP/IP Reference Model
It is an industry standard protocol for WAN developed in 1970 by US Department of Defense

(DOD).
The internet protocol was developed about 10 years before the OSI model was defined, known as the
internet or DOD model.
A. Application Layer:- It is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, application layer in OSI model.
a) Functions:-
i) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):-E-mail transfer.
ii) FTP:- This protocol can copy a file from one host to another.
iii) HTTP:- It can access data on www.
iv) DNS:- It maps e-mail address to IP address.
v) SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol):- This Protocol manages device an internet.
vi) TELNET (Terminal Network):- Remote log in.
vii) DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
B. Transport Layer:- It is responsible for process to process delivery. It established communication through
connection oriented session connectionless broadcast.
a) Functions:-
i) TCP:-
 It is a reliable stream transport protocol.
 Stream means communication oriented, means a connection must be established between both ends of
a transmission before either can transmit data.
 TCP divides a stream into segments and each segment includes a sequence number and segments are
carried across the internet inside of IP datagram.
ii) UDP (User Datagram Protocol):- It is a process to process protocol that adds port address, check sum
error control to the data from the upper layer.
iii) SCTP (System Control Transmission Protocol):- It provides support for newer applications such as voice
over the internet.

C. Internet Layer:- TCP/IP support the internetworking protocol (IP) using for newer applications such as voice
over internet.
a) Functions:-
i) IP:- It is a transmission mechanism used by TCP/IP protocol. IP transport data in packets called
datagram.
ii) ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):- ARP is used to find the physical address of the node when its
internet address is known.
iii) RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol):- It allows a host to discover is known. It is used when a
computer is connected to a network for the first time.
iv) ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):- It is mechanism used by host and gateway to send
notification of datagram problems (error reporting) back to the sender.
v) IGMP (Internet Group Message Protocol):- It is used for continuously transmission of a message to a
group of recipients.
D. Network Layer:-
a) Functions:-
i) No Specific Protocol:- TCP/IP does not defined any specific protocol.
ii) Standard Protocol:- It supports all the standard and proprietary protocol.
iii) LAN/WAN:- A network can be a local area network or wide area network.
b) Protocol:-
ATM-Asynchronous Transfer Mode, POTS-Plain Old Telephone Service, ISDN-Integrated Service Digital
Network
Comparative Study Between ISO-OSI And TCP/IP.
Sl
Specification OSI model TCP/IP model
no
Services, These are clearly defined. Protocols in OSI model are better
interface & Ex-only real services offered by the hidden and can be replaced relatively
1. protocol internet layer are- easily as the technology changes, which
-send IP packet is one of the main objectives of layered
-receive IP packet protocol.
Functionalities Because models were invented before In this case, the protocols have been
2. protocol, functionalities put in each invented before models, so the
layer are not very optimized. functionalities are perfectly described.
Number of There are 7 layers There are 4 layers
3.
layers
Connectionless Both connections are supported in Connectionless communication support

& connection network layer but only connection in network layer but both models in the
4.
oriented oriented communication in the transport layer are supported.
communication transport layer.
Full form Open System Interconnection. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

5.
protocol.
Application FTAM, VT, MHS, OS, CMIP. FTP, SMTP, TELNET, DNS, SNMP.
6.
layer
7. Approach Sometime called horizontal approach Sometime called vertical approach.
1 Describe the ISO-OSI reference model.
Ans:
2 Write the differences between ISO-OSI and TCP/IP reference model.
Ans:
DAY 5
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Overview Of Data (Analog & Digital), Signal (Analog &
Digital), Transmission (Analog & Digital)

Course Outcomes:
Students should be able to be familiar with wireless networking concepts
Topics Covered:
 Overview Of Data (Analog & Digital)
 Signal (Analog & Digital)
 Transmission (Analog & Digital)
Prerequisites:
 TCP/IP reference model
 Protocols
Objectives: Data and Signals. ... The term analog data refers to information that is
continuous; digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Analog data take on
continuous values. Digital data take on discrete values.
Notes:
Overview Of Data (Analog & Digital)

Data or the signal whichever is used in a network, it can be either digital or analog.
Analog and Digital Data

Analog data refers to data that is of continuous format whereas digital data is one
which has discrete states. So the analog data takes continuous values and digital data
takes discrete values. Analog data can be directly converted into an analog signal or
sampled and converted to digital signal. In quite a similar fashion digital data can also
be converted to digital signal or into analog signal after modulation. These are
converted so that efficient transmission can take place.
Signal (Analog & Digital)
Analog Signals
Before going too much further, we should talk a bit about what a signal actually is, electronic
signals specifically (as opposed to traffic signals, albums by the ultimate power-trio, or a

general means for communication). The signals we’re talking about are time-
varying “quantities” which convey some sort of information. In electrical engineering
the quantity that’s time-varying is usually voltage (if not that, then usually current). So when
we talk about signals, just think of them as a voltage that’s changing over time.
Signals are passed between devices in order to send and receive information, which might be
video, audio, or some sort of encoded data. Usually the signals are transmitted through wires,
but they could also pass through the air via radio frequency (RF) waves. Audio signals, for
example might be transferred between your computer’s audio card and speakers, while data
signals might be passed through the air between a tablet and a WiFi router.
Analog Signal Graphs

Because a signal varies over time, it’s helpful to plot it on a graph where time is plotted on
the horizontal, x-axis, and voltage on the vertical, y-axis. Looking at a graph of a signal is
usually the easiest way to identify if it’s analog or digital; a time-versus-voltage graph of an
analog signal should be smooth and continuous.
While these signals may be limited to a range of maximum and minimum values, there are
still an infinite number of possible values within that range. For example, the analog voltage
coming out of your wall socket might be clamped between -120V and +120V, but, as you
increase the resolution more and more, you discover an infinite number of values that the
signal can actually be (like 64.4V, 64.42V, 64.424V, and infinite, increasingly precise
values).
Example Analog Signals

Video and audio transmissions are often transferred or recorded using analog signals.
The composite video coming out of an old RCA jack, for example, is a coded analog signal
usually ranging between 0 and 1.073V. Tiny changes in the signal have a huge effect on the
color or location of the video.
An analog signal representing one line of composite video data.

Pure audio signals are also analog. The signal that comes out of a microphone is full of
analog frequencies and harmonics, which combine to make beautiful music.
Digital Signals
Digital signals must have a finite set of possible values. The number of values in the set can
be anywhere between two and a-very-large-number-that’s-not-infinity. Most commonly
digital signals will be one of two values – like either 0V or 5V. Timing graphs of these
signals look like square waves.
Or a digital signal might be a discrete representation of an analog waveform. Viewed from

afar, the wave function below may seem smooth and analog, but when you look closely there
are tiny discrete steps as the signal tries to approximate values:

That’s the big difference between analog and digital waves. Analog waves are smooth and
continuous, digital waves are stepping, square, and discrete.
Example Digital Signals

Not all audio and video signals are analog. Standardized signals like HDMI for video (and
audio) and MIDI, I2S, or AC'97for audio are all digitally transmitted.
Most communication between integrated circuits is digital. Interfaces like serial, I2C,
and SPI all transmit data via a coded sequence of square waves.
Serial peripheral interface (SPI) uses many digital signals to transmit data between devices.
Transmission (Analog & Digital)
Analog Transmission
An analog wave form (or signal) is characterized by being continuously variable along amplitude and frequency. In
the case of telephony, for instance, when you speak into a handset, there are changes in the air pressure around your
mouth. Those changes in air pressure fall onto the handset, where they are amplified and then converted into current,
or voltage fluctuations. Those fluctuations in current are an analog of the actual voice pattern—hence the use of the
term analog to describe these signals
Digital Transmission
Digital transmission is quite different from analog transmission. For one thing, the signal is much simpler. Rather than
being a continuously variable wave form, it is a series of discrete pulses, representing one bits and zero bits. Each
computer uses a coding scheme that defines what combinations of ones and zeros constitute all the characters in a
character set (that is, lowercase letters, uppercase letters, punctuation marks, digits, keyboard control functions).
Analog Versus Digital Transmission

Feature Analog Characteristics Digital Characteristics
Signal Continuously variable, in Discrete signal, represented as

both amplitude and either changes in voltage or
frequency changes in light levels
Traffic measurement Hz (for example, a Bits per second (for example, a

telephone channel is 4KHz) T-1 line carries 1.544Mbps, and
an E-1 line transports
2.048Mbps)
Bandwidth Low bandwidth (4KHz), High bandwidth that can support

which means low data high-speed data and emerging
transmission rates (up to applications that involve video
33.6Kbps) because of and multimedia
limited channel bandwidth
Network capacity Low; one conversation per High; multiplexers enable

telephone channel multiple conversations to share a
communications channel and
hence to achieve greater
transmission efficiencies
Network manageability Poor; a lot of labor is Good; smart devices produce

needed for network alerts, alarms, traffic statistics,
maintenance and control and performance measurements,
because dumb analog and technicians at a network
devices do not provide control center (NCC) or network
management information operations center (NOC) can

streams that allow the remotely monitor and manage the

device to be remotely various network elements
managed
Power requirement High because the signal Low because only two discrete
contains a wide range of signals—the one and the zero—
frequencies and amplitudes need to be transmitted
Security Poor; when you tap into an Good; encryption can be used
analog circuit, you hear the
voice stream in its native
form, and it is difficult to
detect an intrusion
Error rates High; 10 bits (that is, 1 in

–5
Low; with twisted-pair, 10 (that,
–7
100,000 bits) is guaranteed is 1 in 10 million bits per second)

to have an error will have an error, with satellite,
10 (that is, 1 in 1 billion per
–9
second) will have an error, and

with fiber, 10 (that is only 1 in
–11
10 trillion bits per second) will

have an error

1 Discuss the difference between Analog and Digital Transmission

Ans:
2 Describe different types of Signals in details.

Ans:
DAY 6
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Transmission Media.

Course Outcomes: Students should be able to be familiar with wireless networking concepts
Topics Covered:
 Transmission Media (Guided & Unguided)
Prerequisites:
 Noise Absorption
 Radiation
 Attenuation
 Band width
Objectives: Media differ in the capability to support high data rates and long-distance
transmission.
Notes:
Transmission Media (Guided & Unguided)
1. Transmission Media/ Communication Media:- A Transmission media can be defined as
anything that can carry information from a source to a destination.
Sender Receiver
Physical Layer Physical Layer
Transmission media
Cable on air
Media differ in the capability to support high data rates and long-distance transmission.
Reasons for these are …
a) Noise Absorption:- It is the susceptibility of the media to external electrical noise that can
cause distortion of the signal and thus data error occurs.
b) Radiation:-It is the leakage of signal from the media cause by undesirable electrical
characteristics of the media.
c) Attenuation:- It is the decline of magnitude of signal with distance due to absorption of
energy by the media.
d) Band width:- It is similar to the concept of frequency response in a stereo amplifier. The
greater frequency response causes the higher bandwidth. Higher bandwidth communication
channel supports higher data transfer rate. It refers to the difference between the highest and
lowest frequency of a transmission channel.

Transmission
Media
Guided(wired) Unguided(wirless)
Twisted Coaxial Fiber- Radio Micro

Light wave Infrared
Pair Cable Cable optical wave wave
Cable
Satellite Terestrial
2. Guided Media:- It refers to the method of transmission of data over which signal can travel in a
network.
Ex:- Twisted pair wire, Coaxial wire, Fiber optical wire.
Twisted pair wire:- It consist of two insulated copper wire(1 mm thick) and twisted with one
another to form a helical shape.
It is twisted because to lower the attenuation and cross talk from the noise. Cross talk is also
known as bleeding of signal. It is common wire used in telephone communication line. Data
transmission speed up to 9600bps if the distance is not more than 100 meters.
Advantages:-
i) It is simple and flexible.
ii) It is easy to maintain and install.
iii) Lower in weight and inexpensive.
iv) It is used for both analogue and digital data transmission.
v) If a portion of a twisted pair cable is damaged, the inter network is not shut down.
Disadvantage:-
i) It possesses high attenuation, so we have to use repeater for long distances.
ii) It is low bandwidth, so we cannot use broad band application.
iii) Maximum data rate 1 mbps which is lower.
Types:- It is 2 types-
i) UTP (Unshielded Twisted pair):- It does not have any metal shield over the two-twisted pair cable.
It maximum distance is 100 meters for signal transmission.
ii) STP (Shielded twisted pair):- It has metal shield over the two twisted pair cables. It offers
protection from interference and cross talk.
Coaxial Cable:- It consists of a stiff copper wire as the core (solid), surrounded by an insulating
material (1 or more wire shield).
The insulator is enclosing with in a cylindrical conductor. The outer conductor is covered by a
protective plastic seat (plastic insulator). The inner core carries signal and outer metal slave
electrically shielded over the signal.
It is used in cable T.V.
Ex:- Two kinds of coaxial cable are….

i) 60 ohm cables commonly used for digital transmission.
ii) 75 ohm cables commonly used for analogue transmission.
Advantage:-
i) It offers higher band width up to 400 mbps.
ii) Transmission is better than twisted pair wire.
iii) There are several channels (Frequency) through one cable.
Disadvantage:-
i) Expensive as compared to twisted pair.
ii) Not comfortable with any other cable.
iii) Only one use in cable T.V.
Types:- It is Two Types….
a) Thick Ethernet:- Connecting coaxial cable used on an Ethernet network. The cable is 1 cm (0.4
inch) thick and can be used to connect network nodes up to a distance of approximately 1006 meters.
b) Thin Ethernet:- connecting coaxial cable used on an Ethernet network. The cable is 5 mm (0.2
inch) thick and can be used to connect network nodes up a distance of approximately 165 metres. It is
normally used for office installation.
Optical Fiber:- It is the newest from of bounded media. It is superior in data handling and security
characteristics. It transmits light signal rather than electrical signal.
Firstly, the signal converted into light signal from electrical signal. Each fiber has an inner

core of glass or plastic that conducts light. It uses light beam to transmit the signals.
There are two types of light sources -
a) LED (Light Emitting Diodes)
b) LASER Diodes (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission Radiation)
Optical fiber
Electrical Electrical Light to
Electrical signal
Signal light wave electrical wave
Converter Light waves converter
Optical fiber has core and cladding. The inner core is surrounded by cladding. Cladding is
layer of class that reflect light back into the case.
Fiber optic channels are half-duplex.
Jacket
Cladding
Core
Jacket Cladding Core
Side View Front View
Advantage:-
i) It supports higher bandwidth than other.
ii) Signal attenuation is less.
iii) It is immune to EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference)
iv) There is much lighter than copper cable.
v) It is suitable in all types of environment.
Disadvantage:-
i) It is quite tough to install the equipment.
ii) It is expensive.
iii) Connection losses are common problem in it.
iv) It is unidirectional.
Types:- It is Two types -
a) Single Mode:- In a single mode fiber, the core is 8 to 10 microns (about the size of a hair) in
diameter.
It allows a single light path and is typically used with LESER Signaling. It can allow greater
bandwidth than multi-mode but it is more expensive. It supports the segment length up to 2 Km.
Cladding Core
b) Multi-Mode:- In multimode fiber, the core is about 60 microns in diameter.

It uses multiple light paths.

It supports the segment length up to 100 Km.
Cladding Core
3. Unguided Media:- The Data signal is not guided on bound through a solid medium or channel,
known as unguided media.
Web propagation in unguided media is classified by 3 types-
a) Ground wave propagation:- It follows the curvature of the earth. Ground webs have curvature
frequency up to 2 MHz Am radio is an example of ground wave propagation.
Atmosphere
Radio Wave
Home
c) Ionosphere Propagation:- It bounces of the earth ionosphere layer in the upper atmosphere
and back to the earth. It is sometime called double hop propagation. Frequency range is 2 –
30 MHz. It changes with the weather and time of day. HAM radio operates in this range.
Ionosphere
Radio wave
Home
c) Line of sight propagation:- It transmits exactly in line of sight. The receive station must be in the
view of transmit station. It is sometime called space wave or troposphere propagation. It is limited by
the curvature of earth for ground-based stations (10 Km). Reflected wave can cause problems. It
operates on frequency range above 30 MHz.
Ex:-Microwave and satellite.
Atmosphere
Radio tower Home

60 km earth

Types:-Unguided media are four types-

i) Radio wave
ii) Micro Wave Transmission
iii) Light Wave Transmission
iv) Infrared and Millimetre waves.
A. Radio Wave:- Radio Wave frequency is from 10 KHz to 1 GHz. Radio wave includes the
following types-
a) Short Wave
b) Very High frequency (VHF) telephone and FM Radio
c) Ultra High frequency (UHF) Radio and T.V
Characteristics:-
i) It is easy to generate.
ii) They can travel long distances.
iii) They can penetrate buildings easily.
iv) Radio waves are unidirectional.
Radio Transmission:- The Placement of antenna has to take into account the curvature of earth with
antenna being built taller accordingly. It also allows greater transmission distance. There are two
principles ways-
a) Ground wave
b) Sky wave
B. Microwave Transmission:-
Advantage:-
i) They require no right of way acquisition between towers.
ii) They can carry high quantities of information due to train high frequency.
iii) Low cost land purchase
iv) High frequency short wave length signal requires small antenna.
Disadvantage:-
i) Attenuation by solid objects -birds, rain, snow etc.
ii) Reflected (split) around solid object.
iii) Reflected by atmosphere.
Types:- Micro wave transmission is 2 types-
a) Terrestrial micro wave.

b) Satellite micro wave.

a) Terrestrial micro wave:-
It uses directional parabolic antenna to send and received signal in the lower GHz range. The signal
follows line of site propagation.
Characteristics:-
i) Frequency range:- Low GHz range usually at (4-6) GHz and (21-23) GHz.
ii) Cost:- For short distance, system can be inexpensive but long-distance system can be expensive.
iii) Installation:- It is Difficult.
iv) Band width:- It varies depending on the frequency.
v) Attenuation:- It is affected by frequency, signal straight, antenna size and atmospheric condition,
rain, fog can affect higher frequency microwave.
b) Satellite Micro Wave:- It is Transmission (unit that receive on one frequency and retransmission
on another) that is said gestations orbits are 36000 KM from earth surface.
The gravitational pull of the earth and centrifugal force of earth rotation are balance and
cancel each other out.
The uplink is the transmission of data to the satellite. The down link is the receiver of data.
Uplinks and down link are called earth station. The footprint is the shadow that the satellite
transmitted signal.
Characteristics:-
i) Frequency Range- Low GHz range typically (4-6) GHz and (11-14) GHz.
ii) Cost- It is extremely high.
iii) Installation- It is very difficult.

iv) Band width capacity- It depends on the frequency used.

v) Attenuation- It depends on frequency, power, antenna size and atmospheric condition.
Advantage:-
i) High bandwidth.
ii) Coverage over a large geographical area.
iii) Can be cheaper over long distance.
Disadvantage:-
i) Use initial cost.
ii) Noise and interference.
iii) Propagation delay.
VAST (Very Small Aperture Terminal):-
It is a two-way satellite ground station antenna with a dish antenna that is smaller than 3 M.
The majority of VSAT antenna ranges from 75cm – 1.2 m. Data rates typically range from 4 kbps up
to 4 mbps. VSAT access satellites in geosynchronous orbit to relay data from small remote are station
to other terminals. VSAT are most commonly used to transmit narrow band data or broad band data.
The uplink is generally good 19.2 kbps but downlink is 512 kbps. The delay time or end to end
transmit time is between 260-300 msec.
C. Light Wave Transmission:-The modern application is to connect LAN’S in two buildings via
LASSER mounted on their roof tops. Coherent optical signalling using LASER is unidirectional.
So each building needs its own LASER and Photo Direction.
Advantage:-
i) The Band width is very high at very low cost.
ii) It is relatively easy to install.
iii) It does not require any license.

Disadvantage:-
i) LASER becomes cannot penetrate rain or thick fog but they normally work well on sunny day.
ii) Hit from the sun during the day time causes convection currents to rise up from the roof of the
building.
iii) This turbulent air diverts the beam and makes it dance around the detector.
D. Infrared and millimetre waves:-
Unguided infrared and millimetre wave are widely used for short communication in a closed
area using line of sight Propagation.
The remote control used in T.V, VCR and stereos they are directional, cheap and easy to build
but do not pass through solid object.
An infrared system in the room of a building will not interfere with the similar system in
adjacent room.
Use of infrared system:- it is used for indoor wireless LAN.
EX: - The computer and officer in a building can be equipped with relatively unfocused transmitters
and receivers.
1 Write down the differences between Guided and Unguided media of communication.
Ans:

DAY 7
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Circuit Switching.
Course Outcomes:
Students should be able to be familiar with wireless networking concepts.
Topics Covered:
 Circuit Switching
Prerequisites:
 Transmission
 Bandwidth
 Attenuation
Objectives: Circuit switching is a method of implementing a telecommunications network in

which two network nodes establish a dedicated communications channel (circuit) through the
network before the nodes may communicate. in which two network nodes establish a
dedicated communications channel (circuit) through the network before the nodes may
communicate.
Notes:
Circuit Switching
It is a method of implementing a telecommunication network nodes established a dedicated
communication channel (circuit) through the network before the node may communicate.
There are 3steps in circuit switching-
a) Connection establishment
b) Data transfer
c) Terminate network
Example:- Telephone.
 Advantages:-
i) Guaranteed band width.
ii) Simple obstruction.
iii) Simple forwarding.

iv) Low per packet overhead.
 Disadvantages:-
i) Wasted band width.
ii) Blocked connection.
iii)Connection set up delay.
iv) Network status.
1 Describe circuit switching with example.

Ans:

2 Compare circuit, packet and message switching?

Ans:
DAY 8
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Time division, Space division switch
Course Outcomes:
Students should be able to be familiar with contemporary issues in networking technologies,
network tools and network programming
Topics Covered:
 Time Division
 Space Division Switch
Prerequisites:
 Bandwidth, noise
 Circuit Switching
Objectives: The switching scheme used by the electronic switching systems may be
either Space Division Switching or Time Division Switching
Notes:

Space Division Switching

The paths in a circuit are separated from each other, spatially in space division switching.
Though initially designed for analog networks, it is being used for both analog and digital
switching. A Crosspoint switch is mostly referred to as a space division switch because it
moves a bit stream from one circuit or bus to another.
The switching system where any channel of one of its incoming PCM highway is connected
to any channel of an outgoing PCM highway, where both of them are spatially separated is
called the Space Division Switching. The Crosspoint matrix connects the incoming and
outgoing PCM highways, where different channels of an incoming PCM frame may need to
be switched by different Crosspoints in order to reach different destinations.
Though the space division switching was developed for the analog environment, it has been
carried over to digital communication as well. This requires separate physical path for each
signal connection, and uses metallic or semiconductor gates.
Advantages of Space Division Switching

Following is the advantage of Space Division Switching −
 It is instantaneous.

Disadvantages of Space Division Switching

 Number of Crosspoints required to make space-division switching are acceptable in
terms of blocking.
Time Division Switching

Time division switching comes under digital switching techniques, where the Pulse Code
Modulated signals are mostly present at the input and the output ports. A digital Switching
system is one, where the inputs of any PCM highway can be connected to the outputs of any
PCM highway, to establish a call.
The incoming and outgoing signals when received and re-transmitted in a different time slot,
is called Time Division Switching. The digitized speech information is sliced into a
sequence of time intervals or slots. Additional voice circuit slots, corresponding to other
users are inserted into this bit stream of data. Hence, the data is sent in time frames.
The main difference between space division multiplexing and time division multiplexing is
sharing of Crosspoints. Crosspoints are not shared in space division switching, whereas they
can be shared in time division multiplexing, for shorter periods. This helps in reassigning the
Crosspoints and its associated circuitry for other connections as well.
Time division switches use time division multiplexing, in switching. The two popular
methods of TDM are TSI (Time and Slot Interchange) and TDM bus. The data sent at the
transmitter reaches the receiver in the same order, in an ordinary time division multiplexing
whereas, in TSI mechanism, the data sent is changed according to the ordering of slots based
on the desired connections. It consists of RAM with several memory locations such as input,
output locations and control unit.

Both of the techniques are used in digital transmission. The TDM bus utilizes multiplexing to
place all the signals on a common transmission path. The bus must have higher data rate than
individual I/O lines. The main advantage of time division multiplexing is that, there is no
need of Crosspoint’s. However, processing each connection creates delay as each time slot
must be stored by RAM, then retrieved and then passed on.
1 Describe Time Division switch and Space Division Switch.

Ans:
DAY 9
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: TDM Bus, telephone network.
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 TDM Bus
 Telephone Network
Prerequisites:
 Circuit switching
 Time division and space division

Objectives: A telephone network is a telecommunicationsnetwork used for telephone calls

between two or more parties. There are a number of different types oftelephone network: A
landline network where the telephones must be directly wired into a single
telephone exchange.

1 Discuss about TDM Bus.
2 Describe.Telephone Network?

DAY 10
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Types Of Errors, Framing(Character And Bit Stuffing),
Error Detection & Correction Methods, Block Coding, Linear Block Codes
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Types Of Errors
 Framing(Character And Bit Stuffing)
 Error Detection & Correction Methods:
 Block Coding, Linear Block Codes
Prerequisites:
 Telphone network
 Messaging systems
 Errror
Objectives: Error, A condition when the receiver's information does not matches with the
sender's information. Error detection is the process of detecting the error during the
transmission between the sender and the receiver. Redundancy allows a receiver to check
whether received data was corrupted during transmission.
Notes:
Types Of Errors
There may be three types of errors:
 Single bit error
In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is corrupt.

 Multiple bits error
Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.
 Burst error
Frame contains more than1 consecutive bits corrupted.
Framing(Character And Bit Stuffing)

Byte stuffing –
A byte (usually escape character(ESC)), which has a predefined bit pattern is added to the data
section of the frame when there is a character with the same pattern as the flag. Whenever the
receiver encounters the ESC character, it removes from the data section and treats the next
character as data, not a flag.
But problem arises when text contains one or more escape characters followed by a flag. To
solve this problem, the escape characters that are part of the text are marked by another escape
character i.e., if the escape character is part of the text,an extra one is added to show that the
second one is part of the text.
Example:

Note – Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a byte-oriented protocol.

Bit stuffing –
Mostly flag is a special 8-bit pattern “01111110” used to define the beginning and the end of the
frame.
Problem with the flag is same as that was in case of byte stuffing. So, in this protocol what we
do is, if we encounter 0 and five consecutive 1 bits,an extra 0 is added after these bits. This extra
stuffed bit is removed from the data by the receiver.
The extra bit is added after one 0 followed by five 1 bits regardless of the value of the next bit.
Also, as sender side always knows which sequence is data and which is flag it will only add this
extra bit in the data sequence not in the flag sequence.
Example:

Note – High-Level Data Link Control(HDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol.

Error Detection & Correction Methods
Error Detection
Errors in the received frames are detected by means of Parity Check and Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC). In both cases, few extra bits are sent along with actual data to confirm that bits
received at other end are same as they were sent. If the counter-check at receiver’ end fails, the
bits are considered corrupted.
Parity Check
One extra bit is sent along with the original bits to make number of 1s either even in case of
even parity, or odd in case of odd parity.
The sender while creating a frame counts the number of 1s in it. For example, if even parity is
used and number of 1s is even then one bit with value 0 is added. This way number of 1s
remains even.If the number of 1s is odd, to make it even a bit with value 1 is added.
The receiver simply counts the number of 1s in a frame. If the count of 1s is even and even
parity is used, the frame is considered to be not-corrupted and is accepted. If the count of 1s is
odd and odd parity is used, the frame is still not corrupted.
If a single bit flips in transit, the receiver can detect it by counting the number of 1s. But when
more than one bits are erro neous, then it is very hard for the receiver to detect the error.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a different approach to detect if the received frame contains valid data. This technique
involves binary division of the data bits being sent. The divisor is generated using polynomials.
The sender performs a division operation on the bits being sent and calculates the remainder.
Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder at the end of the actual bits.
Actual data bits plus the remainder is called a codeword. The sender transmits data bits as
codewords.
At the other end, the receiver performs division operation on codewords using the same CRC
divisor. If the remainder contains all zeros the data bits are accepted, otherwise it is considered
as there some data corruption occurred in transit.

Error Correction
In the digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:
 Backward Error Correction When the receiver detects an error in the data received, it
requests back the sender to retransmit the data unit.
 Forward Error Correction When the receiver detects some error in the data received,
it executes error-correcting code, which helps it to auto-recover and to correct some
kinds of errors.
The first one, Backward Error Correction, is simple and can only be efficiently used where
retransmitting is not expensive. For example, fiber optics. But in case of wireless transmission
retransmitting may cost too much. In the latter case, Forward Error Correction is used.
To correct the error in data frame, the receiver must know exactly which bit in the frame is
corrupted. To locate the bit in error, redundant bits are used as parity bits for error
detection.For example, we take ASCII words (7 bits data), then there could be 8 kind of
information we need: first seven bits to tell us which bit is error and one more bit to tell that
there is no error.
For m data bits, r redundant bits are used. r bits can provide 2r combinations of information. In
m+r bit codeword, there is possibility that the r bits themselves may get corrupted. So the
number of r bits used must inform about m+r bit locations plus no-error information, i.e.
m+r+1.
Block Coding, Linear Block Codes
The purpose of error control coding is to enable the receiver to detect or even correct the errors
by introducing some redundancies in to the data to be transmitted.
There are basically two mechanisms for adding redundancy:
1. Block coding
2. Convolutional coding

The encoder generates a block of n coded bits from k information bits and we call this as (n, k)
block codes.
The coded bits are also called as code word symbols.

In the linear block codes, the parity bits and message bits have a linear combination, which
means that the resultant code word is the linear combination of any two code words.
Let us consider some blocks of data, which contains k bits in each block. These bits are
mapped with the blocks which has n bits in each block. Here nis greater than k. The transmitter
adds redundant bits which are (n-k) bits. The ratio k/n is the code rate. It is denoted by r and
the value of r is r < 1.
The (n-k) bits added here, are parity bits. Parity bits help in error detection and error
correction, and also in locating the data. In the data being transmitted, the left most bits of the
code word correspond to the message bits, and the right most bits of the code word correspond
to the parity bits.
Systematic Code
Any linear block code can be a systematic code, until it is altered. Hence, an unaltered block
code is called as a systematic code.
Following is the representation of the structure of code word, according to their allocation.

If the message is not altered, then it is called as systematic code. It means, the encryption of the
data should not change the data.
Convolution Codes
So far, in the linear codes, we have discussed that systematic unaltered code is preferred. Here,
the data of total n bits if transmitted, k bits are message bits and (n-k) bits are parity bits.
In the process of encoding, the parity bits are subtracted from the whole data and the message
bits are encoded. Now, the parity bits are again added and the whole data is again encoded.
The following figure quotes an example for blocks of data and stream of data, used for
transmission of information.
The whole process, stated above is tedious which has drawbacks. The allotment of buffer is a
main problem here, when the system is busy.
This drawback is cleared in convolution codes. Where the whole stream of data is assigned
symbols and then transmitted. As the data is a stream of bits, there is no need of buffer for
storage.

DAY 11
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Error Detection & Correction Methods, 1D Parity,
2DParity, Checksum
Course Outcomes: Students should be able to be familiar with contemporary issues in

networking technologies, network tools and network programming.
Topics Covered:
 Error Detection & Correction Methods:
 1D Parity
 2DParity
 Checksum
Prerequisites:
 Error
 Noise control
 Framing
Notes:
Error Detection & Correction Methods
Error detection is the detection of errors caused by noise or other impairments during
transmission from the transmitter to the receiver. Error correction is
the detection of errors and reconstruction of the original, error-free data.
1D Parity
Blocks of data from the source are subjected to a check bit or parity bit generator form,
where a parity of :
 1 is added to the block if it contains odd number of 1’s, and
 0 is added if it contains even number of 1’s

This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that’s why it is called even parity checking.
2DParity
Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is equivalent to a simple parity check bit.
Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns, then both are sent along with the data. At
the receiving end these are compared with the parity bits calculated on the received data.
Checksum
In checksum error detection scheme, the data is divided into k segments each of m bits.
 In the sender’s end the segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the
sum. The sum is complemented to get the checksum.
 The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.
 At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented.
 If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise discarded.

1
How does the 1D parity check work?
Ans:
2 Distinguish between 1D and 2D parity with example.

Ans:
3 Describe the working of Checksum.

Ans:

DAY 12
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: CRC, Hamming code.

networking technologies, network tools and network programming
Topics Covered:
 Cyclic Redundancy Codes
 Hamming Code
Prerequisites:
 Error detection and correction
 Parity checking
Notes:
Cyclic Redundancy Codes

 Unlike checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary
division.
 In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are
appended to the end of data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly
divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.
 At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this
step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore
accepted.
 A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and therefore
must be rejected.

Hamming Code
Hamming code is a set of error-correction codes that can be used to detect and
correct the errors that can occur when the data is moved or stored from the sender to
the receiver. It is technique developed by R.W. Hamming for error correction.
General Algorithm of Hamming code –

The Hamming Code is simply the use of extra parity bits to allow the identification of an
error.
1. Write the bit positions starting from 1 in binary form (1, 10, 11, 100, etc).
2. All the bit positions that are a power of 2 are marked as parity bits (1, 2, 4, 8, etc).
3. All the other bit positions are marked as data bits.
4. Each data bit is included in a unique set of parity bits, as determined its bit position in
binary form.
a. Parity bit 1 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the least significant
position (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc).
b. Parity bit 2 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the second position from
the least significant bit (2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11, etc).
c. Parity bit 4 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the third position from
the least significant bit (4–7, 12–15, 20–23, etc).
d. Parity bit 8 covers all the bits positions whose binary representation includes a 1 in
the fourth position from
the least significant bit bits (8–15, 24–31, 40–47, etc).
e. In general each parity bit covers all bits where the bitwise AND of the parity
position and the bit position is
non-zero.
1 Describe the working principles of CRC.

Ans:
2
How hamming code helps to correct the error?
Ans:

DAY 13
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Flow control, protocols, stop & wait ARQ, Go-back-
N ARQ.
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Flow Control
 Protocols
 Stop & Wait ARQ
 Go-Back- N ARQ
Prerequisites:
 Error detection and control
 Framing
 Protocols
Objectives: Flow control is the management of data flow between computers or devices or
between nodes in a network so that the data can be handled at an efficient pace. Too much
data arriving before a device can handle it causes data overflow, meaning the data is either
lost or must be retransmitted.
Notes:
Flow Control
Flow control is the mechanism that ensures the rate at which a sender is transmitting
is in proportion with the receiver’s receiving capabilities.
Flow control is utilized in data communications to manage the flow of data/packets
among two different nodes, especially in cases where the sending device can send
data much faster than the receiver can digest.

Protocols
Stop & Wait ARQ
Used in Connection-oriented communication.
It offers error and flow control
It is used in Data Link and Transport Layers
Stop and Wait ARQ mainly implements Sliding Window Protocol concept with
Window Size 1
Useful Terms:
 Propagation Delay: Amount of time taken by a packet to make a physical journey

from one router to another router.
Propagation Delay = (Distance between routers) / (Velocity of propagation)
 RoundTripTime (RTT) = 2* Propagation Delay
 TimeOut (TO) = 2* RTT
 Time To Live (TTL) = 2* TimeOut. (Maximum TTL is 180 seconds)
Working of Stop and Wait ARQ:

1) Sender A sends a data frame or packet with sequence number 0.
2) Receiver B, after receiving data frame, sends and acknowledgement with sequence
number 1 (sequence number of next expected data frame or packet)
There is only one bit sequence number that implies that both sender and receiver have
buffer for one frame or packet only.

Go-Back- N ARQ
Stop and wait ARQ mechanism does not utilize the resources at their best.When the
acknowledgement is received, the sender sits idle and does nothing. In Go-Back-N
ARQ method, both sender and receiver maintain a window.

The sending-window size enables the sender to send multiple frames without
receiving the acknowledgement of the previous ones. The receiving-window enables
the receiver to receive multiple frames and acknowledge them. The receiver keeps
track of incoming frame’s sequence number.
When the sender sends all the frames in window, it checks up to what sequence
number it has received positive acknowledgement. If all frames are positively
acknowledged, the sender sends next set of frames. If sender finds that it has received
NACK or has not receive any ACK for a particular frame, it retransmits all the
frames after which it does not receive any positive ACK.

1 Explain flow control?
Ans:
2 Explain the concept of flow control citing examples of sending and receiving
buffers.
Ans:
3 Describe the working of Stop and Wait ARQ.
4 Discuss the concept of Sliding window protocol?

5 Describe the working of Go back N ARQ.
6 How is Go Back N ARQ better than Stop and Wait ARQ?
DAY 14
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Selective Repeat ARQ, Piggybacking.

Topics Covered:
 Selective Repeat ARQ
 Piggybacking
Prerequisites:
 Error detection and control
 Framing
 Protocols
 Stop & Wait ARQ and Go-Back- N ARQ

Objectives: Flow control is the management of data flow between computers or devices or
between nodes in a network so that the data can be handled at an efficient pace. Too much
data arriving before a device can handle it causes data overflow, meaning the data is either
lost or must be retransmitted.
Notes:
Selective Repeat ARQ
In Go-back-N ARQ, it is assumed that the receiver does not have any buffer space for
its window size and has to process each frame as it comes. This enforces the sender to
retransmit all the frames which are not acknowledged.
 In Selective-Repeat ARQ, the receiver while keeping track of sequence numbers,

buffers the frames in memory and sends NACK for only frame which is missing or
damaged.

The sender in this case, sends only packet for which NACK is received.
Piggybacking
A technique called piggybacking is used to improve the efficiency of the bidirectional
protocols. When a frame is carrying data from A to B, it can also carry control
information about arrived (or lost) frames from B; when a frame is carrying data from
B to A, it can also carry control information about the arrived (or lost) frames from A.
 The major advantage of piggybacking is better use of available channel bandwidth.

 The major disadvantage of piggybacking Additional complexity and If the data link
layer waits too long before transmitting the acknowledgement, then re-transmission of
frame would take place.
1 Describe the working of Selective Repeat ARQ.
Ans:
2 How is Selective Repeat ARQ better than Go back N ARQ?
Ans:

3 Discuss the working principals of piggybacking?
Ans:
DAY 15
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: HDLC, Point to point protocol, LCP, NCP.
Course Outcomes: Students should be able to master the concepts of protocols, network
interfaces, and design/performance issues in local area networks and wide area networks
Topics Covered:
 HDLC
 Point To Point Protocol
 LCP
 NCP
Prerequisites:
 Piggybacking
 Framing
 Error detection and correction
Objectives: In computer networking, Point-to-Point Protocol(PPP) is a data link layer

(layer 2) communications protocol used to establish a direct connection between two nodes.
It connects two routers directly without any host or any other networking device in between .

Notes:
HDLC
HDLC (High-level Data Link Control) is a group of protocols or rules for
transmitting data between network points (sometimes called nodes). In HDLC, data is
organized into a unit (called a frame) and sent across a network to a destination that
verifies its successful arrival. The HDLC protocol also manages the flow or pacing at
which data is sent. HDLC is one of the most commonly-used protocols in what is
layer 2 of the industry communication reference model called Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI). (Layer 1 is the detailed physical level that involves actually
generating and receiving the electronic signals. Layer 3 is the higher level that has
knowledge about the network, including access to router tables that indicate where to
forward or send data. On sending, programming in layer 3 creates a frame that usually
contains source and destination network addresses. HDLC (layer 2) encapsulates the
layer 3 frame, adding data link control information to a new, larger frame.
Point To Point Protocol

Point-to-point protocol (PPP) is a computer network protocol used to transfer a
datagram between two directly connected (point-to-point) computers. This protocol is
used for a very basic level of connectivity providing data linkage between the
computers.
Point-to-point protocol is widely used for the heavier and faster connections necessary
for broadband communications.
Point-to-point protocol is also known as RFC 1661.
There are many physical mediums for point-to-point connectivity, such as simple
serial cables, mobile phones and telephone lines.
For Ethernet networks, TCP and IP were introduced for data communication
purposes. Both of these protocols have specifications for Ethernet networks only.
Thus, TCP and IP do not support point-to-point connections. Therefore, PPP was
introduced for point-to-point connectivity without Ethernet.
When two computers are being connected directly, both ends send a request for
configuration. Once the computers are connected, PPP handles link control, data
control and protocol encapsulation.

LCP
In the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), the Link ControlProtocol (LCP) establishes,

configures, and tests data-link Internet connections. Before establishing
communications over a point-to-point link, each end of the PPP link must send out
LCP packets. The LCP packet either accepts or rejects the identity of its linked peer,
agrees upon packet size limits, and looks for common misconfiguration errors.
Basically, the LCP packet checks the telephone line connection to see whether the
connection is good enough to sustain data transmission at the intended rate. Once the
LCP packet accepts the link, traffic can be transported on the network; if the LCP
packet determines the link is not functioning properly, it terminates the link.
LCP packets are divided into three classes:
 Link configuration packets used to establish and configurea link
 Link termination packets used to terminate a link
 Link maintenance packets used to manage and debug a link
NCP
Network Control Protocol (NCP) was an early protocol implemented by ARPANET,
the world's first operational packet-switching network that later evolved into what
became the Internet. NCP allowed users to access and use computers and devices at
remote locations and to transmit files between computers. NCP provided the middle
layer of the protocol stack, and enabled application services such as email and file
transfer.
Whether the term is Network Control Protocol or Network Control Program is a

matter of some debate, as both terms are used to refer to this ARPANET protocol.
NCP was replaced by TCP/IP in the 1980s.

1 Describe the frame format of HDLC.

Ans:
2 Discuss the different types of packets in HDLC?

Ans:
DAY 16
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Multiple access protocols, pure ALOHA, slotted
ALOHA, CSMA
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Multiple Access Protocols:
 Pure ALOHA
 Slotted ALOHA
 CSMA
Prerequisites:
 Point to point protocol
 HDLC
Objectives: Multiple access protocol is used to coordinate access to the link. Nodes can
regulate their transmission onto the shared broadcast channel by using Multiple access
protocol. It is used both wired and wireless local area Text network and satellite network.
Notes:
Multiple Access Protocols

Computer networks have protocols - so-called multiple access protocols - by which
nodes regulate their transmission onto the shared broadcast channel.
ALOHA
ALOHA is a system for coordinating and arbitrating access to a shared
communication Networks channel. It was developed in the 1970s by Norman
Abramson and his colleagues at the University of Hawaii. The original system used
for ground based radio broadcasting, but the system has been implemented in satellite
communication systems.
A shared communication system like ALOHA requires a method of handling
collisions that occur when two or more systems attempt to transmit on the channel at
the same time. In the ALOHA system, a node transmits whenever data is available to
send. If another node transmits at the same time, a collision occurs, and the frames
that were transmitted are lost. However, a node can listen to broadcasts on the
medium, even its own, and determine whether the frames were transmitted.
Aloha means "Hello". Aloha is a multiple access protocol at the datalink layer and
proposes how multiple terminals access the medium without interference or collision.
In 1972 Roberts developed a protocol that would increase the capacity of aloha two
fold. The Slotted Aloha protocol involves dividing the time interval into discrete slots
and each slot interval corresponds to the time period of one frame. This method
requires synchronization between the sending nodes to prevent collisions.

Pure ALOHA
In pure ALOHA, the stations transmit frames whenever they have data to send.
• When two or more stations transmit simultaneously, there is collision and the
frames are destroyed.
If acknowledgement is not received within specified time, the station assumes that the
frame (or acknowledgement) has been destroyed.
 If the frame is destroyed because of collision the station waits for a random amount of
time and sends it again. This waiting time must be random otherwise same frames
will collide again and again.
 Therefore pure ALOHA dictates that when time-out period passes, each station must
wait for a random amount of time before resending its frame. This randomness will
help avoid more collisions.
Figure shows an example of frame collisions in pure ALOHA.
• In fig there are four stations that .contended with one another for access to shared
channel. All these stations are transmitting frames. Some of these frames collide
because multiple frames are in contention for the shared channel. Only two frames,
frame 1.1 and frame 2.2 survive. All other frames are destroyed.
• Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the same time, there will be a
collision and both will be damaged. If first bit of a new frame overlaps with just the
last bit of a frame almost finished, both frames will be totally destroyed and both will
have to be retransmitted.

Slotted ALOHA
Slotted ALOHA was invented to improve the efficiency of pure ALOHA as chances
of collision in pure ALOHA are very high
 In slotted ALOHA, the time of the shared channel is divided into discrete intervals
called slots.
The stations can send a frame only at the beginning of the slot and only one frame is
sent in each slot.
• In slotted ALOHA, if any station is not able to place the frame onto the channel at
the beginning of the slot i.e. it misses the time slot then the station has to wait until
the beginning of the next time slot.
• In slotted ALOHA, there is still a possibility of collision if two stations try to send
at the beginning of the same time slot as shown in fig.
• Slotted ALOHA still has an edge over pure ALOHA as chances of collision are
reduced to one-half.
CSMA
This method was developed to decrease the chances of collisions when two or more
stations start sending their signals over the datalink layer. Carrier Sense multiple
access requires that each station first check the state of the medium before sending.
Vulnerable Time –
Vulnerable time = Propagation time (Tp)
The persistence methods can be applied to help the station take action when the
channel is busy/idle.
1. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) –In this
method, a station monitors the medium after it sends a frame to see if the transmission
was successful.If succcessful, the station is finished, if not, the frame is sent again.
2.Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) –The

basic idea behind CSMA/CA is that the station should be able to receive while
transmitting to detect a collision from different stations. In wired networks, if a
collision has occurred then the energy of received signal almost doubles and the
station can sense the possibility of collision. In case of wireless networks, most of the
energy is used for transmission and the energy of received signal increases by only 5-
10% if collision occurs. It can’t be used by station to sense collision.
Therefore CSMA/CA has been specially designed for wireless networks.
1 Write down the difference in working principle in collision detection and collision
avoidance?
Ans:

2 Difference between Pure-ALOHA and Slotted-ALOHA.

Ans:
DAY 17
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 CSMA/CD
 CSMA/CA
Prerequisites:
 Multiple access protocol
 ALOHA
Objectives: Multiple access protocol is used to coordinate access to the link. Nodes can
regulate their transmission onto the shared broadcast channel by using Multiple access
protocol. It is used both wired and wireless local area Text network and satellite network.

Notes:
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection) is a media-access
control method widely used in Ethernet technology/LANs.
Consider a scenario where there are ‘n’ stations on a link and all are waiting to
transfer data through that channel. In this case all ‘n’ stations would want to access
the link/channel to transfer their own data.Problem arises when more than one station
transmits the data at the moment. In this case, there will be collisions in the data from
different stations.
CSMA/CD is one such technique where different stations that follow this protocol
agree on some terms and collision detection measures for effective transmission. This
protocol decides which station will transmit when so that data reaches the destination
without corruption.
How CSMA/CD works?
1. Step 1: Check if the sender is ready for transmitting data packets.
2. Step 2: Check if the transmission link is idle?
Sender has to keep on checking if the transmission link/medium is idle. For this it
continously senses transmissions from other nodes. Sender sends dummy data on the
link.If it does not receive any collision signal, this means the link is idle at the
moment.If it senses that the carrier is free and there are no collisions, it sends the data.
Otherwise it refrains from sending data.
3. Step 3: Transmit the data & check for collisions.
Sender transmits its data on the link. CSMA/CD does not use ‘acknowledgement’
system. It checks for the successful and unsuccessful transmissions through collision
signals. During transmission, if collision signal is received by the node, transmission
is stopped. The station then transmits a jam signal onto the link and waits for random
time interval before it resends the frame. After some random time, it again attempts to
transfer the data and repeats above process.
4. Step 4: If no collision was detected in propagation, the sender completes its frame
transmission and resets the counters.
CSMA/CA
The basic idea behind CSMA/CA is that the station should be able to receive while
transmitting to detect a collision from different stations. In wired networks, if a
collision has occurred then the energy of received signal almost doubles and the
station can sense the possibility of collision. In case of wireless networks, most of the

energy is used for transmission and the energy of received signal increases by only 5-
10% if collision occurs. It can’t be used by station to sense collision.
Therefore CSMA/CA has been specially designed for wireless networks.
These are three type of strategies:
1.InterFrame Space (IFS) – When a station finds the channel busy, it waits for a
period of time called IFS time. IFS can also be used to define the priority of a station
or a frame. Higher the IFS lower is the priority.
2.Contention Window – It is the amount of time divided into slots.A station which is
ready to send frames chooses random number of slots as wait time.
3.Acknowledgements – The positive acknowledgements and time-out timer can help
guarantee a successful transmission of the frame.
1 Draw the steps of CSMA/CA.

Ans:
DAY 18
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: token passing, reservation, polling.

Topics Covered:
 Token Passing
 Reservation
 Polling

Prerequisites:
 Collision detection and control
Objectives: In controlled access, the stations seek information from one another to find
which station has the right to send. It allows only one node to send at a time, to avoid
collision of messages on shared medium.
Notes:
Token Passing
In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to each other in form of
ring and access of stations is governed by tokens.
 A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulate from one station to
the next in the some predefined order.
 In Token ring, token is passed from one station to another adjacent station in the ring
whereas in case of Token bus, each station
uses the bus to send the token to the next station in some predefined order.
 In both cases, token represents permission to send. If a station has a frame queued for
transmission when it receives the token, it can send that frame before it passes the
token to the next station. If it has no queued frame, it passes the tok
 ken simply.
 After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations (including itself) to
send the token to their neighbors and the other N – 1 stations to send a frame, if they
have one.
 There exists problems like duplication of token or token is lost or insertion of new
station, removal of a station, which need be tackled for correct and reliable operation
of this scheme.

1. Performance
Performance of token ring can be concluded by 2 parameters:-
2. Delay, which is a measure of time between when a packet is ready and when it is
delivered.So, the average time (delay) required to send a token to the next station =
a/N.
3. Throughput, which is a measure of the successful traffic.
Throughput, S = 1/(1 + a/N) for a<1
and
S = 1/{a(1 + 1/N)} for a>1.
where N = number of stations
a = Tp/Tt
Reservation
In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending data.
The time line has two kinds of periods:
 Reservation interval of fixed time length
 Data transmission period of variable frames.
 If there are M stations, the reservation interval is divided into M slots, and each station
has one slot.
 Suppose if station 1 has a frame to send, it transmits 1 bit during the slot 1. No other
station is allowed to transmit during this slot.
 In general, i th station may announce that it has a frame to send by inserting a 1 bit into
i th slot. After all N slots have been checked, each station knows which stations wish to
transmit.
 The stations which have reserved their slots transfer their frames in that order.
 After data transmission period, next reservation interval begins.
 Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any collisions.
The following figure shows a situation with five stations and a five slot reservation frame. In
the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have made reservations. In the second interval, only
station 1 has made a reservation.

Polling
Polling process is similar to the roll-call performed in class. Just like the teacher, a
controller sends a message to each node in turn.
 In this, one acts as a primary station(controller) and the others are secondary stations.
All data exchanges must be made through the controller.
 The message sent by the controller contains the address of the node being selected for
granting access.
 Although all nodes receive the message but the addressed one responds to it and sends
data, if any. If there is no data, usually a “poll reject”(NAK) message is sent back.
 Problems include high overhead of the polling messages and high dependence on the
reliability of the controller.
Efficiency
Let Tpoll be the time for polling and Tt be the time required for transmission of data.
Then,
Efficiency = Tt/(Tt + Tpoll)

1 Discuss the types of Token Passing?

Ans:
2 Describe the concept of Primary and Secondary stations in Polling.

Ans:
3 Describe the working of Reservation.

Ans:

DAY 19
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Ethernet, Fast Ethernet.
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Traditional Ethernet,
 Fast Ethernet(In Brief)
Prerequisites:
 collision control and detection
 Ethernet
Objectives: Ethernet is the traditional technology for connecting wired local area networks
(LANs), enabling devices to communicate with each other via a protocol -- a set of rules or
common network language.
Notes:
Traditional Ethernet
Traditional Ethernet supports data transfers at a rate of 10 megabits per second (Mbps).
As the performance needs of networks increased over time, the industry created
additional Ethernet specifications for Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet. Fast Ethernet
extends traditional Ethernet performance up to 100 Mbps and Gigabit Ethernet up to
1000 Mbps speeds. Although products aren't yet available to the average consumer, 10
Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 Mbps) also exist and are used on some business networks and
on Internet2.
Ethernet cables likewise are manufactured to any of several standard
specifications. The most popular Ethernet cable in current use, Category 5 or CAT5
cable, supports both traditional and Fast Ethernet. The Category 5e (CAT5e)
and CAT6 cables support Gigabit Ethernet.
To connect Ethernet cables to a computer (or other network devices), a person
plugs a cable directly into the device's Ethernet port. Some devices without Ethernet
supports can also support Ethernet connections via dongles such as USB-to-
Ethernet adapters. Ethernet cables utilize connectors that look much like the RJ-45
connector used with traditional telephones.
Fast Ethernet(In Brief)
In the mid-1990s, Fast Ethernet technology matured and met its design goals of a)
increasing the performance of traditional Ethernet while b) avoiding the need to
completely re-cable existing Ethernet networks. Fast Ethernet comes in two major
varieties:
 100Base-T (using unshielded twisted pair cable)

 100Base-FX (using fiber optic cable)
By far the most popular of these is 100Base-T, a standard that includes 100Base-TX
(Category 5 UTP), 100Base-T2 (Category 3 or better UTP), and 100Base-T4
(100Base-T2 cabling modified to include two additional wire pairs).
1 Describe diffrent types of ethernet technologies.

Ans:
DAY 20
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Internetworking & Devices, Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges,
Switches, Router, Gateway
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Internetworking & Devices
 Repeaters
 Hubs
 Bridges
 Switches
 Router
 Gateway
Prerequisites:
 Network layers
 Networking devices
 Protocols
Objectives: An internetworking device is a widely-used term for any hardware within

networks that connect different network resources. Key devices that comprise a network are
routers, bridges, repeaters and gateways.
Notes:
Internetworking & Devices

Networking Devices and Internetworking Devices used in various fields of our
today internet world.
Repeaters
A repeater is a network device that retransmits a received signal with more power and
to an extended geographical or topological network boundary than what would be
capable with the original signal.
A repeater is implemented in computer networks to expand the coverage area of the
network, repropagate a weak or broken signal and or service remote nodes. Repeaters
amplify the received/input signal to a higher frequency domain so that it is reusable,
scalable and available.
Repeaters were introduced in wired data communication networks due to the
limitation of a signal in propagating over a longer distance and now are a common

installation in wireless networks for expanding cell size.

Repeaters are also known as signal boosters.
Hubs
A hub, in the context of networking, is a hardware device that relays communication
data. A hub sends data packets (frames) to all devices on a network, regardless of any
MAC addresses contained in the data packet.
Bridges
A bridge is a type of computer network device that provides interconnection with
other bridge networksthat use the same protocol. Bridge devices work at the data
link layer of the Open System Interconnect (OSI) model, connecting two
different networkstogether and providing communication between them.
Switches
In a network, a switch is a device that channels incoming data from any of multiple
input ports to the specific output port that will take it toward its intended destination.
Router
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer
networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. Data sent
through the internet, such as a web page or email, is in the form of data packets
Gateway
A gateway is a data communication device that provides a remote network with
connectivity to a host network.
A gateway device provides communication to a remote network or an autonomous
system that is out of bounds for the host network nodes. Gateways serve as the entry
and exit point of a network; all data routed inward or outward must first pass through
and communicate with the gateway in order to use routing paths. Generally, a router
is configured to work as a gateway device in computer networks.

1
How is router and switch different from each other?
Ans:
2
How does gateway act as a firewall?
Ans:
DAY 21
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Addressing, Ip addressing, classful and classless

addressing, CIDR.
Topics Covered:
 Addressing :
 IP Addressing
 Classless, Classfull
 CIDR
Prerequisites:
 Ethernet
 Internetworking devices
Objectives: An IP Address of a system is an address which is particular to that system. IP

Addresses are used to distinguish each system from the other over a network to make sure
that each system has a unique address. Generally, as far as the structure of an IP Address is
concerned, it is made up 32 bits comprising of 4 sets of 8 bits. Each set comprises of 1s and
0s in binary form and is collectively given a number from 0 to 255 based on the orientation of
the bits in the set. This high amount of variation in the IP Address is what allows it to make
every system on a network unique.
Notes:
Addressing :
IP Addressing
IP address is an address having information about how to reach a specific host,
especially outside the LAN. An IP address is a 32 bit unique address having an
address space of 232.
Generally, there are two notations in which IP address is written, dotted decimal
notation and hexadecimal notation.

Classful Addressing
In the classful addressing system all the IP addresses that are available are divided
into the five classes A,B,C,D and E, in which class A,B and C address are frequently
used because class D is for Multicast and is rarely used and class E is reserved and is
not currently used. Each of the IP address belongs to a particular class that's why
they are classful addresses. Earlier this addressing system did not have any name,
but when classless addressing system came into existence then it is named as
Classful addressing system. The main disadvantage of classful addressing is that it
limited the flexibility and number of addresses that can be assigned to any device.
One of the major disadvantage of classful addressing is that it does not send subnet
information but it will send the complete network address. The router will supply its
own subnet mask based on its locally configured subnets. As long as you have the
same subnet mask and the network is contiguous, you can use subnets of a classful
network address.
Classful addressing definition :
Class A : 0.0.0.0 – 127.0.0.0

Class B : 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.0.0
Class C : 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.0
Class D : 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255
Class E : 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255
Classless Addressing and CIDR

Classless addressing system is also known as CIDR(Classless Inter-Domain
Routing).Classless addressing is a way to allocate and specify the Internet addresses
used in inter-domain routing more flexibly than with the original system of Internet
Protocol (IP) address classes. What happened in classful addressing is that if any
company needs more than 254 host machines but far fewer than the 65,533 host
addresses then the only option for the company is to take the class B address. Now
suppose company needs only 1000 IP addresses for its host computers then in this
(65533-1000=64533) IP addresses get wasted. For this reason, the Internet was, until
the arrival of CIDR, running out of address space much more quickly than
necessary. CIDR effectively solved the problem by providing a new and more
flexible way to specify network addresses in routers. A CIDR network address looks
like this :
192.30.260.00/15

1
Discuss about the address resolution technique.
Ans:
2
How address resolution technique is working to resolute MAC address when IP address is
known?
Ans:
DAY 22
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Subnetting, supernetting, ip address dividing
problems.

Topics Covered:
 Subnetting
 Supernetting
 Problems On IP Address Dividing
Prerequisites:
 Internetworking devices
 IP addressing
Objectives: There comes a time when a network becomes too big and performance begins to
suffer as a result of too much traffic. When that happens, one of the ways that you can solve
the problem is by breaking the network into smaller pieces. There are several techniques for
splitting a network, but one of the most effective techniques is called subnetting. A larger and
more complicated network can block other routers from making topological changes, so a
supernet improves convergence speed and enables a better and more stable environment.
Notes:
Subnetting
Subnetting is the process of stealing bits from the HOST part of an IP address in
order to divide the larger network into smaller sub-networks called subnets. After
subnetting, we end up with NETWORK SUBNET HOST fields. We always reserve
an IP address to identify the subnet and another one to identify the broadcast address
within the subnet. In the following sections you will find out how all this is possible.
Purpose of Subnetting :
Conservation of IP addresses: Imagine having a network of 20 hosts. Using a
Class C network will waste a lot of IP addresses (254-20=234). Breaking up large
networks into smaller parts would be more efficient and would conserve a great
amount of addresses.

Reduced network traffic: The smaller networks created the smaller broadcast
domains are formed hence less broadcast traffic on network boundaries.
Simplification: Breaking large networks into smaller ones could simplify

fault troubleshooting by isolating network problems down to their specific existence.
Example :We will use a Class C address which takes 5 bits from the Host
subnetting and leaves 3 bits for defining hosts as shown in figure 1 below. Having 5
bits available for defining subnets means that we can have up to 32 (2^5) different
subnets.
It should be noted that in the past using subnet zero (00000---) and all-ones subnet
(11111---) was not allowed. This is not true nowadays. Since Cisco IOS Software
Release 12.0 the entire address space including all possible subnets is explicitly
allowed.
Let's use IP address 192.168.10.44 with subnet mask 255.255.255.248 or /29.
Supernetting
Supernetting is the opposite of Subnetting. In subnetting, a single big network is
divided into multiple smaller subnetworks. In Supernetting, multiple networks are
combined into a bigger network termed as a Supernetwork or Supernet.
Supernetting is mainly used in Route Summarization, where routes to multiple
networks with similar network prefixes are combined into a single routing entry, with
the routing entry pointing to a Super network, encompassing all the networks. This in
turn significantly reduces the size of routing tables and also the size of routing updates
exchanged by routing protocols.
More specifically,
 When multiple networks are combined to form a bigger network, it is termed as

super-netting
 Super netting is used in route aggregation to reduce the size of routing tables and
routing table updates
There are some points which should be kept in mind while supernetting:
1. All the IP address should be contiguous.
2. Size of all the small networks should be equal and must be in form of 2n.
3. First IP address should be exactly divisible by whole size of supernet.
1 Difference between subnetting and supernetting.

Ans:
2
When to use supernetting?
Ans:
DAY 23
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Routing, Static routing, dynamic routing.
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Routing :
 Techniques, Static Vs. Dynamic Routing
Prerequisites:
 IP addressing
 Subnetting
Objectives: IP Routing is an umbrella term for the set of protocols that determine the path
that data follows in order to travel across multiple networks from its source to its destination.
Data is routed from its source to its destination through a series of routers, and across
multiple networks. The IP Routing protocols enable routers to build up a forwarding table
that correlates final destinations with next hop addresses.
Notes:
Routing
IP routing is the process of sending packets from a host on one network to another
host on a different remote network. This process is usually done by routers. Routers
examine the destination IP address of a packet , determine the next-hop address, and
forward the packet. Routers use routing tables to determine a next hop address to
which the packet should be forwarded.
Techniques, Static Vs. Dynamic Routing :

Routing is a process which is performed by layer 3 (or network layer) devices in
order to deliver the packet by choosing an optimal path from one network to another.
There are 3 types of routing:
1. Static routing –
Static routing is a process in which we have to manually add routes in routing table.
Advantages –
 No routing overhead for router CPU which means a cheaper router can be used to do
routing.
 It adds security because only administrator can allow routing to particular networks
only.
 No bandwidth usage between routers.
Disadvantage –
 For a large network, it is a hectic task for administrator to manually add each route for
the network in the routing table on each router.
 The administrator should have good knowledge of the topology. If a new
administrator comes, then he has to manually add each route so he should have very
good knowledge of the routes of the topology.
3.Default Routing
This is the method where the router is configured to send all packets towards a single
router (next hop). It doesn’t matter to which network the packet belongs, it is
forwarded out to router which is configured for default routing. It is generally used
with stub routers. A stub router is a router which has only one route to reach all other
networks.
4.Dynamic Routing –
Dynamic routing makes automatic adjustment of the routes according to the current
state of the route in the routing table. Dynamic routing uses protocols to discover
network destinations and the routes to reach it. RIP and OSPF are the best examples
of dynamic routing protocol. Automatic adjustment will be made to reach the network
destination if one route goes down.
A dynamic protocol have following features:
The routers should have the same dynamic protocol running in order to exchange
routes.
1. When a router finds a change in the topology then router advertises it to all other
routers.
Advantages –
 Easy to configure.
 More effective at selecting the best route to a destination remote network and also for
discovering remote network.
Disadvantage –

 Consumes more bandwidth for communicating with other neighbors.

 Less secure than static routing.
1 Difference between static and dynamic routing.
Ans:
DAY 24
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Types of routing
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Routing :
 Techniques, Static Vs. Dynamic Routing
Prerequisites:
 Ip addressing
 Subnetting

Objectives: IP Routing is an umbrella term for the set of protocols that determine the path
that data follows in order to travel across multiple networks from its source to its destination.
Data is routed from its source to its destination through a series of routers, and across
multiple networks. The IP Routing protocols enable routers to build up a forwarding table
that correlates final destinations with next hop addresses.
Notes:
 Routing :
IP routing is the process of sending packets from a host on one network to another
host on a different remote network. This process is usually done by routers. Routers
examine the destination IP address of a packet , determine the next-hop address, and
forward the packet. Routers use routing tables to determine a next hop address to
which the packet should be forwarded.
 Techniques, Static Vs. Dynamic Routing :

Routing is a process which is performed by layer 3 (or network layer) devices in
order to deliver the packet by choosing an optimal path from one network to another.
There are 3 types of routing:
1. Static routing –
Static routing is a process in which we have to manually add routes in routing table.
Advantages –
 No routing overhead for router CPU which means a cheaper router can be used to do
routing.
 It adds security because only administrator can allow routing to particular networks
only.
 No bandwidth usage between routers.
Disadvantage –
 For a large network, it is a hectic task for administrator to manually add each route for
the network in the routing table on each router.
 The administrator should have good knowledge of the topology. If a new
administrator comes, then he has to manually add each route so he should have very

good knowledge of the routes of the topology.
3.Default Routing –
This is the method where the router is configured to send all packets towards a single
router (next hop). It doesn’t matter to which network the packet belongs, it is
forwarded out to router which is configured for default routing. It is generally used
with stub routers. A stub router is a router which has only one route to reach all other
networks.
4.Dynamic Routing –
Dynamic routing makes automatic adjustment of the routes according to the current
state of the route in the routing table. Dynamic routing uses protocols to discover
network destinations and the routes to reach it. RIP and OSPF are the best examples
of dynamic routing protocol. Automatic adjustment will be made to reach the network
destination if one route goes down.
A dynamic protocol have following features:
The routers should have the same dynamic protocol running in order to exchange
routes.
2. When a router finds a change in the topology then router advertises it to all other
routers.
Advantages –
 Easy to configure.
 More effective at selecting the best route to a destination remote network and also for
discovering remote network.
Disadvantage –
 Consumes more bandwidth for communicating with other neighbors.
 Less secure than static routing.

1 Describe Static and Dynamic routing.
Ans:
DAY 25
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: RIP,OSPF,BGP.
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Unicast Routing Protocols:
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
Prerequisite:
 IP routing
 IP addressing
Objectives: A routing protocol uses software and routing algorithms to determine optimal
network data transfer and communication paths between network nodes. Routing protocols
facilitate router communication and overall network topology understanding.
A routing protocol is also known as a routing policy.

Notes:
Unicast Routing Protocols

Unicast means the transmission from a single sender to a single receiver. It is a point
to point communication between sender and receiver. There are various unicast
protocols such as TCP, HTTP, etc.
1.TCP is the most commonly used unicast protocol. It is a connection oriented
protocol that relay on acknowledgement from the receiver side.
2.HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is an object oriented protocol for
communication.
There are three major protocols for unicast routing:

1.Distance Vector Routing
2.Link State Routing
3.Path-Vector Routing
RIP
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing protocol which uses hop
count as a routing metric to find the best path between the source and the destination
network. It is a distance vector routing protocol which has AD value 120 and works
on the application layer of OSI model. RIP uses port number 520.
Hop Count :
Hop count is the number of routers occurring in between the source and destination
network. The path with the lowest hop count is considered as the best route to reach a
network and therefore placed in the routing table. RIP prevents routing loops by
limiting the number of hopes allowed in a path from source and destination. The
maximum hop count allowed for RIP is 15 and hop count of 16 is considered as
network unreachable.
Features of RIP :
Updates of the network are exchanged periodically.
1. Updates (routing information) are always broadcast.
2. Full routing tables are sent in updates.
3. Routers always trust on routing information received from neighbor routers. This is
also known as Routing on rumours.
RIP versions :
There are three vesions of routing information protocol – RIP Version1, RIP

Version2 and RIPng.
OSPF
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol which is used to find
the best path between the source and the destination router using its own Shortest
Path First). OSPF is developed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as one of
the Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP), i.e, the protocol which aims at moving the
packet within a large autonomous system or routing domain. It is a network layer
protocol which works on the protocol number 89 and uses AD value 110. OSPF uses
multicast address 224.0.0.5 for normal communication and 224.0.0.6 for update to
designated router(DR)/Backup Designated Router (BDR).
BGP
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is protocol that manages how packets are routed
across the internet through the exchange of routing and reachability information
between edge routers. BGP directs packets between autonomous systems (AS) --
networks managed by a single enterprise or service provider. Traffic that is routed
within a single network AS is referred to as internal BGP, or iBGP. More often, BGP
is used to connect one AS to other autonomous systems, and it is then referred to as
an external BGP, or eBGP.
1 Describe the working of Border Gateway Protocol.
Ans:

DAY 26
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: RIP,OSPF,BGP
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Unicast Routing Protocols:
 RIP
 OSPF
 BGP
Prerequisites:
 IP routing
 IP addressing
Notes:
Unicast Routing Protocols

Unicast means the transmission from a single sender to a single receiver. It is a point
to point communication between sender and receiver. There are various unicast
protocols such as TCP, HTTP, etc.
1.TCP is the most commonly used unicast protocol. It is a connection oriented
protocol that relay on acknowledgement from the receiver side.
2.HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is an object oriented protocol for
communication.
There are three major protocols for unicast routing:

1.Distance Vector Routing
2.Link State Routing

3.Path-Vector Routing
RIP
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing protocol which uses hop
count as a routing metric to find the best path between the source and the destination
network. It is a distance vector routing protocol which has AD value 120 and works
on the application layer of OSI model. RIP uses port number 520.
Hop Count :
Hop count is the number of routers occurring in between the source and destination
network. The path with the lowest hop count is considered as the best route to reach a
network and therefore placed in the routing table. RIP prevents routing loops by
limiting the number of hopes allowed in a path from source and destination. The
maximum hop count allowed for RIP is 15 and hop count of 16 is considered as
network unreachable.
Features of RIP :
Updates of the network are exchanged periodically.
1. Updates (routing information) are always broadcast.
2. Full routing tables are sent in updates.
3. Routers always trust on routing information received from neighbor routers. This is
also known as Routing on rumours.
RIP versions :
There are three vesions of routing information protocol – RIP Version1, RIP
Version2 and RIPng.
OSPF
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state routing protocol which is used to find
the best path between the source and the destination router using its own Shortest
Path First). OSPF is developed by Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as one of
the Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP), i.e, the protocol which aims at moving the
packet within a large autonomous system or routing domain. It is a network layer
protocol which works on the protocol number 89 and uses AD value 110. OSPF uses
multicast address 224.0.0.5 for normal communication and 224.0.0.6 for update to
designated router(DR)/Backup Designated Router (BDR).
BGP
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is protocol that manages how packets are routed
across the internet through the exchange of routing and reachability information

between edge routers. BGP directs packets between autonomous systems (AS) --
networks managed by a single enterprise or service provider. Traffic that is routed
within a single network AS is referred to as internal BGP, or iBGP. More often, BGP
is used to connect one AS to other autonomous systems, and it is then referred to as
an external BGP, or eBGP.
1
Write the difference between OSPF and BGP?
Ans:
DAY 27
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: ARP, IP, ICMP.
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Other Protocols:
 ARP
 IP
 ICMP

Prerequisites:
 IP routing
 Static and dynamic routing
Notes:
ARP
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol for mapping an Internet Protocol address
(IP address) to a physical machine address that is recognized in the local network. For
example, in IP Version 4, the most common level of IP in use today, an address is 32 bits
long. In an Ethernetlocal area network, however, addresses for attached devices are 48 bits
long. (The physical machine address is also known as a Media Access Control or MAC
address.) A table, usually called the ARP cache, is used to maintain a correlation between
each MAC address and its corresponding IP address. ARP provides the protocol rules for
making this correlation and providing address conversion in both directions.
IP
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one
computer to another on the Internet. Each computer (known as a host) on the Internet has at
least one IP address that uniquely identifies it from all other computers on the Internet.
ICMP
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is an error-reporting protocol network devices
like routers use to generate error messages to the source IP address when network problems
prevent delivery of IP packets. ICMP creates and sends messages to the source IP address
indicating that a gateway to the Internet that a router, service or host cannot be reached for
packet delivery. Any IP network device has the capability to send, receive or process ICMP
messages.

1 What address resolution technique is used to resolute MAC address when IP

address is known?
Ans:
2 Which ICMP message does PING use?
Ans:
DAY 28
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: IPv6
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 IPV6

Prerequisites:
 IPV4
 IP addressing
Objectives: IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is a set of specifications from the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) that's essentially an upgrade of IP version 4 (IPv4). The
basics of IPv6 are similar to those of IPv4 -- devices can use IPv6 as source and destination
addresses to pass packets over a network, and tools like ping work for network testing as they
do in IPv4, with some slight variations.
Notes:
IPV6
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the latest revision of the Internet Protocol (IP)
and the first version of the protocol to be widely deployed. IPv6 was developed by the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to deal with the long-anticipated problem of
IPv4 address exhaustion. This tutorial will help you in understanding IPv6 and its
associated terminologies along with appropriate references and examples.
Features:
 Larger Address Space

In contrast to IPv4, IPv6 uses 4 times more bits to address a device on the Internet.
This much of extra bits can provide approximately 3.4×1038 different combinations
of addresses. This address can accumulate the aggressive requirement of address
allotment for almost everything in this world. According to an estimate, 1564
addresses can be allocated to every square meter of this earth.
 Simplified Header
IPv6’s header has been simplified by moving all unnecessary information and

options (which are present in IPv4 header) to the end of the IPv6 header. IPv6 header
is only twice as bigger than IPv4 provided the fact that IPv6 address is four times
longer.
 End-to-end Connectivity
Every system now has unique IP address and can traverse through the Internet
without using NAT or other translating components. After IPv6 is fully
implemented, every host can directly reach other hosts on the Internet, with some
limitations involved like Firewall, organization policies, etc.
 Auto-configuration
IPv6 supports both stateful and stateless auto configuration mode of its host devices.
This way, absence of a DHCP server does not put a halt on inter segment
communication.
 Faster Forwarding/Routing
Simplified header puts all unnecessary information at the end of the header. The
information contained in the first part of the header is adequate for a Router to take
routing decisions, thus making routing decision as quickly as looking at the
mandatory header.
 IPSec
Initially it was decided that IPv6 must have IPSec security, making it more secure
than IPv4. This feature has now been made optional.
 No Broadcast
Though Ethernet/Token Ring are considered as broadcast network because they

support Broadcasting, IPv6 does not have any broadcast support any more. It uses
multicast to communicate with multiple hosts.
 Anycast Support
This is another characteristic of IPv6. IPv6 has introduced Anycast mode of packet
routing. In this mode, multiple interfaces over the Internet are assigned same
Anycast IP address. Routers, while routing, send the packet to the nearest
destination.
 Mobility
IPv6 was designed keeping mobility in mind. This feature enables hosts (such as
mobile phone) to roam around in different geographical area and remain connected
with the same IP address. The mobility feature of IPv6 takes advantage of auto IP
configuration and Extension headers.
 Enhanced Priority Support
IPv4 used 6 bits DSCP (Differential Service Code Point) and 2 bits ECN (Explicit
Congestion Notification) to provide Quality of Service but it could only be used if
the end-to-end devices support it, that is, the source and destination device and
underlying network must support it.
In IPv6, Traffic class and Flow label are used to tell the underlying routers how to
efficiently process the packet and route it.
 Smooth Transition
Large IP address scheme in IPv6 enables to allocate devices with globally unique IP
addresses. This mechanism saves IP addresses and NAT is not required. So devices
can send/receive data among each other, for example, VoIP and/or any streaming
media can be used much efficiently.
Addressing Structure:
An IPv6 address is made of 128 bits divided into eight 16-bits blocks. Each block is
then converted into 4-digit Hexadecimal numbers separated by colon symbols.
For example, given below is a 128 bit IPv6 address represented in binary format and

divided into eight 16-bits blocks:

0010000000000001 0000000000000000 0011001000111000 1101111111100001
0000000001100011 0000000000000000 0000000000000000 1111111011111011
Each block is then converted into Hexadecimal and separated by ‘:’ symbol:
2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB
Even after converting into Hexadecimal format, IPv6 address remains long. IPv6
provides some rules to shorten the address. The rules are as follows:
Rule.1: Discard leading Zero(es):
In Block 5, 0063, the leading two 0s can be omitted, such as (5th block):
2001:0000:3238:DFE1:63:0000:0000:FEFB
Rule.2: If two of more blocks contain consecutive zeroes, omit them all and replace
with double colon sign ::, such as (6th and 7th block):
2001:0000:3238:DFE1:63::FEFB
Consecutive blocks of zeroes can be replaced only once by :: so if there are still
blocks of zeroes in the address, they can be shrunk down to a single zero, such as
(2nd block):
2001:0:3238:DFE1:63::FEFB
1 How is security better in IPV6 compared to IPV4?

Ans:

2 Is there any option to add additional protocols in IPV6?

Ans:
DAY 29
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: process to process delivery, UDP.
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Process To Process Delivery:
 UDP
Prerequisites:
 IP routing
 ARP, RARP
Objectives: To complete the delivery, we need a mechanism to deliver data from one of
these processes running on the source host to the corresponding process running on the
destination host. The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery-the
delivery of a packet, part of a message, from one process to another.

Notes:
Process To Process Delivery

The transport layer is responsible for process-to process delivery—the delivery of a
packet, packet, part of a message, from one process process to r another. Two
processes communicate in a client/server relationship.
UDP
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a communication protocol used primarily for
establishing low-latency and loss-tolerating connections between applications on the
internet.
UDP provides two services not provided by the IP layer. It provides port
numbers to help distinguish different user requests and, optionally,
a checksumcapability to verify that the data arrived intact.
Applications of UDP:UDP is an ideal protocol for network applications in which

perceived latency is critical, such as in gaming and voice and video communications,
which can suffer some data loss without adversely affecting perceived quality. In
some cases, forward error correction techniques are used to improve audio and video
quality in spite of some loss.UDP can also be used in applications that require lossless
data transmission when the application is configured to manage the process of
retransmitting lost packets and correctly arranging received packets. This approach
can help to improve the data transfer rate of large files compared to TCP.
In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model, UDP, like TCP,
is in Layer 4, the transport layer. UDP works in conjunction with higher level
protocols to help manage data transmission services including Trivial File Transfer
Protocol (TFTP), Real Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP), Simple Network Protocol
(SNP) and domain name system (DNS) lookups.
User datagram protocol features:The user datagram protocol has attributes that
make it advantageous for use with applications that can tolerate lost data.
 It allows packets to be dropped and received in a different order than they were
transmitted, making it suitable for real-time applications where latency might be a

concern.
 It can be used for transaction-based protocols, such as DNS or Network Time

Protocol.
 It can be used where a large number of clients are connected and where real-time
error correction isn't necessary, such as gaming, voice or video conferencing, and
streaming media.
UDP header composition:
The User Datagram Protocol header has four fields, each of which is 2 bytes. They
are:
 source port number, which is the number of the sender;
 destination port number, the port the datagram is addressed to;
 length, the length in bytes of the UDP header and any encapsulated data; and
 checksum, which is used in error checking. Its use is required in IPv6 and optional in
IPv4.

1 What is 'connection oriented and connection less service?

Ans:
2 Write down the working principals of UDP.

Ans:
DAY 30
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: TCP
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 TCP
Prerequisites:
 Process to process delivery
 Internet protocols

Objectives: To complete the delivery, we need a mechanism to deliver data from one of
these processes running on the source host to the corresponding process running on the
destination host. The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery-the
delivery of a packet, part of a message, from one process to another.
Notes:
TCP
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a standard that defines how to establish and
maintain a network conversation via which application programs can exchange data.
TCP works with the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines how computers
send packets of data to each other. Together, TCP and IP are the basic rules defining
the Internet. TCP is defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in the
Request for Comment (RFC) standards document number 793.
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol, which means a connection is established and

maintained until the application programs at each end have finished
exchanging messages. It determines how to break application data into packets
that networks can deliver, sends packets to and accepts packets from the network
layer, manages flow control, and—because it is meant to provide error-free data
transmission—handles retransmission of dropped or garbled packets as well as
acknowledgement of all packets that arrive. In the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) communication model, TCP covers parts of Layer 4,
the Transport Layer, and parts of Layer 5, the Session Layer.
For example, when a Web server sends an HTMLfile to a client, it uses

the HTTP protocol to do so. The HTTP program layer asks the TCP layer to set up
the connection and send the file. The TCP stack divides the file into packets,
numbers them and then forwards them individually to the IP layer for delivery.
Although each packet in the transmission will have the same source and
destination IP addresses, packets may be sent along multiple routes. The TCP
program layer in the client computer waits until all of the packets have arrived, then
acknowledges those it receives and asks for the retransmission on any it does not
(based on missing packet numbers), then assembles them into a file and delivers the
file to the receiving application.
Retransmissions and the need to reorder packets after they arrive can
introduce latency in a TCP stream. Highly time-sensitive applications like voice over
IP (VoIP) and streaming video generally rely on a transport like User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) that reduces latency and jitter (variation in latency) by not worrying
about reordering packets or getting missing data retransmitted.
1 Write down the working principals of UDP.

Ans:
2 Suppose that the maximum transmit window size for a TCP connection is 12000
bytes. Each packet consists of 2000 bytes. At some point of time, the connection is in
slow-start phase with a current transmit window of 4000 bytes. Subsequently, the
transmitter receives two acknowledgements. Assume that no packets are lost and
there are no time-outs. What is the maximum possible value of the current transmit
window?
Ans:

DAY 31
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: congestion control, open loop, closed loop choke
packets.

Topics Covered:
 Congestion Control:
 Open Loop
 Closed Loop Choke Packets
Prerequisites:
 TCP,UDP
Objectives: Congestion control is a network layer issue, and is thus concerned with what
happens when there is more data in the network than can be sent with reasonable packet
delays, no lost packets, etc. Flow control is a local, congestion control is global.
Notes:
Congestion Control:
A state occurring in network layer when the message traffic is so heavy that it slows
down network response time.
Effects of Congestion:
1. As delay increases, performance decreases.
2. If delay increases, retransmission occurs, making situation worse.
Open Loop
Open loop congestion control policies are applied to prevent congestion before it
happens. The congestion control is handled either by the source or the destination.

Policies adopted by open loop congestion control –

1.Retransmission Policy :
It is the policy in which re transmission of the packets are taken care. If the sender
feels that a sent packet is lost or corrupted, the packet needs to be retransmitted. This
transmission may increase the congestion in the network.
To prevent congestion, retransmission timers must be designed to prevent congestion
and also able to optimize efficiency.
2.Window Policy :
The type of window at the sender side may also affect the congestion. Several packets
in the Go-back-n window are resent, although some packets may be received
successfully at the receiver side. This duplication may increase the congestion in the
network and making it worse.
Therefore, Selective repeat window should be adopted as it sends the specific packet
that may have been lost.
3.Discarding Policy :
A good discarding policy adopted by the routers is that the routers may prevent
congestion and at the same time partially discards the corrupted or less sensitive
package and also able to maintain the quality of a message.
In case of audio file transmission, routers can discard less sensitive packets to prevent
congestion and also maintain the quality of the audio file.
4.Acknowledgment Policy :
Since acknowledgement are also the part of the load in network, the acknowledgment
policy imposed by the receiver may also affect congestion. Several approaches can be
used to prevent congestion related to acknowledgment.
The receiver should send acknowledgement for N packets rather than sending
acknowledgement for a single packet. The receiver should send a acknowledgment
only if it has to sent a packet or a timer expires.
5.Admission Policy :
In admission policy a mechanism should be used to prevent congestion. Switches in a
flow should first check the resource requirement of a network flow before
transmitting it further. If there is a chance of a congestion or there is a congestion in
the network, router should deny establishing a virtual network connection to prevent
further congestion.
All the above policies are adopted to prevent congestion before it happens in the
network.

Closed Loop
Closed loop congestion control technique is used to treat or alleviate congestion after
it happens. Several techniques are used by different protocols; some of them are:
1.Backpressure :
Backpressure is a technique in which a congested node stop receiving packet from
upstream node. This may cause the upstream node or nodes to become congested and
rejects receiving data from above nodes. Backpressure is a node-to-node congestion
control technique that propagate in the opposite direction of data flow. The
backpressure technique can be applied only to virtual circuit where each node has
information of its above upstream node.
2.Choke Packet Technique :
Choke packet technique is applicable to both virtual networks as well as datagram
subnets. A choke packet is a packet sent by a node to the source to inform it of
congestion. Each router monitor its resources and the utilization at each of its output
lines. whenever the resource utilization exceeds the threshold value which is set by
the administrator, the router directly sends a choke packet to the source giving it a
feedback to reduce the traffic. The intermediate nodes through which the packets has
traveled are not warned about congestion.
3.Implicit Signaling :
In implicit signaling, there is no communication between the congested nodes and the
source. The source guesses that there is congestion in a network. For example when
sender sends several packets and there is no acknowledgment for a while, one
assumption is that there is a congestion.
4.Explicit Signaling :
In explicit signaling, if a node experiences congestion it can explicitly sends a packet
to the source or destination to inform about congestion. The difference between choke
packet and explicit signaling is that the signal is included in the packets that carry data
rather than creating different packet as in case of choke packet technique.

1
Why congestion control is important?
Ans:
2 Write down the difference between open and close loop choke packets.
Ans:
DAY 32
 Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Quality of Service, Techniques To Improve
QoS
Course Outcomes:

Topics Covered:
 Quality Of Service:
 Techniques To Improve QoS
Prerequisites:
 Congestion control
Objectives: Quality of service (QoS) is the description or measurement of the

overall performance of a service, such as a telephony or computer network or a cloud
computing service, particularly the performance seen by the users of the network.
Notes:
Quality Of Service
Quality of service (QoS) refers to a network’s ability to achieve maximum bandwidth
and deal with other network performance elements like latency, error rate and uptime.
Quality of service also involves controlling and managing network resources by
setting priorities for specific types of data (video, audio, files) on the network. QoS is
exclusively applied to network traffic generated for video on demand, IPTV, VoIP,
streaming media, videoconferencing and online gaming.
Techniques To Improve QoS

Some techniques that can be used to improve the quality of service. The four common
methods: scheduling, traffic shaping, admission control, and resource reservation.
Scheduling: Packets from different flows arrive at a switch or router for processing.
A good scheduling technique treats the different flows in a fair and appropriate
manner. Several scheduling techniques are designed to improve the quality of service.
Traffic Shaping: Traffic shaping is a mechanism to control the amount and the rate
of the traffic sent to the network. Two techniques can shape traffic: leaky bucket and
token bucket.
Resource Reservation: A flow of data needs resources such as a buffer, bandwidth,
CPU time, and so on. The quality of service is improved if these resources are
reserved beforehand. We discuss in this section one QoS model called Integrated
Services, which depends heavily on resource reservation to improve the quality of

service.
Admission Control: Admission control refers to the mechanism used by a router, or
a switch, to accept or reject a flow based on predefined parameters called flow
specifications. Before a router accepts a flow for processing, it checks the flow
specifications to see if its capacity (in terms of bandwidth, buffer size, CPU speed,
etc.) and its previous commitments to other flows can handle the new flow.
1
Describe QoS.
Ans:
2 Write the different steps of QoS.

Ans:

DAY 33
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Leaky Bucket Algorithm, Token Bucket Algorithm.

Topics Covered:
 Leaky Bucket Algorithm
 Token Bucket Algorithm
Prerequisites:
 Quality of Service
Objectives: Leaky bucket and token bucket algorithms are two methods of congestion
control. Congestion control is a network layer issue, and is thus concerned with what happens
when there is more data in the network than can be sent with reasonable packet delays, no
lost packets, etc. Flow control is a local, congestion control is global.
Notes:
Leaky Bucket Algorithm
If a bucket has a small hole at the bottom, the water leaks from the bucket at a
constant rate as long as there is water in the bucket. The rate at which the water leaks
does not depend on the rate at which the water is input to the bucket unless the bucket
is empty. The input rate can vary, but the output rate remains constant. Similarly, in
networking, a technique called leaky bucket can smooth out bursty traffic. Bursty
chunks are stored in the bucket and sent out at an average rate.
A FIFO queue holds the packets. If the traffic consists of fixed-size packets (e.g.,
cells in ATM networks), the process removes a fixed number of packets from the
queue at each tick of the clock. If the traffic consists of variable-length packets, the
fixed output rate must be based on the number of bytes or bits.

The following is an algorithm for variable-length packets:

 Initialize a counter to n at the tick of the clock.
 If n is greater than the size of the packet, send the packet and decrement the counter
by the packet size. Repeat this step until n is smaller than the packet size.
 Reset the counter and go to step 1.
A leaky bucket algorithm shapes bursty traffic into fixed-rate traffic by averaging the
data rate. It may drop the packets if the bucket is full.
Token Bucket Algorithm
The leaky bucket is very restrictive. It does not credit an idle host. For example, if a
host is not sending for a while, its bucket becomes empty. Now if the host has bursty
data, the leaky bucket allows only an average rate. The time when the host was idle is
not taken into account. On the other hand, the token bucket algorithm allows idle
hosts to accumulate credit for the future in the form of tokens. For each tick of the
clock, the system sends n tokens to the bucket. The system removes one token for
every cell (or byte) of data sent. For example, if n is 100 and the host is idle for 100
ticks, the bucket collects 10,000 tokens.
The token bucket can easily be implemented with a counter. The token is initialized
to zero. Each time a token is added, the counter is incremented by 1. Each time a unit
of data is sent, the counter is decremented by 1. When the counter is zero, the host
cannot send data.
The token bucket allows bursty traffic at a regulated maximum rate.
Combining Token Bucket and Leaky Bucket:
The two techniques can be combined to credit an idle host and at the same time
regulate the traffic. The leaky bucket is applied after the token bucket; the rate of the
leaky bucket needs to be higher than the rate of tokens dropped in the bucket.
1 How can we use token bucket over leaky bucket algorithm?

Ans:

DAY 34
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: DNS.
Course Outcomes: Students should be able to be familiar with wireless networking concepts
Topics Covered:
 Introduction To DNS
Prerequisites:
 Quality of service
Objectives: The Domain Name System (DNS) is the phonebook of the Internet. Humans
access information online through domain names, like nytimes.com or espn.com. Web
browsers interact through Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. DNS translates domain names to
IP addresses so browsers can load Internet resources.
Notes:
Introduction To DNS
All computers on the Internet, from your smart phone or laptop to the servers that
serve content for massive retail websites, find and communicate with one another by
using numbers. These numbers are known as IP addresses. When you open a web
browser and go to a website, you don't have to remember and enter a long number.
Instead, you can enter a domain name like example.com and still end up in the right

place.
A DNS service such as Amazon Route 53 is a globally distributed service that
translates human readable names like www.example.com into the numeric IP
addresses like 192.0.2.1 that computers use to connect to each other. The Internet’s
DNS system works much like a phone book by managing the mapping between
names and numbers. DNS servers translate requests for names into IP addresses,
controlling which server an end user will reach when they type a domain name into
their web browser. These requests are called queries.
Types of DNS Service:

Authoritative DNS: An authoritative DNS service provides an update mechanism
that developers use to manage their public DNS names. It then answers DNS
queries, translating domain names into IP address so computers can communicate
with each other. Authoritative DNS has the final authority over a domain and is
responsible for providing answers to recursive DNS servers with the IP address
information. Amazon Route 53 is an authoritative DNS system.
Recursive DNS: Clients typically do not make queries directly to authoritative DNS
services. Instead, they generally connect to another type of DNS service known
a resolver, or a recursive DNS service. A recursive DNS service acts like a hotel
concierge: while it doesn't own any DNS records, it acts as an intermediary who can
get the DNS information on your behalf. If a recursive DNS has the DNS
reference cached, or stored for a period of time, then it answers the DNS query by
providing the source or IP information. If not, it passes the query to one or more
authoritative DNS servers to find the information.
1 Discuss about DNS.
Ans:

DAY 35
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: SMTP, SNMP

Topics Covered:
 SMTP
 SNMP
Prerequisites:
 Internet Protocol
 DNS
Objectives: SNMP manages various devices attached to a TCP / IP network. SMTP deals
with the methods, to send and receive email from one client to another over the internet. one
can control SMTP servers and MTAs through SNMP Managers. Further, SNMP Managers
are capable of sending alerts through SMTP mail servers.

Notes:
SMTP
Email is emerging as the one of the most valuable service in internet today. Most of
the internet systems use SMTP as a method to transfer mail from one user to another.
SMTP is a push protocol and is used to send the mail whereas POP (post office
protocol) or IMAP (internet message access protocol) are used to retrieve those mails
at the receiver’s side.
SMTP Protocol
The SMTP model is of two type :
1. End-to- end method
2. Store-and- forward method
The end to end model is used to communicate between different organizations
whereas the store and forward method is used within an organization. A SMTP client
who wants to send the mail will contact the destination’s host SMTP directly in order
to send the mail to the destination. The SMTP server will keep the mail to itself until
it is successfully copied to the receiver’s SMTP.
The client SMTP is the one which initiates the session let us call it as client- SMTP
and the server SMTP is the one which responds to the session request and let us call it
as receiver-SMTP. The client- SMTP will start the session and the receiver-SMTP
will respond to the request.
SNMP
SNMP is an application layer protocol which uses UDP port number 161/162.SNMP
is used to monitor network, detect network faults and sometimes even used to
configure remote devices.
SNMP components –
There are 3 components of SNMP:
1.SNMP Manager –
It is a centralised system used to monitor network.It is also known as Network
Management Station (NMS)
2.SNMP agent –
It is a software management software module installed on a managed device.
Managed devices can be network devices like PC, router, switches, servers etc.
3.Management Information Base –
MIB consists of information of resources that are to be managed. These information
is organised hierarchically. It consists of objects instances which are essentially
variables.
SNMP messages –
Different variables are:

1. GetRequest –
SNMP manager sends this message to request data from SNMP agent. It is simply
used to retrieve data from SNMP agent. In response to this, SNMP agent responds
with requested value through response message.
2. GetNextRequest –
This message can be sent to discover what data is available on a SNMP agent. The
SNMP manager can request for data continously until no more data is left. In this
way, SNMP manager can take knowledge of all the available data on SNMP agent.
3. GetBulkRequest –
This message is used to retrieve large data at once by the SNMP manager from
SNMP agent. It is introduced in SNMPv2c.
4. SetRequest –
It is used by SNMP manager to set the value of an object instance on the SNMP
agent.
5. Response –
It is a message send from agent upon a request from manager. When sent in response
to Get messages, it will contain the data requested. When sent in response to Set
message, it will contain the newly set value as confirmation that the value has been
set.
6. Trap –
These are the message send by the agent without being requested by the manager. It is
sent when a fault has occurred.
7. InformRequest –
It was introduced in SNMPv2c, used to identify if the trap message has been received
by the manager or not. The agents can be configured to set trap continuously until it
receives an Inform message. It is same as trap but adds an acknowledgement that trap
doesn’t provide.

1 How to check if an email address exists without sending an email?
Ans:
2 How to check if SMTP is working from command line?
Ans:
DAY 36
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: FTP, HTTP and WWW
Course Outcomes: Students should be able to be familiar with wireless networking

concepts
Topics Covered:
 FTP
 HTTP & WWW
Prerequisites:
 Internet Protocol
 DNS
 SMTP,SNMP
Objectives: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and FTP (File Transfer Protocol) are only
two of the multitude of protocols that are being used in the internet, each with its own
function. The purpose of HTTP is to serve as a means of accessing the world wide web.
Websites are accessed using http with the help of browsers. FTP, as the name implies, is used
in transferring files from one computer to another. It is a less popular protocol due to small
number of people who actually use FTP, and even fewer people who know that they are using
it.
Notes:
FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the commonly used protocol for exchanging files over
the Internet. FTP uses the Internet's TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer. FTP
uses a client-server architecture, often secured with SSL/TLS. FTP promotes sharing
of files via remote computers with reliable and efficient data transfer.
How FTP Works
FTP works in the same way as HTTP for transferring Web pages from a server to a
user's browser and SMTP for transferring electronic mail across the Internet in that,
like these technologies. FTP uses a client-server architecture. Users provide
authentication using a sign-in protocol, usually a username and password, however
some FTP servers may be configured to accept anonymous FTP logins where you
don't need to identify yourself before accessing files. Most often, FTP is secured
with SSL/TLS.
HTTP & WWW
HTTP is an acronym for Hypertext Transfer Protocol; this is the most popular
protocol in use today. It is the communication standard used by your web browser in
order to communicate with the server of the website that you are viewing. WWW or
the World Wide Web is a prefix to a certain name in order to identify that it is a web
site that you are visiting.
There are many existing protocols in the internet today and in order to differentiate
which one you want to use, they are given specific protocol names that should be
present when connecting to a web site or any other source of data. Some protocols
that are accepted by browsers are: HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, NEWS, and FILE. Although
most sites are purely web servers, some sites host multiple services in a single domain
name and in order to identify which one you are trying to access you must indicate
the protocol that the service uses. You can see what protocol is currently in use by
looking at the first word in the address bar.
Most websites come in a certain format, mostly it is www.anything.com. The word at
the end identifies the site as commercial, the word in the middle is the domain name,
and the WWW in the beginning indicates that it is a website and it uses the HTTP
protocol. It is therefore redundant to have ‘http://www.anything.com’ since the
WWW tells the browser to use HTTP when it is already in use. But because most
people are already used to having a URI written this way, it is left as is by most
experts.
Aside from the protocol names that are already reserved for obvious reasons, you can
use any other prefix in order to establish a sub domain on your site. A sub domain can
be a totally different web site that is sharing the domain name. In the case of sub

domains, you can no longer use a prefix in order to identify the protocol in use, that is
why you must specify the protocol by using HTTP://, FTP://, or any other protocol
name.
1 Write the working principle of FTP and HTTP.
Ans:
2 Describe the difference between FTP and HTTP.
Ans:

DAY 37
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Security, Cryptography (Public, Private Key Based)

Topics Covered:
 Security:
 Cryptography (Public, Private Key Based)
Prerequisites:
 FTP,HTTP
 SMTP,SNMP
Objectives: Securing the Internet presents great challenges and research opportunities.
Potential applications such as Internet voting, universally available medical records, and
ubiquitous e-commerce are all being hindered because of serious security and privacy
concerns. The epidemic of hacker attacks on personal computers and web sites only
highlights the inherent vulnerability of the current computer and network infrastructure.
Notes:
Security
Computer security, cybersecurity or information technology security (IT security) is
the protection of computer systems from theft or damage to their hardware, software
or electronic data, as well as from disruption or misdirection of the services they
provide.
Cryptography (Public, Private Key Based)

Cryptography is associated with the process of converting ordinary plain text into
unintelligible text and vice-versa. It is a method of storing and transmitting data in a

particular form so that only those for whom it is intended can read and process it.
Cryptography not only protects data from theft or alteration, but can also be used for
user authentication.
Cryptography can generally be divided into two broad categories: secret (symmetric)
key and public (asymmetric) key cryptography. In secret key cryptography, users
share a secret key which is used to encrypt and decrypt messages. The primary
difficulty lies in securely distributing the secret key, especially as the complexity and
size of the network(s) scale upwards.
In contrast, public key cryptography involves the use of a public and private key pair.
A user may freely distribute the public key but must always keep the private key
secret. The concept behind public key cryptography is that of a one-way (or trapdoor)
function f, where if given x, it is easy to compute f(x). However, if given f(x), it is not
computationally practical to determine x.
The obvious advantage to public key cryptosystems is that there is no need to worry
about key distribution. It is more flexible and as hardware advances make exhaustive
searches faster, it is easy to simply select larger keys. With private key cryptographic
methods, new keys must be generated and somehow disseminated. The disadvantage
to public key cryptography is that it is necessarily slower and may also introduce
added complexity as key length grows.
In actual practice, VOCAL employs both cryptographic types together in security
systems to exploit the advantages of each. An example of one such process is a
‘digital envelope’. Private key cryptography is used to encrypt a message m, yielding
ciphertext c. The secret key s is then encrypted using public key cryptography,
yielding k. The encrypted message and key pair (c, k) may then be sent securely,
where only the recipient may recover s from k. The secret key s may then be used to
quickly decode ciphertext c, yielding original message m.
VOCAL’s security software can provide that communications security assurance, as
either an API or as a comprehensive system of encryption protocols.

1 Encrypt the message ’encoding’ using the double Transposition. Choose Key1 and Key2
as ’exam’ and ’study’.
Ans:
2 Write down the differences between RSA and DSA.

Ans:
DAY 38
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Digital Signature, Firewalls


Topics Covered:
 Digital Signature
 Firewalls
Prerequisites:
 Security
 Cryptography
Objectives: Securing the Internet presents great challenges and research opportunities.
Potential applications such as Internet voting, universally available medical records, and
ubiquitous e-commerce are all being hindered because of serious security and privacy
concerns. The epidemic of hacker attacks on personal computers and web sites only
highlights the inherent vulnerability of the current computer and network infrastructure.
Notes:
Digital Signature
Digital signatures are the public-key primitives of message authentication. In the

physical world, it is common to use handwritten signatures on handwritten or typed
messages. They are used to bind signatory to the message.
Similarly, a digital signature is a technique that binds a person/entity to the digital
data. This binding can be independently verified by receiver as well as any third
party.
Digital signature is a cryptographic value that is calculated from the data and a
secret key known only by the signer.
In real world, the receiver of message needs assurance that the message belongs to
the sender and he should not be able to repudiate the origination of that message.
This requirement is very crucial in business applications, since likelihood of a
dispute over exchanged data is very high.
The following points explain the entire process in detail –

 Each person adopting this scheme has a public-private key pair.

 Generally, the key pairs used for encryption/decryption and signing/verifying are
different. The private key used for signing is referred to as the signature key and the
public key as the verification key.
 Signer feeds data to the hash function and generates hash of data.
 Hash value and signature key are then fed to the signature algorithm which produces
the digital signature on given hash. Signature is appended to the data and then both
are sent to the verifier.
 Verifier feeds the digital signature and the verification key into the verification
algorithm. The verification algorithm gives some value as output.
 Verifier also runs same hash function on received data to generate hash value.
 For verification, this hash value and output of verification algorithm are compared.
Based on the comparison result, verifier decides whether the digital signature is
valid.
 Since digital signature is created by ‘private’ key of signer and no one else can have
this key; the signer cannot repudiate signing the data in future.
Firewalls
A firewall is a network security device that monitors incoming and outgoing network
traffic and decides whether to allow or block specific traffic based on a defined set of
security rules.
Firewalls have been a first line of defense in network security for over 25 years. They
establish a barrier between secured and controlled internal networks that can be
trusted and untrusted outside networks, such as the Internet.

Firewalls can be either hardware or software but the ideal configuration will consist
of both. In addition to limiting access to your computer and network, a firewall is also
useful for allowing remote access to a private network through secure authentication
certificates and logins.
Hardware firewalls can be purchased as a stand-alone product but are typically found
in broadband routers, and should be considered an important part of your system
security and network set-up. Most hardware firewalls will have a minimum of four
network ports to connect other computers, but for larger networks, a business
networking firewall solution is available.
1 Discuss Digital Signature.

Ans:
2 Describe types of firewall.

Ans:

DAY 39
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: ISDN Services & ATM, DSL Technology

Topics Covered:
 ISDN Services & ATM
 DSL Technology
Prerequisites:
 Security
 Firewall
Objectives: In WAN as in most areas of business the desire to maximise the impact of any
investment in technology is a core issue. Careful analysis of data traffic as well as business
objectives will help to successfully match business applications with the networking services.
Notes:
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
 ISDN is a switched digital network service that accommodates voice, data and
imaging to other ISDN end users.
 It converts analog telephone lines to digital.
 Its goal is to link homes and businesses over telephone wires.
 Sometimes known as narrowband ISDN.
 Local Loop Transmission Technology.
 Around for 10 years but is only widely used in last 3 to 4 years.
 Not designed to be 24hr like T-1 or bandwidth on demand like frame relay service
 Main problems are cost current availability of infrastructure.
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
 Switching Architecture
 ATM is a Broadband cell relay method – Therefore also known as cell relay.
 It is an advanced form of packet switching.
 The WAN technology of the moment for businesses.
 Very High Speed (155 Mbps to 622 Mbps) e.g. can transmit the entire Encyclopaedia
Britannica in one second.
 There are variable rates of transmission but much faster than frame relays.
 Multimedia technology that allows WAN to have simultaneous transmission of voice,
video and data.
DSL Technology
DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) is a technology for bringing high-
bandwidth information to homes and small businesses over ordinary copper
telephone lines. xDSL refers to different variations of DSL, such as ADSL, HDSL,
and RADSL. Assuming your home or small business is close enough to a telephone
company central office that offers DSL service, you may be able to receive data at
rates up to 6.1 megabits (millions of bits) per second (of a theoretical 8.448 megabits
per second), enabling continuous transmission of motion video, audio, and even 3-D
effects. More typically, individual connections will provide from 1.544 Mbps to 512
Kbps downstream and about 128 Kbps upstream. A DSL line can carry both data and
voice signals and the data part of the line is continuously connected. DSL installations
began in 1998 and will continue at a greatly increased pace through the next decade in
a number of communities in the U.S. and elsewhere. Compaq, Intel, and Microsoft
working with telephone companies have developed a standard and easier-to-install
form of ADSL called G.Lite that is accelerating deployment. DSL is expected to
replace ISDN in many areas and to compete with the cable modem in bringing
multimedia and 3-D to homes and small businesses.

1 Describe ISDN.
Ans:
2 Write Short note on ATM

Ans:
DAY 40
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Cable Modem, Architecture & Operation In Brief
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Cable Modem:
 Architecture & Operation In Brief
Prerequisites:
 ATM
 DSL Technology
Objectives: A cable modem is a peripheral device used to connect to the Internet. It operates
over coax cable TV lines and provides high-speed Internet access. Since cable modems offer
an always-on connection and fast data transfer rates, they are considered broadband devices.
Notes:
Cable Modem
A cable modem is a device that enables you to hook up your PC to a local cable TV
line and receive data at about 1.5 Mbps. ... A cable modem can be added to or
integrated with a set-top box that provides your TV set with channels for Internet
access.
Architecture & Operation In Brief
If you’ve got broadband internet from a cable company, it comes into your house
through a cable modem. Estimates are that some $8.6 billion-worth of cable modems
will be sold by 2018 as next-generation gateways are introduced to manage Internet
connectivity in the home. No question, then, that cable modems are important devices
for connected homes. That’s why we decided to teardown a cable modem from
Scientific Atlanta called the WebStar DCX2100.
In our teardown series this may have been the easiest product to get apart. The case is
just two pieces that snap fit together. The electronics all lies on a single circuit board.
So disassembly consists of opening the case snap fits and unfastening the PCB from
the case.
One big integrated circuit dominates the circuit board. It is a single-chip cable modem
made by Broadcom. A lot of cable boxes use it. This particular chip is the BCM3348.
It isn’t the most up-to-date version of Broadcom’s single-chip cable modem offerings,
but the architecture of the hardware on this board isn’t much different from what

would surround the latest and greatest versions.
Broadcom chip. It implements what’s called DOCSIS 2.0. DOCSIS stands for data
over cable service interface specification. That’s an international standard that lets
cable TV systems transmit data as well as TV signals. The 2.0 version of the standard
has been around for a while. The most recent version is DOCSIS 3.1.
Though it doesn’t implement the most recent version of DOCSIS, our teardown
modem could still work on most U.S. cable systems. The 3.1 version of DOCSIS is
for gigabit data streams, and only a few areas in the U.S. have it right now. The 2.0
devices handle datastreams in the range of tens of megabits.
To manipulate data, the Broadcom chip uses a 200 MHz MIPS processor that
implements quadrature amplitude modulation, or QAM. The inner workings of QAM
is a big subject, but basically it is a scheme that conveys two digital bit streams by
modulating the amplitudes of two carrier waves using amplitude-shift keying. The
two carriers have the same frequency but are 90° out of phase with each other, which
is why they are called quadrature carriers, hence the QAM acronym.
The modulated waves are summed to yield a final waveform that’s a combination of
phase-shift keying and amplitude-shift keying. In the U.S., 64-QAM and 256-QAM
are the mandated modulation schemes for digital cable. The 64 and 256 refer to the
number of points in the QAM constellation diagram where each point in the diagram
represents a specific digital number specified by a specific amount of amplitude and
phase modulation.
Other chips
The cable modem chip connects to two memory chips, one a synchronous DRAM,
the other a Flash. The flash chip lets the cable company change aspects of the
subscriber’s internet service without actually changing any hardware. In that regard,
the flash chip holds configuration data and comes into play, say, when a cable
subscriber buys more download speed from the cable company. In this scenario, a
signal gets sent down the cable that results in updated configuration data in the non-
volatile flash memory.
1 Write down the Architecture & Operation of Cable Modem.

Ans:
DAY 41
Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion: Wireless LAN, IEEE 802.11, Introduction To Blue-Tooth
Course Outcomes:
Topics Covered:
 Wireless Lan:
 IEEE 802.11
 Introduction To Blue-Tooth
Prerequisites:
 DSL technology
 Cable Modem

Objectives: A WLAN, or wireless LAN, is a network that allows devices to connect and
communicate wirelessly. Unlike a traditional wired LAN, in which devices communicate
over Ethernet cables, devices on a WLAN communicate via Wi-Fi.
Notes:
Wireless Lan
A wireless LAN (or WLAN, for wireless local area network, sometimes referred to
as LAWN, for local area wireless network) is one in which a mobile user can connect
to a local area network (LAN) through a wireless (radio) connection. The IEEE
802.11 group of standards specify the technologies for wireless LANs.
IEEE 802.11
Wireless LANs are those Local Area Networks that use high frequency radio waves
instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can
move around within the area of network coverage. Most WLANs are based upon the
standard IEEE 802.11 or WiFi.
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows
1) Stations (STA): Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected
to the wireless LAN. A station can be of two types:
1.Wireless Access Pointz (WAP): WAPs or simply access points (AP) are
generally wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
2.Client. : Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc.
Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
2) Basic Service Set (BSS): A basic service set is a group of stations

communicating at physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending

upon mode of operation:
1.Infrastructure BSS: Here, the devices communicate with other devices through
access points.
2.Independent BSS: Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an ad
hoc manner.
3) Extended Service Set (ESS): It is a set of all connected BSS.
4) Distribution System (DS): It connects access points in ESS.
Introduction To Blue-Tooth
Bluetooth is the name given to a new technology standard using short-range radio
links, intended to replace the cable(s) connecting portable and/or fixed electronic
devices. The standard defines a uniform structure for a wide range of devices to
communicate with each other, with minimal user effort.
Its key features are robustness, low complexity, low power and low cost. The
technology also offers wireless access to LANs, PSTN, the mobile phone network
and the Internet for a host of home appliances and portable handheld interfaces.
The immediate need for Bluetooth came from the desire to connect peripherals and
devices without cables. The available technology-IrDA OBEX (IR Data Association
Object Exchange Protocol) is based in IR links that are limited to line of sight
connections. Bluetooth integration is further fueled by the demand for mobile and
wireless access to LANs, Internet over mobile and other existing networks, where
the backbone is wired but the interface is free to move. This not only makes the
network easier to use but also extends its reach. The advantages and rapid
proliferation of LANs suggest that setting up personal area networks, that is,
connections among devices in the proximity of the user, will have many beneficial
uses.

1 Explain the WLAN physical layer frame as per 802.11a? What is the difference
between 802.11a, 11b, 11g and 802.11n.
Ans:
2 Write the working principals of blue-tooth.

Ans:

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Paper Name: Computer Networks Paper Code: CS-602

Institute of Engineering & Management

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Paper Name with code: Computer Networks (CS-602)

Name of the Student:

1|Page Study Material, IEM, CSE Department

Paper name: Computer Networks

Pre-requisites: CS604B, Data Communication, Semester V.

Application Layer [5L]

Day wise Lesson Plan with book reference:

S. Video Links Recommended books

3|Page Study Material, IEM, CSE Department

Duplex, Full Duplex). and Computer

Ed.)” – PHI/ Pearson

Networking (3rd Ed.)

4EWFpHJrW1D9UB23. W. Stallings – “Data

7|Page Study Material, IEM, CSE Department

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25 Protocols: om/watch?v=2IizZ5lD “Data

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34 Day Module Introduction To DNS https://www.youtube.c1. B. A. Forouzan –

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PROGRAMME: UG DEGREE: B.Tech.

COURSECODE: CS602 COURSE TYPE: Compulsory

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CORRESPONDING LAB COURSE

Relevant MAKAUT syllabus portion:

Lecture 1 (60 minutes)

Objectives: A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as

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A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers

 Message: The information to be communicated.

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 Receiver: Devices that receives the data message.

Data Representation (ASCII, ISO Etc.)

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ISO and Unicode

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Direction Of Data Flow (Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex)

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Let’s learn by doing:

Lecture 2 (60 minutes)

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Objectives: Computer Network means an interconnection of autonomous (standalone)

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Type of network:- It is two types.

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Let’s learn by doing:

1 Describe the various topologies in a network.

Lecture 3 (60 minutes)

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ARPANET(Advance Research Project Administration Network):-This internet

A protocol is a set of rules exchanging the information over the internet. IP is

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OSI Reference Model

H2 Data T2 Datalink layer H2 Data T2

To Physical layer From Network layer

H3 Data Network layer H3 Data

To Datalink layer From Datalink layer

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