Module 5 – Braking Systems

Topics to be covered:

Stopping Distance, Braking Efficiency, Weight Transfer during

Braking, Drum Brakes - Constructional Details, Leading and
Trailing Shoe, Braking Torque, Disc Brake - Types and
Constructional Details, Relative advantages and disadvantages
over Disc Brakes. Hydraulic Braking System, Pneumatic Braking
System, Power–Assisted Braking System, Servo Brakes,
Retarders, Types and Construction
Introduction

Energy Conversion during Braking

Mechanism behind Brake Operation
Functions of a braking system

a) To stop the moving vehicle in a shortest possible distance.

b) To help in controlling the speed of the vehicle during

cornering .

c) To hold the vehicle in stationary position, after it has been

brought to stop.
Classification of brakes

Based on purpose – Service brakes and Parking brakes

Based on construction – Drum brakes and Disc brakes

Based on method of actuation – Mechanical, Hydraulic, Vacuum,

Air

Based on location – Wheel, Transmission and Exhaust

Based on energy supplied – Manual, Servo/Power assisted, Power

 Design requirements of a braking system

1. The brakes should stop the vehicle within reasonable distance.

The retardation should be smooth and free from jerk.

2. The braking should not be affected by water, heat and dust etc.

3. Pedal effort required by the driver must be optimum so as not

to strain the driver.

4. The wear and tear on the material of the brake lining should be
minimum for longer life.
 Design requirements – contd..
• The brake system capable of dissipating heat generated quickly

• Should not skid, while applying brakes.

• Should have cooling system

• Less weight

• Less noise and vibration

• Easy to adjust having proper maintenance

 Factors influencing braking force

• A vehicle with a 100 hp engine require about 60 sec to accelerate the

vehicle from 0 to 100 kmph. If the same vehicle is required to be

stopped from 100 kmph to 0 kmph in not more than 6sec then brakes

must do the same amount of work as engine did but in one tenth of the

time. This means brakes must develop 1000 hp to stop the vehicle.

 If the weight of the vehicle is doubled then braking force must be

doubled.

 If the speed of the vehicle is doubled then braking force must be four
times.

 If both weight and speed is doubled then braking force must be

increased 8 times
Capacity of a brake

• Unit pressure between the braking surfaces.

• Coefficient of friction between the braking surfaces.

• Projected area of the braking surfaces.

• Peripheral velocity of the brake drum.

• Ability of the brake to dissipate heat equivalent to the energy

being absorbed
Unless it was done, it
may lead to brake fading
Stopping distance

Stopping distance consists of three factors

• Distance transversed during reaction time of the driver (about

¾ of a second)

• Distance transversed during the time elapsed between driver

pressing the brake pedal and the brake actually applied at the
wheels (about 4/10 of a second)

• Net stopping distance depending upon the deceleration

Stopping Distance

is depending upon

— Coefficient of friction between tire to road surface and between

brake lining and brake drum

— Vehicle speed

— Condition of tire tread

— Skill of the driver

— System reaction time

Calculation of Braking Force
Determination of Braking Efficiency
The brake efficiency can be derived from the kinetic energy equation and the
work done in bringing the vehicle to standstill

Let F – braking force (N)

μ – coefficient of friction
W – weight of the vehicle (N)
U – initial braking speed (m/s)
m – vehicle mass (kg)
s – stopping distance (m)
η – braking efficiency (%)
Weight Transfer during Braking

Fig. various forces acting on a vehicle during the application of brakes

Forces acting on vehicle moving down on a slope

W – Wt. of the vehicle

RF – Normal reaction at the
front wheel
RR – Normal reaction at the
rear wheel
b – Wheel base
h – Height of CG from ground
x – Distance of CG from rear
 – Retardation produced due
to braking
(a) Brakes applied on front wheels only

RF + RR = W cos θ (1)

μ RF = W sin θ + (W/g ). α (2)

ΣM = 0 (taking moments about B)

(W/g). Α.h + W sin θ. h + W cos θ . X – RF x b = 0 (3)

Substituting RF from Equ.2 into Equ.3 and further on simplification, we get

RF = W.x.cos θ / (b - μ h)

RR = W (b-x- μ h) cos θ / (b - μ h)
(b) Brakes applied on rear wheels only

RF + RR = W cos θ (1)

μ RR = W sin θ + (W/g ). α (2)

ΣM = 0 (taking moments about A)

(W/g). α. h + W sin θ. h + RR x b – W cos θ (b-x) = 0 (3)

Substituting RR from Equ.(2) into Equ.(3) and further on simplification, we get

RF = W(x + μh) cos θ - sin θ / (b + μ h)

RR = W (b-x) cos θ / (b + μ h)
(c) Brakes applied on all the wheels

RF + RR = W cos θ (1)

μ RF + μ RR = W sin θ + (W/g ). α (2)

Substituting RR from Equ.(1) into Equ.(2) and further on simplification,

we will get

RF = W(x + μh) cos θ / b

RR = W (b-x - μh) cos θ / b

Numerical Problems on Braking System

(1) A car of mass 800 kg is travelling at 36 km/h. Determine the

following:
(a) kinetic energy of the moving vehicle
(b) the average braking force to bring it to rest condition in 20
metres.

(2) Calculate the minimum stopping distance of a vehicle travelling at a

speed of 60 km/h.

(2) Determine the braking efficiency of a vehicle if the brakes bring the
vehicle to rest from 60 km/h in a distance of 20 m
Numerical Problems – contd..

(4) A car whose wheel base is equal to five times the height of its centre of
gravity above the ground is moving on a horizontal road when the brakes are
applied. If the coefficient of friction of limiting friction between the car
tyres and the road is 0.5, determine the percentage of weight transferred
from the rear to the front axle, on braking.

(5) The wheel base of a vehicle travelling on a wet road sloping downwards at
angle θ = sin-1 (0.1) is 5 m. Its centre of gravity is 2 m ahead of the rear
axle and 750 mm above the road. The coefficient of adhesion between the
vehicle tyres and the road is 0.3. The vehicle employs brakes on all the four
wheels. Determine
(a) ratio of braking forces on front and rear wheels if skidding is to be
avoided.
(b) stopping distance for the vehicle travelling at a speed of 45 km/hr when
the engine is stopped and the brakes are applied.
 Drum and Disc Brakes
• Disc brakes are found on almost all vehicles now.

• Older cars and trucks had a combination of disc and drum brakes.

• At one time vehicles came with drum brakes only (1970 and older)
 Drum Brakes

• A drum brake assembly consists of a cast-iron drum, which is

bolted to and rotates with the vehicle’s wheel, and a fixed
backing plate to which the shoes, wheel cylinders, automatic
adjusters, and linkages are attached.

• The shoes are surfaced with frictional linings, which contact the
inside of the drum when the brakes are applied.

• The shoes are forced outward by pistons located inside the wheel
cylinder.
Drum brakes and their actuating
mechanism
Adjusting Screw
Wheel Cylinder

Hardware Backing plate

Drum
Several schemes of operation of the drum brake, in black is
highlighted the distribution force during the braking phase.
Disc Brakes
• Disc brakes found on front of most vehicles as well as at rear of
four wheel disc brakes vehicles.

• Has a rotor/disc between two pads

• Caliper squeezes the pads against the disc, when the brakes are
applied

• Disc brakes work much better then the drum brakes, as they
cool better and apply more pressure.

CHOICES
• Metallic (last longer, but bad for rotor)

• Semi-metallic

• Ceramic
Construction of Disc Brake
Disc brake parts
Types of Disc Brake
• Fixed caliper type

• Floating caliper type

– Swinging caliper

– Sliding caliper
Types of brake discs
 Brake linings

• These are the friction materials that a vehicle uses.

• They can be bonded (glued), riveted, and injection moulded to

the backing pad or shoes.
 Types of linings
• Asbestos: These have phased out, very hazardous to breath the dust.

• Organic: Mixture of asbestos and organic materials with a resin binder

• Semi-metallic-organic: Mixed with metal shavings, last longer and very

good at dissipating heat.

• Ceramic: Low dust output, provide exceptional braking performance

• Carbon/Kevlar: Motor sports application, not used on road vehicles

because of cost and they take time to warm up.
What is the difference between disc brakes and drum brakes?

Disc brakes are generally considered superior to drum brakes for

several reasons. First, they dissipate heat better (brakes work by
converting motion energy to heat energy). Under severe usage,
such as repeated hard stops or riding the brakes down a long
incline, disc brakes take longer to lose effectiveness (a condition
known as brake fade). Disc brakes also perform better in wet
weather, because centrifugal force tends to fling water off the
brake disc and keep it dry, whereas drum brakes will collect some
water on the inside surface where the brake shoes contact the
drums.
Why do so many cars still use rear drum brakes?

All cars use disc brakes for the front wheels, but many cars still use
drum brakes in the rear. Braking causes the car's weight to shift
forward, and as a result about 70% of the work is done by the front
brakes. (That's why your front brakes tend to wear out faster.) By
fitting disc brakes to the front wheels and drum brakes to the rear
wheels, manufacturers can provide most of the benefits of disc
brakes while lowering costs. (Drum brakes are less expensive to
make than disc brakes, largely because they can also double as a
parking brake, whereas disc brakes require a separate parking brake
mechanism.) Even so, a car with four-wheel disc brakes (versus
front disc/rear drum) will still provide superior braking performance
in wet weather and on long downgrades.
Advantages of disc brakes over drum brakes

• In disc brakes, pads are directly exposed to cooling air, whereas in

drum brakes, friction occurs at internal surfaces from which heat can
be dissipated only after it has passed by conduction through the drum.

• Uniform wear on brake linings in disc brakes as they are not curved.

• No loss of efficiency due to thermal expansion of metal parts in disc

brakes.

• Disc brakes weigh 20% less than their corresponding drum brake
counterparts.

• Disc brakes having better anti-fade characteristics than drum brakes

• Disc brakes are simple in design.

• Easier to replace friction linings is easier in the case of disc brakes.

Parking Brakes

Parking brakes are part of the rear brakes and are operated
mechanically with the help of a lever and cables.