Chapter Four

Research Design (Planning the Research Project)

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4.1. Meaning of Research Design
Research design:
 A research design is the logic that links the data to be collected (and the
conclusions to be drawn) to the initial questions of study.

 A research design is a logical plan for getting from here to there, where here
may be defined as the initial set of questions to be answered, and there is
some set of conclusions (answers) about these questions.

 Every empirical study has an implicit, if not explicit, research design.

 The research design is the master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information.
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 Con’t

 Plan of collecting and analyzing data in an economic,

efficient and relevant manner.

 Plan of organizing framework for doing the study and

collecting the necessary data.

 It constitutes the blue print for collection, measuring and

analysis of data.

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General rules in planning and preparing a research design

 Define the nature and scope of the problem

 Specify the related variables (specify the sources and types
of information needed).
 Exclude the variable not relevant to the study
 Start with the logical hypothesis

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 The design decision should answer the following questions:

 What is the study about?

 Why is the study being made?
 Where will be the study being carried out?
 What type of data are required?
 Where can the required data be found and what techniques of data collection
will be used?
 What period of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 How will be the data analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?

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 Parts of the Overall Research Design
Sampling Design: which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study.

 The Observational Design : which relates to the conditions under

which the observations are to be made.

 The Statistical Design : which concerns with the question of how

many items are to be observed and how the information and data gathered
are to be analyzed.

The Operational Design : which deals with the techniques by which

the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational
designs can be carried out.
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 Need for Research Design
 It facilitates the smooth sailing of the research operation.

 It makes research project as efficient as possible and help to yield maximum

information with minimum expenditure, time and effort.

 It helps the researcher to organize his/her ideas in a form where by it will be

possible for him/her to look for shortcomings and inadequacies.

 It serves as a base for others to provide their genuine comments and

comprehensive review of the proposed study.

 It serves as a framework for the process of reliable and valid data collection
and data analysis.

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 4.2. Features of Research Design

 Contains a clear statement of the research problem & specifies the

source and types of information.

 Specifying which approach will be used for gathering the data.

 Indicate the population to be studied and methods to be used in

processing and analyzing the data.

 Includes the time and cost budgets.

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 4.3 Important concepts relevant to research design

 Dependent Variable
 Independent variable

 Extraneous variable: independent variable that are not related to the

purpose of a study.
 E.g. “Intensity of light on the level of productivity”, other variables like age of
workers, heat in the working place or personal problem of worker may as well
affect the level of productivity.

 Control
 Confounded relationship

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 Con’t…

 Experimental and control groups

 Experiment: examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis

 Absolute and comparative experiment. One fertilizer on crops and two
fertilizers compared on their impact on crops (absolute and comparative
respectively).

 Experimental unit: predetermined plots or the blocks.

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 4.4 Forms of Research Design

Experimental
Quasi-experimental
Non-experimental

 The main difference between these designs lies in the control of extraneous
variables and manipulation of at least one independent variable by the
intervention of the investigator in experimental research.

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4.4.1 Research design for non- experimental research

 Exploratory
 Descriptive (naturalistic observation, surveys, focus groups)
 Case studies

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4.4.1 Research design for non- experimental research
A) Design for Exploratory Research

 Discovery of ideas and insights.

 Formulating a problem for more investigation
 Developing the working hypothesis
 Gain background information
 An introductory phase of a large study and results are used in
developing specific technique for the larger study.
 Used as building block for more research

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Forms of research design for formulative study:

i. The survey of concerning literature

 Reviewing the earlier stated hypothesis
 Referring articles in journals, newspapers, etc.
 In case hypothesis have not yet been formulated.
ii. Experience survey:
 Survey of people who have practical experience and
knowledgeable on the issues.
 Obtain insight into the relationship between variables and
new ideas relating to the problem.

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iii. Analysis of insight (Examining analogous situation)

 Intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon

 Unstructured interview may take place

 Focus groups involve small groups of people brought together and guided
by a moderator through unstructured and spontaneous discussion.

 Existing records may be examined (if any).

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iv. Examination of case histories

 Case histories that are similar in content are generally available and provide
very important area of investigation for exploratory study.

 Case analysis: past situations that are similar to the present research problem.

 Considered as suggestive rather than conclusive.

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B) Research Design for Descriptive Research

 Concerned with describing the characteristics or function of a particular

individual, or of a group or a phenomenon.

 Descriptive research provides answers to the questions of who, what, when,

where, and how.

 Provides a complete profile of a phenomenon.

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 It must focus on the following:

 Formulating the objective of the study

 Design the method of data collection
 Clearly stating the sampling techniques
 Select the sample of the study (sampling)
 How to collect the data relevant for the study
 Processing and analysis of the data collected
 Stating the methods of reporting the findings

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 C) Case Study Design
For case studies, five components of a research design are
especially important:

o a study's questions
o its propositions, if any
o its units of analysis
o the logic linking the data to the propositions; and
o the criteria for interpreting the findings.

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 Criteria for judging quality of research designs

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 Basic types of case study designs

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4.4.2 Research design for experimental research
Research design for Causal Research:
 Causality may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of
conditional statements of the form “If x, then y.”

 Causal relationships are typically determined by the use of experiments, but

other methods are also used.

 The researcher can control and manipulate at lest one independent variable.

 Testing the hypothesis of casual relationship between the variables.

 It is the framework or structure of an experiment.

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 Con’t...
 An investigation in which the investigator applies some treatments to
experimental units and then observes the effect of the treatments on the
experimental units by measuring one or more response variables.

 An inquiry in which an investigator chooses the levels (values) of input or

independent variable and observes the values of the output or dependent
variable.

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 Basic principles of experimental research design

 The Principle of Replication:

Reduce the effect of uncontrolled variation (i.e. increase accuracy).

 The Principle of Randomization:

The random assignment of subjects to treatment conditions to ensure equal
representation of subject characteristics. Random assignment of treatments to
experimental units.

 The Principle of Local Control

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 Forms of Experimental Design

It is classified into two categories:

1) Informal Experimental Design

2) Formal Experimental Design

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 A Comparison of Basic Research Designs

Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Objective: Discovery of ideas Describe Determine cause
and insights characteristics or and effect
functions relationships

Characteristics: Flexible, versatile Marked by the prior Manipulation of

formulation of one or more
specific hypotheses independent
variables
Often the front Preplanned and
end of total structured design Control of other
research design mediating
variables
Expert surveys Secondary data
Methods: Pilot surveys Surveys Experiments
Secondary data Panels
Qualitative Observation and
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 1) Informal Experimental Design:

Are those designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis.

 Important informal experimental designs are of the followings:

 Before-And-After without Control
 Before -And -After with Control Design
 After- only -with Control Design

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A) Before – And – After Without Control Design

 A single test group or area is selected and the DV is

measured before the introduction of treatment and again
after the treatment has been introduced.
 Level of phenomenon before treatment (X)
 Level of phenomenon after treatment (Y)
Treatment effect = Y – X
Limitation: There will be change with the passage of time, so,
treatment effect may not be exclusively due to treatment given to
the group.

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B) Before And After With Control Design
 Two groups are selected and the dependent variable is measured in
both groups for an identical time period before the treatment .

 The treatment is then introduced into the test area only, and the
dependent variable is measured in both areas in identical time period
after the introduction of the treatment.

 The treatment effect is then; (y-x) - (A-B).

 It avoid extraneous variation resulting both from the passage of

time and from non-comparability of the test and control area.

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C) After Only With Control Design

 Here two groups (test area and control area) are selected and,
 The treatment is introduced into the test area only.
 The dependent variable is then measured in both areas at the same
time.
 Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the
dependent variable in the control area from its value in the test.

 Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the

dependent variable in the control area from its value in the test area.

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 Con’t…

 Basic assumptions:
 Two groups are identical with respect to their behavior towards
the phenomenon considered.

 There is no group variation receiving different treatments.

 Without the introduction of problem with the passage of time.

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 2) Formal experimental design
Formal experimental design can have the following forms:

i. Complete - Randomized-Design ( CRD)

 Two Groups Simple Randomized Design
 Random Replication Design (RRD)

ii. Random Block Design (RBD)

iii. Latin Square Design (LSD)
iv. Factorial Design
 Simple Factorial Design
 Complex Factorial Design

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 Complete Randomized Design (CRD)

 Involvesonly two principles Viz., the principle of

randomization and the principle of replication.

 Such design is generally used when experimental areas

happens to be homogeneous.

 Variations due to uncontrolled extraneous factors are

said “chance of variation”.

 It is the simplest possible design and its procedure of

analysis also easier.
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A) Two-Group Simple Randomized Design

 First the study populations are defined and then sample is selected
randomly.
 Random assignment of the experimental and control group.
 The two groups are given different treatments of the independent
variable.
 It is quite common in research studies concerning behavioral science.
 It is simple and randomizes the difference among the sample items
but no control of differences among those conducting treatments.

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B) Random Replication Design (RRD)
 It avoids the limitation of two-group R.D.
 There is random sample selection on both the study group and
those running the treatment.
 There is random assignment of subjects on both samples. Each
test and control group has equal size.
 There is repetition of experiments- “Replication”.

Random replication has two purposes:

 It provides controls for the differential effects of the extraneous
independent variables.
 It randomizes any individual differences among those conducting
treatment.

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 C) Randomized Block Design (RBD)
 The principle of local control, Replication and Randomization are
applicable.
 Subjects are first divided into groups (blocks).
 Each group (block) subjects are relatively homogenous with respect
to some selected variable.
 The number of subjects in in a given block would be equal to the
number of treatments.
 One subject in each block would be randomly assigned to each
treatment.

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 D) Latin Square Design (LSD)
 There is equal number of blocks and treatments.
 Each block will be divided into a number of parts equal to the
number of treatments.
 Each of the treatment is used in each of the block only once. Each
part of the block should receive only one treatment.
 Very common and frequently used in agricultural research.
 It avoids variations due the soil fertility.
 Example: the effect of different fertilizers on crops.

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