This article was downloaded by: [University of Delaware]

On: 07 October 2014, At: 01:08

Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Anxiety, Stress, & Coping: An

International Journal
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gasc20

Proactive coping, gratitude, and

posttraumatic stress disorder in college
women
a b
Laura L. Vernon , Jacqueline M. Dillon & Amanda R.W. Steiner
b

a
Florida Atlantic University , Jupiter, FL, USA
b
Psychology , Auburn University , Auburn, AL, USA
Published online: 18 Dec 2008.

To cite this article: Laura L. Vernon , Jacqueline M. Dillon & Amanda R.W. Steiner (2009) Proactive
coping, gratitude, and posttraumatic stress disorder in college women, Anxiety, Stress, & Coping:
An International Journal, 22:1, 117-127, DOI: 10.1080/10615800802203751

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10615800802203751

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or
arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &
 Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014
 Anxiety, Stress & Coping
Vol. 22, No. 1, January 2009, 117
127

Proactive coping, gratitude, and posttraumatic stress disorder

in college women
Laura L. Vernona*, Jacqueline M. Dillonb and Amanda R.W. Steinerb
a
Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL, USA; bPsychology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL,
USA
(Received 18 January 2007; final version received 14 May 2008)
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014

This study investigated relationships among proactive coping, positive emotions,

and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity for 182 under-
graduate women with trauma histories. Participants were administered the Life
Events Checklist (LEC), PTSD Checklist, Proactive Coping Inventory, Proactive
Attitude Scale, General Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale, and measures of post-
trauma gratitude and emotional growth. An Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)
with proactive coping, proactive attitude, and self-efficacy items indicated a one-
factor solution. The proactive coping style factor and posttrauma gratitude were
independently negatively associated with current PTSD symptom level, above and
beyond the effects of trauma severity, trauma history, and time elapsed since the
trauma. The implications of these results for future research and understanding of
the development of PTSD and its treatment are discussed.
Keywords: proactive coping; gratitude; PTSD

Trauma is typically defined as an experience that involves actual or threatened death

or serious injury or threat to one’s physical integrity. Traumas can include combat,
sexual assault, and motor vehicle accidents and are a common experience (e.g.,
Vrana & Lauterbach, 1994). There is great individual variation in trauma recovery.
Although the focus of trauma research has recently expanded to include the
examination of protective factors and resiliency, there is a paucity of research on the
effects of proactive coping and positive emotion posttrauma and their relationship to
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity.
A growing body of literature on resilience and thriving suggests that some
individuals can endure negative events remarkably well, with minimal or no
disruption in their functioning (Bonanno, 2004; Carver, 1998). Coping refers to
efforts to manage the impact of a stressor (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and some
kinds of coping appear to facilitate positive outcomes (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000;
Stein, Folkman, Trabasso, Richards, 1997). One form of coping that ‘‘deserves
attention’’ (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004, p.757) and may be especially promising in
relation to trauma is proactive coping.
We will refer to proactive coping as thoughts and behavior aimed at general
resource building to facilitate future goal attainment and personal growth (Green-
glass, Schwarzer, Jakubiec, Fiksenbaum, & Taubert, 1999; Schwarzer & Taubert,

*Correspondence: Laura L. Vernon. Email: lvernon@fau.edu

ISSN 1061-5806 print/1477-2205 online
# 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/10615800802203751
http://www.informaworld.com
 118 L.L. Vernon et al.

2002).1 It is future-oriented and involves long-range planning and prevention and

has been contrasted with reactive coping aimed at compensating for an event that
has already occurred (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1997; Schwarzer & Taubert, 2002). Given
Hobfoll’s (1989) influential theory suggesting that the negative impact of trauma is
due to resource loss, the proactive coper’s accrual and maintenance of resources may
be particularly relevant for trauma outcomes. There are several reasons to expect
proactive coping to be efficacious posttrauma. First, it is theorized to promote
growth through a positive perception of stress as a challenge or opportunity rather
than as potentially harmful (Greenglass, 2002). Secondly, its use is negatively
associated with one emotional disorder, depression (Uskul & Greenglass, 2005).
Thirdly, in a longitudinal study following the September 11th terrorist attacks, scores
on a brief measure of future-oriented thinking, which taps into the cognitive but not
the behavioral aspect of proactive coping, were negatively associated with
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014

psychological distress scores (Holman & Cohen Silver, 2005).

Proactive coping has theoretical overlap with proactive attitude and general self-
efficacy. Schwarzer (1999) describes proactive attitude as the belief that one has the
potential and the responsibility to improve one’s self and surroundings. General
perceived coping self-efficacy has been defined as a stable optimism regarding one’s
coping ability (Schwarzer, 1994). Its focus on coping makes it distinct from the
generalized positive expectancies characterized by optimism. There is growing
evidence that proactive coping, proactive attitude, and general self-efficacy are not
only theoretically but also empirically distinct from related concepts such as
optimism, hope, mastery, and control (e.g., Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995; Uskul &
Greenglass, 2005). For example, proactive coping includes cognitions, actions, and
skill development in contrast with purely cognitive concepts such as optimism, with
which it is moderately related, r.25, pB.001 (Uskul & Greenglass, 2005).
Although situation-specific self-efficacy may mediate the effects of important
trauma and individual difference variables such as resource loss, optimism, and
social support (Benight & Bandura, 2004), general self-efficacy has not been
examined posttrauma, nor has proactive attitude.
Recently described as ‘‘one of the most exciting developments in coping theory
and research’’ (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2004, p.767), the study of relationships
between coping and positive emotion is still in its infancy. Positive emotions appear
to be associated with some forms of coping (Moskowitz, Folkman, Collette, &
Vittinghoff, 1996). Given that many people identify positive life changes resulting
from negative events, termed posttraumatic growth or benefit finding (Tedeschi &
Calhoun, 2004), gratitude is one expected emotional response to this cognitive
process. Although variously defined (McCullough, Kilpatrick, Emmons, & Larson,
2001), we will define gratitude as the emotional response stemming from the
recognition and/or appreciation of the receipt of a benefit. Evidence suggests
advantages to its everyday experience (Emmons & McCullough, 2003), and a single
study, by Kashdan, Uswatte, and Julian (2006), suggests that it may also be valuable
posttrauma. Kashdan et al. (2006) found that male Vietnam war veterans without
PTSD reported more dispositional gratitude than did those with PTSD, and, further,
that daily gratitude was positively related to well-being among both traumatized
groups. Gratitude in response to trauma has not yet been examined, but posttrauma
gratitude may be elicited by the perception of benefits such as spiritual deepening, an
 Anxiety, Stress & Coping 119

increased sense of life’s value, the end of suffering of an ill loved one, or for having
avoided death, serious injury, or other serious loss.
One potential perceived posttrauma benefit may be an internal emotional
change. Tedeschi and Calhoun (2004) have described posttrauma growth experiences
including perceived personal changes such as increased strength or recognition of
preexisting strength. In line with this concept, the current study will examine self-
reported posttrauma emotional growth in characteristics such as strength, self-
assurance, and self-respect. We will examine whether posttrauma appraisals of
increased emotional and psychological resources are related to gratitude, the
proactive measures, and PTSD.
The goal of the current study was to examine relationships among proactive
coping, proactive attitude, self-efficacy, and posttrauma gratitude and growth with
PTSD symptom level in a traumatized sample of college women. In line with
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014

Hobfoll’s (1989) conservation of resources theory, we predicted that proactive coping

and emotion variables tapping resource-building behaviors, beliefs, and emotions
would be negatively associated with PTSD symptoms.
The present study focused exclusively on women because of broad-ranging
findings suggesting that men and women are subject to different types of trauma
exposure, peritraumatic experience, and recovery environment, and that they process
and react to trauma differently (e.g., Bryant & Harvey, 2003; Rind, Tromovitch, &
Bauserman, 1998; Tolin & Foa, 2002). A recent review found that women often
experience higher levels of peritraumatic dissociation and loss of control than men,
as well as experience trauma at a younger age and report less posttrauma social
support (Olff, Langeland, Draijer, & Gersons, 2007). Women may be more likely to
develop PTSD symptoms following traumatic exposure (e.g., Breslau, Davis,
Andreski, Peterson, & Schultz, 1997), possibly accounted for by their dispropor-
tionate risk of sexual assault (Cortina & Kubick, 2006). Women are also inclined to
report more benefits from the trauma experience than do men (Tedeschi & Calhoun,
1996). Given such gender differences in a wide range of trauma-related and
individual difference variables, the present study focuses exclusively on women.

Method
Participants
Participants were 202 undergraduate women who received psychology course extra
credit for participation. Students were recruited via flyers advertising a study of life
experiences and emotions. Reflecting undergraduate enrollment, participants were
between the ages of 19 and 42 (M 20.23, SD 2.05). The majority of participants
(84.7%) indicated their primary race/ethnicity as White/Caucasian, 11.4% indicated
Black/African-American, 2.5% indicated Asian-American, .5% indicated Hispanic,
and 1.0% indicated an unspecified multiracial ethnicity. On average, participants
reported completing 2.6 years of college.

Procedure
Participants were tested in small groups. Questionnaires were presented in one of
four semi-randomized orders, with the trauma history questionnaire administered at
 120 L.L. Vernon et al.

some point prior to the PTSD symptom and emotion measures, so that participants
could report their symptoms and emotions in response to the single worst trauma
identified on the trauma history measure. All other questionnaire orders were
randomly generated.

Measures
Trauma history
The Life Events Checklist (LEC), taken from the Clinician-Administered PTSD
Scale (CAPS; Blake et al., 1990), was used to assess trauma history. It includes 17
potentially traumatic events (e.g., sexual assault, transportation accident) and
participants indicate whether they have experienced, witnessed, or learned about
each event. For the worst event, participants answer questions addressing whether
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014

the trauma involved threat of death, injury, or to physical integrity and whether they
experienced extreme fear, helplessness, or horror. The item regarding life threat was
used in this study as an index of trauma severity.

PTSD symptoms
Current PTSD symptom severity was assessed with the 17-item PTSD Checklist
(PCL-S), developed by Weathers, Litz, Herman, Huska, and Keane (1993) as a
questionnaire version of the CAPS. Scores on the PCL have previously been found
to have strong internal consistency, a .97, high test-retest reliability, .96 (Weathers
et al., 1993), and good convergent validity with interviews such as the CAPS
(Blanchard, Jones-Alexander, Buckley, & Forneris, 1996) and other self-report
measures of PTSD (Ruggiero, Del Ben, Scotti, & Rabalais, 2003). On a five-point
Likert scale, participants indicated the extent to which they have been bothered by
each symptom in the previous month (1 not at all, 5 extremely). In the present
study, the internal consistency of the items was strong, a .91.

Positive emotions
Two scales were developed for the present study to assess positive emotions
experienced as a result of a traumatic event: a five-item posttrauma emotional growth
scale and a four-item posttrauma gratitude scale. For each item, participants indicated
the extent they felt each emotion shortly after their worst trauma, on a five-point scale
(1 very slightly or not at all, 5 extremely). In the present sample, the internal
consistency of the items of both the growth scale (‘‘strong,’’ ‘‘tough,’’ ‘‘mature,’’
‘‘respect myself,’’ and ‘‘self-assured’’), a .84, and the gratitude scale (‘‘fortunate,’’
‘‘grateful,’’ ‘‘appreciate life,’’ and ‘‘relieved’’), a .82, were strong.

Proactive coping
Proactive coping was measured using the Proactive Coping subscale of the Proactive
Coping Inventory (Greenglass et al., 1999; Greenglass, 2002). Significant positive
correlations have been reported between scores of proactive coping, active coping,
control, optimism, life satisfaction, and achievement (Greenglass, 2002; Schwarzer &
 Anxiety, Stress & Coping 121

Taubert, 2002; Uskul & Greenglass, 2005). On a four-point scale (1 not at all true,
4 exactly true), participants rated 14 positively and negatively keyed items
describing general coping reactions (e.g., ‘‘I like challenges and beating the odds,’’
‘‘When I have a problem, I usually see myself in a no-win situation’’). The items from
this subscale have been found to have strong internal consistency in previous
samples, with a’s from .79 to .85 (Greenglass et al., 1999), and in the present sample,
a .81.

Proactive attitude
The Proactive Attitude Scale (Schwarzer, 1999) consists of 8 items (e.g., ‘‘I feel
responsible for my own life,’’ ‘‘I am driven by a sense of purpose’’) rated on a four-
point scale (1 not at all true, 4 exactly true). Proactive attitude scale scores have
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014

been reported to be moderately positively associated with scores of locus of control,

optimism, hope, self-determination, and general perceived self-efficacy (Schwarzer).
Internal consistency in a previous sample was a .76 (Schwarzer) and in the present
sample was a .67.

General perceived self-efficacy

The 9 items of the General Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem,
1995) tap generalized beliefs of personal agency (e.g., ‘‘I am able to choose my own
actions,’’ ‘‘I focus my efforts on things that I can control’’). Items are rated on a
four-point scale (1 not at all true, 4exactly true). Scale scores have shown good
convergent and discriminant validity, correlating moderately positively with scores
on measures of self-esteem and optimism and negatively with anxiety and
depression (Schwarzer, 1993). Previous internal consistencies were between a 
.75 and .90 (e.g., Schwarzer & Jerusalem), and a .84 in the present sample.

Results
Descriptive statistics
Of 202 women, 90.1% (n182) reported directly experiencing one or more lifetime
traumatic events, which is consistent with previous studies of college students
(Lauterbach & Vrana, 2001; Ruggiero et al., 2003; Vrana & Lauterbach, 1994). Only
the data from those 182 participants with trauma histories were analyzed. On
average, participants reported traumas that had occurred 4.3 years ago (SD4.0
years; range 0
18 years). A minority of participants reported traumas in which no
life threat was experienced (27.3%), whereas 25.6% of participants reported threat to
their own life and 47.1% reported threat to someone else’s life. The most frequently
reported trauma was motor vehicle accidents, reported by approximately 25%,
followed by life threatening illness or injury, 17%.
Means and standard deviations of PTSD symptom level, the proactive measures,
and posttrauma gratitude and emotional growth are shown in Table 1. Although
average PTSD symptom level was fairly low, 12.6% of our sample scored above a
civilian PTSD diagnostic cutoff score of 44 (Blanchard et al., 1996), which was found
by Ruggiero et al. (2003) to produce the highest level of diagnostic efficiency in an
 122 L.L. Vernon et al.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for all variables.

Measures M SD Range of responses

Total PTSD symptoms 30.62 12.12 17
74

Reexperiencing 10.37 4.69 5
23
Avoidance/Numbing 11.77 4.90 7
30
Hyperarousal 8.32 3.94 5
23
Proactive coping factor 97.54 11.34 65
121
Proactive coping 42.83 5.30 26
53
Proactive attitude 26.94 2.94 17
32
Self-efficacy 30.48 4.25 21
40
Posttrauma gratitude 11.41 5.11 4
20
Posttrauma growth 10.61 4.85 5
23
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014

N 182.

undergraduate sample. Less than 5% of our sample scored above the more stringent
PTSD cutoff score of 50 (Weathers et al., 1993). These rates are similar to others
reported for college populations (Ruggiero et al., 2003; Vrana & Lauterbach, 1994).
In general, level of reported proactive coping, proactive attitude, and self-efficacy
was high and intensity of posttrauma gratitude and growth was moderate.

Analysis of proactive measures

We conducted bivariate correlations among coping measures. As predicted, the
proactive variables were strongly interrelated. Proactive coping was positively
correlated with proactive attitude, r .72, and with self-efficacy, r.72, and
proactive attitude and self-efficacy were also related, r.56, all p’sB.001. Given
these strong relationships, we conducted an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to
determine whether the proactive variables might tap a single latent variable or
whether there is another more optimal factor structure. EFA using principal axis
factoring and Oblimin rotation with Kaiser normalization was performed on the
items of the three scales. One strong factor emerged with an eigenvalue of 9.30,
accounting for 29.1% of the variance. Although eigenvalues for eight other factors
between 1.0 and 2.0 were obtained, the scree plot indicated a clear ‘‘elbow’’ after the
first factor and item factor loadings were generally quite high on the first factor
(M .53, SD .13). The loading of one negatively keyed item (‘‘I try to let things
work out on their own’’) was very low (.03) and the item was dropped. All other
items loaded higher than .25 on the factor. The proactive coping style factor
demonstrates high internal consistency, a .92, and a total score of the remaining
items was used for analyses.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom analyses

Next we conducted bivariate correlations between the proactive coping style factor,
and the gratitude, growth, and PTSD variables. The proactive factor was
significantly negatively associated with PTSD symptom severity, r.24, p B
.01.2 In general, the higher women scored on the proactive factor, the fewer current
 Anxiety, Stress & Coping 123

PTSD symptoms they reported. Also as predicted, posttrauma gratitude was

negatively related to PTSD symptoms, r.18, p B.05, although posttrauma
growth was not. Though gratitude and emotional growth were associated with one
another, r.43, p B.001, neither was significantly associated with the proactive
coping style factor.
One possible explanation for our finding of associations among PTSD severity,
the proactive coping style factor, and posttrauma gratitude is that these variables
are related to the underlying variables of trauma severity, time elapsed since the
trauma, or number of traumas experienced. For example, it may be the case that
women were more likely to experience gratitude, more able to cope proactively, and
less likely to develop PTSD symptoms following a single less severe trauma in the
distant past relative to more severe, recent, or multiple traumatic exposures. Thus,
a hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted, with PTSD symptom
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014

severity as the dependent variable, and trauma severity, time since the trauma, and
total number of traumas entered in the regression equation in the first step,
followed by the proactive coping style factor and posttrauma gratitude in the
second step. As displayed in Table 2, not surprisingly, number of trauma
experiences was significantly associated with PTSD level. More importantly, the
proactive coping style factor and gratitude contributed independently to PTSD
level above and beyond trauma severity, time elapsed, and number of traumatic
experiences.

Discussion
This is the first study to find that PTSD symptom severity is independently
negatively associated with proactive coping style among traumatized women,
regardless of trauma severity, number of traumas experienced, or time elapsed since
the trauma. Furthermore, at least among traumatized women, proactive coping,
proactive attitude, and general perceived self-efficacy could all be represented by a
single factor. Our findings are in line with preliminary results demonstrating a
negative relationship between proactive coping and depression (Uskul & Greenglass,
2005), between some other forms of coping and PTSD (e.g., Zakin, Solomon, &

Table 2. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis predicting PTSD symptom severity.

Model Predictor B b t

1 Trauma severity 1.47 .09 1.13

Trauma recency .15 .05 .60
Number of traumas 2.02 .31 4.01***
2 Trauma severity .98 .06 .76
Trauma recency .13 .04 .56
Number of traumas 2.16 .33 4.52***
Proactive coping .30 .27 3.71***
factor
Posttrauma grati- .36 .15 1.96*
tude
Note: R2 .07, pB.01 for Model 1 and DR2 .33, p B.001 for Model 2. N182.
*p.05; ***pB.001.
 124 L.L. Vernon et al.

Neria, 2003), and between psychological distress and future-oriented thinking

(Holman & Cohen Silver, 2005).
Since people who engage in proactive coping report perceiving stressful situations
as challenges instead of as threats, it could be that such perceptions lead to thoughts
and activities incongruent with PTSD development. Furthermore, those high in the
belief that one can and should improve oneself and one’s surroundings (proactive
attitude) and in confidence about one’s coping ability (general coping self-efficacy)
may be especially likely to engage in such proactive thoughts and behaviors. Our
findings support Hobfoll’s (1989) theory of conservation of resources by suggesting
that individuals who persistently accrue and maintain resources may be relatively
protected from PTSD. Regardless of trauma severity, recency, and history, it appears
that proactive coping style is an important part of a healthy, adaptive response to
traumatic events among women.
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014

This is also the first study to find that women who retrospectively report greater
gratitude in response to trauma report fewer and less severe PTSD symptoms
months and years posttrauma (4.2 years later on average). Our findings ruled out the
possibility that the negative relationship between gratitude and PTSD is solely due to
the influence of trauma variables such as severity, recency, and history. There is
strong evidence that trauma-related injury and death are related to PTSD symptom
level (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., 1989), however, even when controlling for a variable such
as the extent of life threat to self and others, posttrauma gratitude and PTSD
symptom level continued to be significantly negatively related in our sample. Thus,
gratitude may occur not simply as a result of an unexpected positive outcome or a
milder trauma, but rather, may reflect an important individual difference variable.
The fact that this relationship exists for a four-item scale and above and beyond the
effects of the proactive coping style factor and trauma variables is impressive. Our
findings may suggest that gratitude is a protective factor for women. Perhaps the
cognitions associated with gratitude, such as a focus on benefits, are incompatible
with those associated with psychopathology, such as self-blame. Future research
should employ more detailed assessments of gratitude, including its focus, be it the
heroic actions of other people, the perceived protection of God, social support,
spiritual deepening, or having avoided more serious consequences.
This is the first trauma study to use several new measures, including the Proactive
Coping subscale, the Proactive Attitude Scale, and the General Perceived Self-
Efficacy Scale. Since all three are measures of conceptually related phenomena, as
expected we found that they are positively associated with one another and their
structure could be adequately represented by a single factor. Surprisingly, these
measures were not generally related to our measures of gratitude and emotional
growth, suggesting divergent validity.
We did not find reported posttrauma emotional growth to be related to PTSD
symptom severity. Although one’s feeling of emotional and psychological growth in
the form of increased strength, confidence, and maturity are likely important in
relation to other trauma outcomes, with the brief measure used in the present study
they were not related to PTSD symptom level in our sample. This finding
underscores the likely importance of posttrauma gratitude, suggesting that it is
not simply any positive emotional and psychological experience following trauma
that is related to fewer PTSD symptoms, but only certain experiences, such as
gratitude.
 Anxiety, Stress & Coping 125

The findings of the current study should be viewed in light of its limitations. Our
findings are based on retrospective self-report, which may be biased by events and
experiences since the trauma or by current level of functioning. Furthermore, our
findings are correlational and it cannot be determined whether the thoughts and
behaviors represented by the proactive factor caused fewer and less severe PTSD
symptoms or vice versa. A longitudinal design examining emotional functioning and
proactive coping before and after trauma would greatly improve our understanding
of the relationships among these variables and whether they change over time. Our
measures of posttrauma gratitude and emotional growth were developed for the
present study due to the lack of brief, standardized posttrauma emotion self-report
measures available. Future research would benefit from examining a broader range
of potential posttrauma emotions as well as additional measures of emotion,
including more extensive self-report, behavioral, physiological, and facial expression
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014

measures. Further study of the potential overlap of the proactive factor measures
would be useful. Behavioral measures of proactive coping could also provide
additional important information. Furthermore, our findings are applicable only to
traumatized college women. Future studies should examine similar issues among a
range of college and non-college samples, including men, as well as examine
potential gender differences in associations between posttrauma proactive coping
style, emotion, and PTSD.
The present study provides exciting preliminary evidence that proactive coping
style and positive emotion may be associated with lower psychiatric morbidity
among women posttrauma. This study’s results offer several promising directions for
future research, such as whether treatment techniques like reappraisal or cognitive
restructuring might increase positive emotion and proactive coping and decrease
PTSD in women.

Notes
1. It should be noted that ‘‘proactive coping’’ is used in a distinct way by Aspinwall and
Taylor (1997), who apply the term to coping with potential future stresses, encompassing
what Schwarzer and Knoll (2003) refer to as anticipatory coping and preventive coping. In
contrast, the Greenglass et al. (1999) definition of proactive coping is positively oriented
and is not specifically aimed at negative events.
2. Similarly, when the variables in the proactive factor were analyzed individually, each was
significantly negatively correlated with PTSD: proactive coping, r .28, p B.001,
proactive attitude, r .21, p B.01, and generalized perceived self-efficacy, r .18,
p B.05.

References
Aspinwall, L.G., & Taylor, S.E. (1997). A stitch in time: Self-regulation and proactive coping.
Psychological Bulletin, 121, 417
436.
Benight, C.C., & Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory of posttraumatic recovery: The
role of perceived self-efficacy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1129
1148.
Blake, D.D., Weathers, F.W., Nagy, L.M., Kaloupek, D.G., Klauminzer, G., Charney, D.S., et
al. (1990). A clinician rating scale for assessing current and lifetime PTSD: The CAPS-1.
Behavior Therapist, 13, 187
188.
Blanchard, E.B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T.C., & Forneris, C.A. (1996). Psychometric
properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 669
673.
Bonanno, G.A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the
human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59, 20
28.
 126 L.L. Vernon et al.

Breslau, N., Davis, G.C., Andreski, P., Peterson, E.L., & Schultz, L.R. (1997). Sex differences
in posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 1044
1048.
Bryant, R.A., & Harvey, A.G. (2003). Gender differences in the relationship between acute
stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder following motor vehicle accidents.
Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 37, 226
229.
Carver, C.S. (1998). Resilience and thriving: Issues, models, and linkages. Journal of Social
Issues, 54, 245
255.
Cortina, L.M., & Kubiak, S.P. (2006). Gender and posttraumatic stress: Sexual violence as an
explanation for women’s increased risk. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 753
759.
Emmons, R.A., & McCullough, M.E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An
experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 377
389.
Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J.T. (2000). Positive affect and the other side of coping. American
Psychologist, 55, 647
654.
Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J.T. (2004). Coping: Pitfalls and promise. Annual Review of
Psychology, 55, 745
774.
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014

Greenglass, E. (2002). Proactive coping. In E. Frydenberg (Ed.), Beyond coping: Meeting goals,
visions and challenges (pp. 37
62). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Greenglass, E., Schwarzer, R., Jakubiec, D., Fiksenbaum, L., & Taubert, S. (1999). The
Proactive Coping Inventory (PCI): A multidimensional research instrument. Paper presented
at the meeting of the International Conference of the Stress and Anxiety Research Society,
Cracow, Poland.
Hobfoll, S.E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress.
American Psychologist, 44, 513
524.
Holman, E.A., & Cohen Silver, R. (2005). Future-oriented thinking and adjustment in a
nationwide longitudinal study following the September 11th terrorist attacks. Motivation
and Emotion, 29, 389
410.
Kashdan, T.B., Uswatte, G., & Julian, T. (2006). Gratitude and hedonic and eudaimonic well-
being in Vietnam war veterans. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 177
199.
Kilpatrick, D.G., Saunders, B.E., Amick-McMullan, A., Best, C.L., Veronen, L.J., & Resnick,
H.S. (1989). Victim and crime factors associated with the development of crime-related
post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 20, 177
198.
Lauterbach, D., & Vrana, S. (2001). The relationship among personality variables, exposure to
traumatic events, and severity of posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Traumatic
Stress, 14, 29
45.
Lazarus, R.S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
McCullough, M.E., Kilpatrick, S.D., Emmons, R.A., & Larson, D.B. (2001). Is gratitude a
moral affect? Psychological Bulletin, 127, 249
266.
Moskowitz, J.T., Folkman, S., Collette, L., & Vittinghoff, E. (1996). Coping and mood during
AIDS-related caregiving and bereavement. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 18, 49
57.
Olff, M., Langeland, W., Draijer, N., & Gersons, B.P.R. (2007). Gender differences in
posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 183
204.
Rind, B., Tromovitch, P., & Bauserman, R. (1998). A meta-analytic examination of assumed
properties of child sexual abuse using college samples. Psychological Bulletin, 124(1), 22
53.
Ruggiero, K.J., Del Ben, K., Scotti, J.R., & Rabalais, A.E. (2003). Psychometric properties of
the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 495
502.
Schwarzer, R. (1993). Measurement of perceived self-efficacy. Psychometric scales for cross-
cultural research. Berlin, Germany: Freie Universität Berlin.
Schwarzer, R. (1994). Optimism, vulnerability, and self-beliefs as health-related cognitions: A
systematic overview. Psychology and Health: An International Journal, 9, 161
180.
Schwarzer, R. (1999). Proactive attitude. Retrieved September 2, 2004, from Freie Universität
Berlin, Psychometric Scales Web site: http://www.fuberlin.de/gesund/skalen/Language_Se-
lection/Turkish/Proactive_ Attitude/proactive_attitude.htm
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S.
Wright & M. Johnston (Eds.), Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and
control beliefs (pp. 35
37). Windsor, UK: NFER-Nelson.
 Anxiety, Stress & Coping 127

Schwarzer, R., & Taubert, S. (2002). Tenacious goal pursuits and striving toward personal
growth: Proactive coping. In E. Frydenberg (Ed.), Beyond coping: Meeting goals, visions and
challenges (pp. 19
35). London: Oxford University Press.
Schwarzer, R., & Knoll, N. (2003). Positive coping: Mastering demands and searching for
meaning. In S. J. Lopez & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Positive psychological assessment: A
handbook of models and measures (pp. 393
409). Washington, DC, US: American
Psychological Association.
Stein, N., Folkman, S., Trabasso, T., & Richards, T.A. (1997). Appraisal and goal processes as
predictors of psychological well-being in bereaved caregivers. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 72, 872
884.
Tedeschi, R.G., & Calhoun, L.G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the
positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 455
471.
Tedeschi, R.G., & Calhoun, L.G. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and
empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 1
18.
Tolin, D.F., & Foa, E.B. (2002). Gender and PTSD: A cognitive model. In R. Kimerling, P.C.
Ouimette & J. Wolfe (Eds.), Gender and PTSD (pp. 76
97). New York: Guilford Press.
Downloaded by [University of Delaware] at 01:08 07 October 2014

Uskul, A.K., & Greenglass, E. (2005). Psychological well-being in a Turkish-Canadian sample.

Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 18, 269
278.
Vrana, S., & Lauterbach, D. (1994). Prevalence of traumatic events and post-traumatic
psychological symptoms in a nonclinical sample of college students. Journal of Traumatic
Stress, 7, 289
302.
Weathers, F.W., Litz, B.T., Herman, D.S., Huska, J.A., & Keane, T.M. (1993). The PTSD
checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at the meeting of
the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX.
Zakin, G., Solomon, Z., & Neria, Y. (2003). Hardiness, attachment style, and long term
psychological distress among Israeli POWs and combat veterans. Personality & Individual
Differences, 34, 819
829.