CE 521 - Water Resources Engineering

REACTION PAPER
March 19, 2021 HIPOLITO RARANGOL, III
BSCE – V
Fundamental Properties of Water
Hydraulic

• Hydraulic comes from the Greek word hydraulikos = water.

• Hydraulics is the science of studying the mechanical behavior of water at rest or in motion.
• Hydraulic Engineering is the application of fundamental principles of fluid mechanics on water.
• Hydraulic systems
• Systems which are designed to accommodate water at rest and in motion.

Hydraulic Engineering Systems:

involve the application of engineering principles and methods to:

o planning,
o control,
o transportation,
o conservation, and
o utilization of water.

Examples of Hydraulic Projects

• Water pipelines,
• Water distribution systems,
• Sewer systems,
• Dams and water control structures,
• Storm sewer systems,
• Rivers and manmade canals,
• Coastal and Harbor structures,
• Irrigation and Drainage Projects

Surface Tension Variation

• Directly affects the evaporation loss from a large water body in storage;
• Variation of water viscosity with temperature is important to all problems involving water in motion.

The Earth's Atmosphere

• The earth's atmosphere layer thickness is approximately 1500 km of mixed gases.

• Nitrogen makes up ~ 78% of the atmosphere,
• Oxygen makes up ~ 21%,
• The remaining 1 % consists mainly of water vapor, argon, and trace amounts of other gases.

Atmospheric Pressure

• The total weight of the atmospheric column exerts a pressure on every surface with which it comes in
contact.
 • At sea level, under normal conditions, the atmospheric pressure is 1.014×105 N/m2 or 1 bar.
• N/m2 is also known as Pascal
• In the atmosphere, each gas exerts a partial pressure independent of the other gases.
• The partial pressure exerted by the water vapor in the atmosphere is called the vapor pressure.

Phases of Water

• The amount of energy holding the molecules together depends on the temperature and pressure.
• Depending on its energy content, different forms of water are called three phases:
1. Solid (snow and ice)
2. Liquid (the most commonly recognized form)
3. Gaseous form in air (Moisture, water vapor)

Change of Water from One Phase to Another Phase

• Energy must either be added or taken away from the water.

• Latent energy: the amount of energy required to change water from one phase to another.
• To Melt ice requires a latent heat (heat of fusion) of cal/g.
• 79.71 cal of heat energy must be taken out of each gram of water to freeze.
• Evaporation requires a latent heat (heat of vaporization) of 597 cal/g.
• Under standard atm.P, water boils at 100°C.

Properties of Water

• Understand the physical properties of water to solve problems in hydraulic engineering systems.
• Main Water properties:
1. Density (r),
2. Surface tension
3. Viscosity (n)
1. Density and Specific Weight of Water
▪ Density (ƿ): mass per unit volume (kg/m3).
▪ Density depends on size and weight of the molecules and the mechanisms by which
these molecules are bonded together.
▪ Water expands when it freezes. The expansion of freezing water causes stresses on
the container walls. These stresses are responsible for the bursting of frozen water
pipes, chuck holes in pavement, and for the weathering of rocks in nature.
▪ Water reaches a maximum density at 4°C. It becomes less dense when heated.
▪ Density of sea water about 4% more than that of fresh water. Thus, when fresh
water meets sea water without sufficient mixing, salinity increases with depth.
 Variation of Density in a Large Reservoir
Change of density with T causes water in a lake to stratify:
1. During summer, water tends to stratify, with warmer water on the surface
(Summer stratification)
2. During the fall, the surface water drops rapidly and sinks toward the lake
bottom. The warmer water near the bottom rises to the surface, resulting
in fall overturn of the lake.
3. In the winter (water temperature falls below 4°C, with highest water
density), the lake surface freezes while warmer water remains at the
bottom. The winter stratification is followed by spring overturn of the lake.
Specific Weight of Water
▪ The weight W = mg
m: mass of project (m, in grams, kilograms, etc.),
g: the gravitational acceleration (g = 9.81 m/sec2).
▪ Weight is expressed in the force units of newton (N) = the force required
to accelerate 1 kg of mass at a rate of 1 m/sec2.
▪ The specific weight (g) = weight per unit volume of water (N/m3)
ƴ=ƿg
▪ Specific gravity (S): the ratio of the specific weight of any liquid to that of
water at 4°C.

2. Viscosity of Water
• Consider that water fills the space between two parallel plates at a distance y a
part. A horizontal force T is applied to the upper plate and moves it to the right at
velocity ƴ while the lower plate remains stationary. The shear force T is applied to
overcome the water resistance R, and it must be equal to R because there is no
acceleration involved in the process.
 Shear stress (t) is the resistance per unit area of the upper plate t = RIA
Water responds to shear stress by continuously yielding in angular deformation in the
direction of the shear.
The rate of angular deformation in the fluid, d(Ѳ)/dt ,is proportional to the shear stress, as
shown in Figure 1.2.

• The absolute viscosity has the dimension of force per unit area (stress) times the
time interval considered. It is usually measured in the unit of poise.

• The absolute viscosity of water at room temperature (20.2°C) is equal to 1

centipoise (cP), which is one-hundredth of a poise.
1 poise = 0.1 N • sec/m2 = 100 cP
• The absolute viscosity of air is approximately cP (roughly 2% of water).

Newtonian Fluids and Non-Newtonian Fluids

Equation (1.2) is commonly known at Newton's law of viscosity. Most liquids abide by
this relationship and are called Newtonian fluids. Liquids that do not abide by this linear
relationship are known as non-Newtonian fluids. These include most house paints and
blood.

Kinematic Viscosity

• Kinematic viscosity, v, is obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity by the mass

density of the fluid at the same temperature;

n = µ / ƿ.

• The kinematic viscosity unit is cm2/sec.

• The absolute viscosities and the kinematic viscosities of pure water and air are
shown as functions of temperature in Table 1.3.
3. Surface Tension and Capillarity

• Even at a small distance below the surface of a liquid body, liquid molecules are
attracted to each other by equal forces in all directions.
• The molecules on the surface, however, are not able to bond in all directions and
therefore form stronger bonds with adjacent water molecules. This causes the
liquid surface to seek a minimum possible area by exerting surface tension (ơ)
tangent to the surface over the entire surface area.
• The rise or fall of liquid in capillary tubes are the results of surface tension.
• Most liquids adhere to solid surfaces.
• The adhesive force varies depending on the nature of the liquid and of the solid
surface.
• If the adhesive force between the liquid and the solid surface is greater than the
cohesion in the liquid molecules, the liquid tends to spread over and wet the
surface, as shown in Figure 1.3(a).
• If the cohesion is greater, a small drop forms, as shown in Figure 1.3(b).
• Water wets the surface of glass, but mercury does not. If we place a small vertical
glass tube into the free surface of water, the water surface in the tube rises
(capillary rise ). The same experiment performed with mercury will show that the
mercury falls. The phenomenon is commonly known as capillary action.
• Capillary effect is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube. It is caused by
surface tension.
• The magnitude of the capillary rise (or depression), h, is determined by the balance
of adhesive force and the weight of the liquid column above (or below) the liquid-
free surface.
• The angle (q) at which the liquid film meets the glass depends on the nature of the
liquid and the solid surface.
• The upward (or downward) motion in the tube will stop when the vertical
component of the surface tension force around the edge of the film equals the
weight of the raised (or lowered) liquid column.

• The surface tension (s) of a liquid is usually expressed in the units of force per unit
length.
• Its value depends on the temperature and the electrolytic content of the liquid.
Small amounts of salt dissolved in water tend to increase the electrolytic content
and, hence, the surface tension. Organic matter (such as soap) decreases the
surface tension in water and permits the formation of bubbles.
• The surface tension of pure water is listed in Table 1.4.
Elasticity of Water

• Under ordinary conditions, water is commonly assumed to be incompressible. In reality, it is about 100
times as compressible as steel.
• It is necessary to consider the compressibility of water when water hammer problems are involved.
• The compressibility of water is inversely proportional to its volume modulus of elasticity, Eb, also known
as the bulk modulus of elasticity,
• The pressure-volume relationship:

• Where:
- Vol is the initial volume,
- D(P) and D(Vol) are the corresponding changes in pressure and volume, respectively
• The negative sign means that a positive change in pressure will cause the volume to decrease.
• The bulk modulus of elasticity (Eb) of water varies both with temperature and pressure.
• Typical value: Eb = 2.2 x 109 N/m2 (300,000 psi)
• Large values of the bulk modulus indicate incompressibility
• Incompressibility indicates large pressures are needed to compress the volume slightly

Forces in a Fluid Field

• Various types of forces may be exerted on a body of water at rest or in motion. These forces usually
include:

- the effects of gravity,

- inertia, elasticity,

- friction,

- pressure, and

- surface tension.

• These forces may be classified into three basic categories according to their physical characteristics:
1. Body Forces

- force per unit mass (N/kg) or force per unit volume (N/m3).

- act on all particles in a body of water as a result of some external body or effect but not
due to direct contact.

- an example, gravitational force and Inertial forces and forces due to elastic effects.

2. Surface Forces
- force per unit area (N/m2)

- act on the surface of the water body by direct contact.

- may be either external (Pressure forces and friction forces) or internal (viscous force inside
a fluid body).
3. Line Forces

- force per unit length (N/m).

- Surface tension is thought of as the force in the liquid surface normal to a line drawn in the
surface. Thus, it may be considered as a line force.