I

ntr
oduct
iont
oAnat
omyandPhy
siol
ogy

Anat omy  isthesub- di

sciplineofbi ol ogyt hatst udi esthest r
ucture
oft hebody .Itdescr i
bes( andl abel si nLat i
n)t hemor phologyof
thebody :shape,si ze,col orandposi t
ionofv ar i
ousbodypar ts,
withpar ticularat tenti
ont ot hei nt ernalor gans,asv isibl ebyt he
nakedey e. Histology  
isasubsetofanat omyt hatdescr ibeswhat
canbeseenonl yundert hemi croscope:howcel lsareor ganized
i
nto t
issues and tissues into organs.
(Classical) 
embr yology  
descr ibes t he way t issues and or gans
changet hei rshape, si
ze,col orandposi tiondur ingdev el opment .
Anat omypr ov i
dest hemapandt het ool sf ort hest udyoft he
functionofor gansi nt hebody .Itdescr ibes( butdoesnotexpl ain)
thest ructureoft hebody . 
Phy siol ogy  
furtherdescr i
beshow t he
body f unct i
ons, whi l
e ev olutionar y bi ology pr ov ides t he
explanationoft hest r
uct ureandt hef unct i
on.Whi ledet ai
lsof
humananat omyar eessent i
ali nt heeducat ionofphy siciansand
nurses( andani mal anatomyf orv eter i
narians
Whati stheanat omy ?
Anatomy i s t he sci enti
fi
c st udy of t he st ruct
ure
of 
organi
sms i
ncl
uding thei
r syst
ems,or gans and t
issues.It
i
ncludestheappearanceandpositionofthev ar
iouspar t
s,the
materi
alsfr
om whichtheyarecomposed,t
heirl
ocati
onsandt hei
r
rel
ati
onshi
pswithotherpar
ts.

Whati
sthephy
siol
ogy
?
Phy
siol
ogy
 i
sthe st
udy of how t
he 
human body
 wor
ks. I
t
descri
besthechemi st
ryandphysi
csbehindbasi
c body 
funct
ions,
fr
om how mol ecul
esbehav eincell
stohow systemsofor gans
workt ogether.Ithelps us underst
and whathappens i na
heal
thy 
body  
in every
day li
fe and what goes wr ong when
someoneget ssick
Levelsofstr
uct
uralorgani
zati
oninthehumanbody.
Thelevel
sofstruct
uralorgani
zati
onarechemi
cal
,cel
lul
ar,
tissue,
organ,syst
em,andorganismal.
TheSy
stemsoft
heHumanBody
INTEGUMENTARYSYSTEM
Component s:Skinandassoci atedst ructur
es,suchashai r,
Fingernail
sandt oenail
s,sweatgl ands, andoilglands.
Funct i
ons:
Protectsbody ;helpsregulat
ebodyt emperature;eliminatessome
wast es;hel
psmakev it
aminD;det ectssensationssuchast ouch,
pain,warmt h,andcol d
SKELETALSYSTEM
Component s:Bonesandj oi
nt soft hebodyandt heirassociated,
,
cartil
ages.
Funct ons:
i
Suppor tsandpr otect
sbody ;pr ov i
dessur facear eaf ormuscl e
attachment s;aidsbodymov ement s;housescel lst hatproduce
bloodcel l
s;
Storesmi neralsandl i
pids(f
ats).
.
SKELETALSYSTEM
TheSy
stemsoft
heHumanBody
ENDOCRI NESYSTEM
Components: Hor mone-producing gl ands ( pi
neal gland,
hypot
halamus, pi
tui
tar
ygland,thymus,thyroidgl
and,par
athy
roi
d
gl
ands,adr enalglands,pancr eas,ovaries,and test
es)and
hormone-pr
oducingcel
lsi
nsev eralot
herorgans.

Functi
ons:
Regul
atesbodyacti
vi
ti
esbyr
eleasi
nghormones(chemi
cal
Messengerstr
ansport
edi
nbloodfrom endocr
inegl
andorti
ssue
totar
getor
gan).
CARDI
OVASCULARSYSTEM
Component s:
Blood,heart,andbloodv essels.
Functions:
Heartpumpsbl oodthroughbloodv essels;bl
oodcarri
esoxy gen
Andnut ri
entst ocell
sandcar bondi oxideandwast esawayf r
om
cell
sand hel psr egulateacid–basebal ance,temperat
ure,and
watercont entofbodyf l
uids;blood component shel p defend
againstdiseaseandr epai
rdamagedbl oodv essel
s.
Whati
stheskel
etalsy
stem?

Thehumanskeletalsy
stem consist
sofallofthebones,
 
carti
l
age,
tendons,and 
l
igaments i
nt he body.Altogether
,the skel
eton
makesupabout 20percent 
ofaperson’
sbodywei ght
.

An adult
’s skel
eton contai
ns 206 bones.Chi
l
dren’
s skel
etons
actual
l
ycont ainmor ebonesbecausesomeoft hem,incl
uding
thoseoftheskull
,fusetoget
herastheygrowup.
Thereareal
sosomedi ff
erencesinthemal eandfemaleskel
eton.
Themal eskel
etonisusuallylongerandhasahi ghbonemass.
Thef emal
eskelet
on,ont heot herhand,hasa broaderpel
vi
s t
o
accommodateforpregnancyandchildbir
th.

Regardl
essofageorsex,
theskelet
alsystem canbebrokendown
i
ntotwoparts,knownastheaxialskel
etonandt heappendi
cular
skel
eton.

Axi
alskel
etonanat
omy

Theadultaxialskel
etonconsist
sof80bones.I
t’
smadeupofthe
bonesthatformt hever
ti
calaxisoft
hebody,
suchast
hebonesof
thehead,neck,chest
,andspine.

Skul
lbones
Theadul
tskullcompr
ises22bones.Thesebonescanbef
urt
her
cl
assi
fi
edbylocati
on:

 Crani
albones. 
The ei
ght 
crani
albones 
for
m t
he bul
k of
your 
skul
l
.Theyhel
ptoprot
ectyourbr
ain.

 Faci
albones.
 Ther
ear e14faci
albones.They
’ref
oundon
thef
rontoft
heskullandmakeuptheface.

Hy
oid
The hyoi
d i
saU-shapedbonef oundatthebaseofthejaw.It
servesasapoi
ntofattachmentformuscl
esandl
i
gamentsint
he
neck.

Ver
tebr
alcol
umn

The 
vert
ebr
alcol
umn i
smadeup26bones.Thef i
rst24ar
eal
l
ver
tebr
ae,f
oll
owedbyt
hesacr
um andcoccy
x(t
ail
bone).

The24v
ert
ebr
aecanbef
urt
herdi
vi
dedi
ntot
he:
  Cerv
icalv
ert
ebr
ae.
 Thesesev
enbonesar
efoundi
nthehead
andneck.

 Thoraci
cver
tebr
ae.
 These12bonesar
efoundi
ntheupper
back.

 Lumbarv
ert
ebr
ae.
 Thesef
ivebonesar
efoundi
nthel
ower
back.

The 
sacrum 
and 
coccyx 
are bot
h made up of severalfused
ver
tebr
ae.Theyhel
psupporttheweightoft
hebodywhil
esitt
ing.
Theyal
soserveasatt
achmentpoint
sforvar
iousl
i
gaments.

Thor
aci
ccage

Thethoraci
ccageismadeupoft he 
sternum (br
eastbone)and12
pair
sof  
ri
bs.Thesebonesf orm apr otect
ivecagear oundthe
organsoftheuppert
orso,
incl
udingthehear tandlungs.
Someoft heri
bsat t
achdir
ectl
ytothester
num,whi
l
eother
sare
l
inkedt othester
num viacarti
l
age.Somehavenoatt
achment
pointandarer
efer
redtoas“fl
oati
ngri
bs.
”

Skel
etalsy
stem di
agr
am

I
ntegument
arysy
stem
The i
ntegumentar
y system isthe setofor gans for ming the
outermostl
ayerofananimal '
sbody .I
tcomprisesthe skin 
andits
appendages,acti
ngasaphy si
calbarri
erbet weent heext er
nal
envir
onmentandt hei
nternalenv
ironmentthatitserv
est opr ot
ect
andmai
ntai
n.
Thei ntegument arysystem incl
udes  hai
r,
 scal
es,
 feathers,
 hooves,
and nails.Ithasav ar
ietyofaddi ti
onalfuncti
ons;itmayser veto
maint ai
n wat erbal ance,pr otectt he deepert issues,excrete
wastes,andr egul
ate bodyt emper atur
e,andi st heat tachment
sit
ef or sensoryreceptors 
todet ectpain,sensat
ion, pr
essure,and
temper ature.
Ski
n
Theskinisoneoft helar
gestorgansofthebody.I
nhumans,i
t
accountsforabout12t o15per centoftot
albodywei
ghtand
covers1.
5-2m2 
ofsurf
acearea.

St
il
lshowi
nghumani
ntegument
arysy
stem.
Theski n( integument )isacomposi teor gan,madeupofatl east
two maj orl ayer
s oft issue:t he 
epidermis and the der
mi s 
The
epidermisi st heout er
mostl ayer,pr
ov i
dingthei ni
ti
albarri
ertot he
externalenv ir
onment .I tis separ ated f r
om t he der mis by
the basementmembr ane (basallamina and r
eticul
arlamina).The
epidermiscont ai
nsmel anocy t
esandgi vescolortot heskin.The
deepestl ay eroft he epidermis al
so cont ains nerve endings.
Beneat ht his,t hedermi scompr i
sest wosect i
ons,thepapi ll
ary
and r et
icularl ayers,and cont ainsconnect ivet i
ssues,vessel s,
glands,follicles,hairroots,sensoryner veendings,andmuscul ar
ti
ssue.
Betweentheintegumentandt hedeepbodymuscul aturethereis
at ransi
ti
onalsubcut aneous zone made up of v eryl oose
connecti
ve and adipose tissue, the 
hypodermis. Substantial
coll
agenbundlesanchort heder mistothehy podermisinaway
thatpermit
smostar easoft heskinto mov efreel
yov ert he
deeperti
ssuelayer

Epi
der
mis

Epi
der
misandder
misofhumanski
n
The  epidermis  isthest r
ong,super fi
ciallayerthatser vesast he
fi
rstl i
neofpr ot ecti
onagai nstt heout erenv ir
onment .Thehuman
epider misi scomposedofst ratifi
edsquamousepi thel
ialcells,
whi chf urtherbr eakdowni ntof ourt of i
vel ayers:t he st
ratum
corneum,  
stratum gr anulosum,  
st r
atum spi nosum  and st
ratum
basal .Wher et heskini st hicker,suchasi nthepal msandsol es,
therei sanext ralayerofski nbet weent hest r
atum cor neum and
the st r
atum gr anulosum, cal led t he st
ratum l ucidum. The
epider misi sr egener atedf rom t hest em cel l
sf oundi nthebasal
l
ay ert hatdev elopi nt
ot hecor neum.Theepi dermisit selfi
sdev oid
ofbl oodsuppl yanddr awsi tsnut r i
ti
onf rom it
sunder lyi
ngder mis.
It
smai nf uncti
onsarepr otecti
on,absorpt i
onofnutri
ents,and
homeost asis. In str
ucture, i t consi
sts of a ker ati
nized
str
atif
ied squamous epitheli
um; four ty
pes of
cell
s: 
keratinocy
tes,
 
melanocy tes,
 Merkel cell
s,and 
Langerhans
cell
s.
Thepr edomi nantcelltypeoft heepi der misi stheker ati
nocyte,
which pr oduces kerati
n,a f ibrous pr oteint hataids i n skin
protection,andi sresponsi bl
ef orthef ormat i
onoft heepi der
mal
wat erbar rierbymaki ngandsecr eti
ngl ipids.
 Themaj orityofthe
skinont hehumanbodyi skeratini
zed,wi tht heexceptionoft he
l
iningofmucousmembr anes,suchast hei nsideoft hemout h.
Non- keratinizedcell
sallowwat erto"stay "atopt hest
ruct ure.
Thepr otei
nker ati
nsti
ff
ensepidermalt i
ssuet oform f
ingernail
s.
Nailsgrowf r
om at hi
nareacall
edt he nai
lmat ri
x 
atanav erageof
1 
mm perweek.The  l
unula 
ist
hecr escent-shapeareaatthebase
oft henail,l
ighterincolorasitmi xeswi thmat ri
xcel l
s.Onl y
pri
mat eshavenai l
s.Inotherv
ertebrates,thekerati
nizi
ngsy stem
attheterminusofeachdigitpr
oducescl awsorhoov es.
The epidermis ofv ertebrat
es i
s surrounded byt wo kinds of
coveri
ngs,whi charepr oducedbyt heepi dermisitself
.In 
fish and
aquati
c amphi bi
ans,i tisat hi
nmucusl ay
ert hatisconst antl
y
being replaced. Int errest
ri
alv ert
ebrates,i ti st he 
st r
atum
corneum (dead ker ati
nized cell
s).The epi dermisi s,to some
degree,glandulari n allv er
tebr
ates,butmor e so infish and
amphi bi
ans.Mul t
icell
ularepidermalglandspenet ratetheder mis,
wheret hey ar e surrounded by blood capi l
lar
ies thatpr ov i
de
nutri
entsand,i nt hecaseofendocr inegl ands,transportt heir
products.
Der
mis
Theder misi
stheunder
lyi
ngconnect
iveti
ssuelay
erthatsuppor
ts
theepidermi
s.Iti
scomposedofdenseir
regul
arconnecti
veti
ssue
and ar
eolar connectiv
e t i
ssue 
such as a col l
agen
with 
elast
in 
arr
angedi
nadiff
usel
ybundledandwov enpatt
ern.
Theder mi shast wolay ers:thepapi l
laryder misandt her eti
cular
l
ay er.Thepapi ll
arylayeri sthesuper fici
allayert hatformsf inger -
l
ikepr oject i
onsi ntotheepi der mis(dermalpapi llae),
 andconsi sts
ofhi ghlyv asculari
zed, l
ooseconnect ivetissue.Ther eti
cularlayer
i
st hedeepl ayeroftheder misandconsi stsoft hedensei rregular
connect ivet i
ssue.Thesel ayersserv et ogi veel asti
citytot he
i
nt egument ,allowingst retchingandconf erri
ngf l
exibil
i
ty,whi l
e
alsor esisti
ngdi stort
ions, wrinkli
ng,andsaggi ng.  
Theder mall ayer
prov i
desasi t
ef ort heendi ngsofbl ood v esselsand ner ves.
Many  
chr omat ophores areal sost oredi nt hisl ayer,asar et he
bases of i ntegument al st ruct
ures such as  hair,
 
feather s,
and glands.
Hy
poder
mis
Thehy podermis,otherwiseknownast hesubcutaneouslayer,i
sa
l
ay erbeneatht he skin.I tinv
agi nat
esintot he dermisand i s
attached tothe latter
,i mmediat el
yabov eit,bycol l
agen and
elasti
nf i
ber
s.Itisessent ial
l
ycomposedofat ypeofcel lknown
asadi pocyt
es,whichar especializedinaccumulati
ngandst or
ing
fats.Thesecel l
sar egr oupedt ogetheri
nl obul
essepar atedby
connect i
veti
ssue.
Thehy podermisactsasanener gyreserve.Thefat scontai
nedi n
theadipocytescanbeputbacki ntoci r
culat
ion,v i
at hev enous
rout
e,dur i
ngintenseef f
ortorwhent hereisal ackofener gy-
provi
dingsubstances,andar et
hent r
ansformedi ntoenergy .The
hypodermispar t
ici
pates,passi
vel
yatl east,inther moregulati
on
si
ncef
ati
saheati
nsul
ator
.Funct
ions
Theintegumentar
ysy st
em hasmulti
pler
olesin 
mai ntai
ningthe
body'
sequili
bri
um.Al lbodysyst
emsworki nani nter
connected
mannert o maintai
nt he i
nter
nalcondi
ti
ons essentialt othe
funct
ionofthebody.Theskinhasanimportantj
obofpr otect
ing
thebodyandact sast hebody'sf
ir
stli
neofdef enseagainst
i
nfecti
on, temperatur
e change, and other chal l
enges t o
homeostasi
s.
I
tsmai
nfunct
ionsi
ncl
ude:

 Pr
otectt
hebody
'si
nter
nal
li
vi
ng 
ti
ssues 
andor
gans

 Pr
otectagai
nsti
nvasi
onby
 i
nfect
ious 
organi
sms

 Pr
otectt
hebodyf
rom 
dehy
drat
ion

 Pr
otect the body agai
nst
 abr
upt changes 
i
n t
emper
atur
e,
maint
ain 
homeost
asi
s

 Hel
p excr
ete 
wast
emat
eri
alst
hrough 
per
spi
rat
ion

 Actasar eceptorfortouch,pr
essur
e,pai
n,heat
,andcol
d
(see 
Somat
osensorysyst
em)

 Pr
otectt
hebodyagai
nst
 sunbur
ns 
bysecr
eti
ngmel
ani
n

 Gener
ate 
vi
tami
nD 
thr
oughexposur
eto 
ult
rav
iol
et 
l
ight

 St
ore 
wat
er,
 
fat
,gl
ucose,
vit
ami
nD

 Mai
ntenanceoft
hebodyf
orm

 For
mat
ionofnew cel
l
sfr
om st
rat
um ger
minat
ivum t
o
 r
epai
rmi
nori
njur
ies

 Pr
otectf
rom 
UV 
ray
s.

 Regul
atesbodyt
emper
atur
e

I
tdist
ingui
shes,separ
ates,and pr
otect
sthe or
gani
sm
f
rom i
tssur
roundi
ngs.
Smal l-
bodied i nvert
ebrates of aquat
ic or conti
nual
ly moi
st
habitats 
respir
e  usi
ng the outerlayer(i
ntegument).Thi
s gas
exchangesy stem,wher egasessimplydiff
useintoandoutof
the 
intersti
ti
alfluid,
iscall
ed i
ntegument
aryexchange.
Cl
i
nical
signi
fi
cance
Possi
ble di
seases and i
njur
ies t
othe human i
ntegument
ary
syst
em i
nclude:
 Rash

 Yeast

 At
hlet
e'sf
oot

I
nfect
ion

 Sunbur
n

 Ski
ncancer

 Al
bini
sm

 Acne

 Her
pes
  Her
pesl
abi
al’
s,commonl
ycal
l
edcol
dsor
es

I
mpet
igo

 Rubel
l
a

 Cancer

 Psor
iasi
s

 Rabi
es

 Rosacea

 At
opi
cder
mat
it
is

 Eczema
THECARDI OVASCULARSYSTEM:THEHEART

Thecar
diov
ascul
arsy
stem consi
stsoft
hebl
ood,t
hehear
t,and
bloodv essel s.Weal soexami nedt hecomposi t
ionandf uncti
ons
ofbl ood,andi nt hischapt ery ouwi l
llearnaboutt hepumpt hat
circulatesi tthr oughoutt hebody —thehear t.
Forbl oodt or eachbodycel l
sandexchangemat er i
alswi ththem,
i
tmust
bepumpedcont inuousl
ybyt hehear tthr ought hebody ’sblood
vessel s.
Thehear tbeat sabout100, 000t i
mesev eryday ,whichaddsupt o
about
35mi l
li
onbeat si nay ear ,andappr oximat ely2.5bi l
liont i
mesi n
an
aver agel ifetime.Thel eftsi deoft hehear tpumpsbl oodt hrough
anest imat ed120, 000km ( 75,000mi )ofbl oodv essel s,whichi s
equi valentt ot ravelingaroundt heear t
h’sequat orabout3t i
mes.
The r i
ghtsi de oft he hear tpumps bl ood t hrough t he lungs,
enabl ingbl oodt opi ckupoxy genandunl oadcar bondi oxide.Ev en
whi l
ey ouar esl eeping,yourhear tpumps30t imesi tsownwei ght
eachmi nut e,whi chamount st oabout5l it
er s(5.3qt )tot helungs
andt hesamev olumet ot her estoft hebody .
Att hisr ate, yourhear tpumpsmor et hanabout14, 000l it
ers(3600
gal)
ofbl oodi naday ,or5mi l
lionliter
s
Locat
ionoft
heHear
t
Foralli
tsmight,
thehearti
srel
ati
vel
ysmal l
,roughlythesame
size(butnotthesameshape)asy ourclosedf i
st.Itisabout12
cm
(5in.
)long,9cm (3.
5in.
)wideati
tsbroadestpoint,and6cm
(2.5i
n.)thi
ck,
withanaveragemassof250g( 8oz)inadult
femalesand300g( 10oz)inadul
tmales.Thehear trest
sont he
di
aphr
agm,
neart
hemi
dli
neoft
het
hor
aci
ccav
ity
.
Thehear tl
iesinthemediast
inum
(me¯ _-
de¯-
as-TĪ-
num),ananatomicalregi
ont hatext
endsfr
om
the
sternum tot he v er
tebr
alcolumn,f r
om t he fi
rstri
bt othe
diaphragm,
andbet weenthelungs.Abouttwo-
thir
ds
ofthemassoft heheartl
i
estothel
eftofthebody ’
smidl
ine
Per
icar
dium
The membrane t
hatsur
rounds and pr
otect
sthe hear
tist
he
per
icar
dium
Itconfi
nest hehear tt oitsposi ti
oni nthemedi asti
num,whil
e
all
owingsufficientfr
eedom ofmov ementf orvi
gorousandrapi
d
contr
acti
on.
The pericar
dium consi sts oft wo mai n part
s:(1)the f
ibr
ous
peri
cardi
um andt heserouspericardium.
The super f
icialf i
brous pericardium i s composed oft ough,
i
nelasti
c,densei rr
egularconnectivetissue.

Posi
tion of t he hear
t and associat
ed str
uct
ures in t
he
mediasti
num (dashedoutli
ne)
.
Thehearti slocat
edint hemedi
asti
num,withtwo-
thi
rdsofit
s
masst othelef
tofthemidli
ne.
Peri
car
dium andhear
twal
l.
The per
icar
dium isat r
ipl
e-l
ayer
ed sac t
hatsur
rounds and
prot
ect
stheheart
.
Lay
ersoft
heHear
tWal
l
Thewal lofthehear tconsi
stsoft hreelayer
s:
Theepi cardium (exter
nallayer),themy ocardi
um (middl
elay
er),
and
theendocar dium (i
nnerlay
er).Theepi car
dium i
scomposedof
Twot i
ssuel ayer
s.Theout ermost ,asy oujustlear
ned,i
scall
ed
the
Viscer
al l
ayeroft heserouspericardium.
Thi
sthi
n,t
ranspar
entout
erl
ayeroft
hehear
twal
liscomposedof
mesothel
ium.Theepicar
dium cont
ainsbl
oodv
essel
s,l
ymphat
ics,
andvesselst
hatsupplyt
hemy ocar
dium.
Themi ddl
emy ocar di
um (mı̄_-o¯-KAR-de¯-um;my o-_muscle)
i
sr esponsiblef ort he pumpi ng action oft he heartand is
composedofcar diacmuscl et i
ssue.Itmakesupappr oxi
matel
y
95%oft hehear twal l
.
Thei nnermostendocar di
um ( en_-do¯-
KAR- de¯
-um; endo-_
within)isathinl ayerofendothelium overl
yingat hi
nlayerof
Connect iv
etissue.I tprov
idesasmoot hl i
ningforthechambersof
thehear tandcov ersthevalv
esoft heheart.
Chamber
soft
heHear
t
The heart has four chambers.The t wo super ior r
eceivi
ng
chambers
arethe atri
a( ent
ryhal l
s orchambers),and t he two inf
eri
or
pumpingchamber sarethevent
ricl
es(l
it
tl
ebel l
i
es) .
Thepair
edat ri
areceiv
ebloodfrom bl
oodv esselsreturni
ngblood
to
thehear
t,cal
ledveins,
St
ruct
ureoft
hehear
t:sur
facef
eat
ures
Throughoutthi
sbook,bl
oodv essel
sthatcarr
yoxy genatedblood
(which
l
ooks brightred)are colored red,whereas those thatcar r
y
deoxygenatedbl
ood(whichlooksdarkred)arecoloredblue.
Ri
ghtAt
ri
um
Ther
ightatr
ium f
ormsther
ightbor
deroft
hehear
tandr
ecei
ves
bl
oodfrom t
hreevei
ns
Thesuper iorvenacav a,inferiorvenacav a,andcoronarysinus
Veinsalway scarrybloodt owar dtheheart.
Betweent her i
ghtatrium andl eftatr
ium isat hi
nparti
tioncalled
theinterat
rialseptum (inter-_ bet
ween;sept um adivi
dingwal lor
parti
ti
on).
Bloodpassesf rom therightat rium i
ntotherightvent
ri
clethrough
av alv
et hatiscal l
edt het ricuspidv al
vebecausei tconsistsof
threeleafl
etsorcuspsI tisalsocal l
edther i
ghtatri
oventri
cular
valveThev al
vesoft hehear tarecomposedofdenseconnect ive
ti
ssuecov eredbyendocar dium

Ri
ghtVent
ri
cle
Therightvent
ricleisabout4–5mm ( 0.16–0.
2in.)i
naver
age
thi
cknessandf ormsmostoft heanteriorsur
faceoftheheart
.
The
i
nsideoftherightventricl
econtainsaser i
esofri
dgesf
ormedby
rai
sedbundlesofcar diacmusclef i
berscall
edtr
abecul
aecarneae
Str
uctureofthehear t:int
ernal
anat omy
Bl
oodf l
owsintother
ightatr
ium t
hrought
hesuperi
orvenacav
a,
i
nfer
iorvenacava,
andcoronarysi
nusandi
ntot
heleft
at
ri
um t
hroughf
ourpul
monar
yvei
ns

HEARTVALVESACI RCULATI ONOFBLOOD

Aseachchamberoft heheartcont r
acts,itpushesav ol
umeof
bl
oodintoav entricleoroutoft hehear tintoanar t
ery
.Valv
es
openandclosei nr esponset opr essurechangesast heheart
cont
ractsandrelaxes.Eachoft hefourv alveshel
psensurethe
one-
wayf l
owofbl oodbyopeni ngt oletbloodthroughandthen
cl
osingtopreventi tsbackflow
Responsesoft hev al vest
ot hepumpi ngoft heheart
.
Heartval
vesprev entt hebackf l
owofbl ood.
Oper at i
onoft heAt r
iov entr
icularVal ves
Becauset heyar elocat edbet weenanat rium andav ent r
icl
e,t he
tri
cuspi d
andbi cuspidv alvesar etermedat r
iovent ri
cular(AV)
valves.WhenanAVv alveisopen, ther oundedendsoft hecusps
projecti ntot hev entri
cle.Whent hev entri
clesar er elaxed,t he
papillary
muscl esar erelaxed, thechor daetendi neaear eslack, andbl ood
mov esf rom ahi gherpr essurei ntheat r
iatoal owerpr essur ein
the
ventr i
clest hroughopenAVv alves.
Whent hev ent r
iclescont r
act, t
hepr essur eoft hebl ooddr ivest he
cuspsupwar dunt ilt
hei redgesmeetandcl oset heopeni ng
THEENDOCRI NESYSTEM
THEENDOCRI NESYSTEM ANDHOMEOSTASI S
Circulatingorl ocalhor monesoft heendocr i
nesy stem cont ribute
tohomeost asisbyr egul ati
ngt heact ivi
tyandgr owt hoft arget
cellsiny our
body .Hor monesal sor egulatey ourmet aboli
sm.
Asgi rlsandboy sent erpuber ty,theyst artt odev elopst r i
ki
ng
diff
erencesi nphy sicalappear anceandbehav ior.
Per hapsnoot herper i
odi nl i
fesodr amat i
callyshowst hei mpact
ofthe
endocr i
nesy st
em i ndi rectingdev elopmentandr egulat i
ngbody
functions.Ingi rls,est rogenspr omot eaccumul ati
onofadi pose
ti
ssuei nthebr east sandhi ps,sculptingaf emi nineshape.Att he
samet imeoral ittl
el ater,i ncreasingl evelsoft estost eronei n
boysbegi ntohel pbui l
dmuscl emassandenl argethev ocal cords,
producingal ower -pit
chedv oi
ce.
Thesechangesar ejustaf ewexampl esoft hepower ful influence
ofendocr inesecr et i
ons.Lessdr amat icall
y,perhaps,mul ti
tudesof
hormones hel p mai ntain homeost asis on a dai l
ybasi s.They
regulatethe
acti
v i
tyofsmoot hmuscl e, cardiacmuscl e,andsomegl ands; al
ter
met aboli
sm; spur gr owt h and dev elopment ; i nfluence
reproductive pr ocesses;and par ti
cipatei n ci r
cadian ( dail
y)
rhythmsest ablished
bythesuper chiasmat i
cnucl eusoft hehy pothalamus.

ENDOCRI
NE GLANDS COMPARI
SON OF CONTROL BY THE
NERVOUSANDENDOCRI NESYSTEMS.
•Compar econt rolofbodyf unctionsbyt hener voussy st em and
endocr i
nesy stem.
Thener vousandendocr i
nesy stemsactt ogethert ocoor dinat e
funct ionsofal lbodysy stems.Recal lthatt hener voussy stem
acts
through ner vei mpul ses ( act i
on pot ential
s)conduct ed al ong
axons
ofneur ons.Atsy napses,ner v eimpul sest riggert her el easeof
medi ator
(messenger )mol ecul escal l
edneur otransmi tters.Theendocr ine
syst em al so cont rols body act i
vit
ies by r eleasi ng medi ator s,
calledhor mones, butt hemeansofcont r
ol ofthet wosy stemsar e
verydi f
ferent .
Ahor mone( hormon_t oexci teorgetmov ing)isamedi ator
mol ecul ethati srel easedi nonepar toft hebodybutr egul atest he
activ i
tyofcel l
sinot herpar tsoft hebody .Mosthor monesent er
i
nter st i
tialfl
uidandt hent hebl oodst ream.Theci rculatingbl ood
deliver s hor mones t o cel ls t hroughout t he body . Bot h
neur ot r
ansmi t
ters
andhor monesexer tt heireffect sbybi ndingt or ecept ors
on ori nt heir“ target ”cel l
s.Sev eralmedi at ors actas bot h
neur ot r
ansmi t
ters and hor mones. One f ami liar exampl ei s
norepi nephr ine,whi ch i sr eleased as a neur otransmi tterby
sympat het ic
post gangl i
oni cneur onsandasahor monebychr omaf fincel lsof
theadr enal medul lae.
Responses oft he endocr i
ne sy stem of t
en ar e sl owert han
responses
ofthener voussy st em; alt
houghsomehor monesactwi t
hin
seconds, mostt akesev er almi nut esormor et ocausear esponse.
Theef fect sofner voussy stem act i
v ationar egener allybr i
efer
than
thoseoft heendocr inesy st em.Thener voussy st em act son
speci fi
c
muscl esandgl ands.Thei nf luenceoft heendocr inesy st em i s
much
broader ;ithel psr egulat ev i
rtual l
yal ltypesofbodycel ls.
Wewi l
lal sohav esev eral oppor t
uni ti
est oseehowt hener vous
and endocr ine sy stems f unct ion t oget heras an i nterlocki ng
“supersy stem. ”
f orexampl e,cer tainpar tsoft hener voussy stem
stimul ate
ori nhibitt her eleaseofhor monesbyt heendocr i
nesy st em.
compar est hechar acter isti
csoft hener vousandendocr i
ne
syst ems.I nt hischapt er, wef ocusont hemaj orendocr i
ne
glandsandhor mone- produci ngt issuesandexami nehowt hei r
hor monesgov ernbodyact i
v i
ties.
ENDOCRI NEGLANDS
OBJECTIVE
Di stingui shbet weenexocr i
neandendocr inegl ands.
Recal lfrom Chapt er4t hatt hebodycont ainst woki ndsofgl ands:
exocr inegl andsandendocr i
negl ands.Exocr inegl ands( EK-so¯ -
krin;exo-_out side)secr etet hei rpr oduct si ntoduct st hatcar ry
thesecr et i
onsi ntobodycav ities, intothel umenofanor gan, orto
the out er sur face of t he body . Exocr ine gl ands i nclude
sudor i
ferous
(sweat )
, sebaceous( oi l
), mucous, anddi gest iveglands.Endocr ine
glands( EN- do¯- kr i
n; endo-_wi t
hi n)secr etet heirproduct s
(hor mones)i ntot heint er sti
tial fl
ui dsur roundi ngt he
secr etorycel lsrat hert hani nt oduct s.Fr om t hei nterstitialfluid,
hor monesdi ff
usei ntobl oodcapi ll
ariesandbl oodcar r
iesthem t o
targetcel l
st hr oughoutt hebody .Becauseoft heirdependenceon
thecar diov ascul arsystem t odistri
but etheirpr oduct s,endocr i
ne
glands ar e some oft he mostv ascul art issues oft he body .
Consi dering
that most hor mones ar er equi r
ed i nv ery smal lamount s,
circulati
ng
l
ev elstypical lyar elow.
Theendocr inegl andsi ncludethepi tuitary,thyroid,parathyroid,
adr enal,
andpi neal gl
ands.I naddi ti
on, sev eral organs
andt issuesar enotexcl usivel
ycl assifi
edasendocr i
negl andsbut
cont ain cel l
s t hat secr ete hor mones. These i nclude t he
hypot halamus,
thymus, pancr eas, ovaries,test
es, kidney s,stomach, li
ver,
smal lintest ine,ski n,hear t
,adiposet issue,andpl acenta.Taken
toget her
,
allendocr inegl andsandhor mone- secr etingcel lsconst i
tute
theendocr i
nesy stem.Thesci enceoft hest ructureandf uncti
on
of
Endocr
inegl
ands
TABLE18.
1

THEENDOCRI NESYSTEM
Locati
onofmanyendocr i
neglands.Al
soshownar eotherorgans
thatcont
ainendocri
necellsandassoci
atedstr
uct
ures.
Whati st he basi
c dif
ference bet
ween endocr
ine glands and
exocri
neglands?
Endocri
ne glands secr
ete hormones,which cir
culat
ing blood
del
i
ver
stot
argett
issues.

FUNCTIONSOFHORMONES
1.Hel
pregulat
e:
 Chemicalcomposi
ti
onandv
olumeofi
nter
nal
env
ironment
 ( I
nterst i
tial fl
uid).
 Met abol ism andener gybal ance.
 Cont ract ionofsmoot handcar di
acmuscl efiber
s.
 Glandul arsecr eti
ons.
 Somei mmunesy stem activit
ies.
2.Cont rolgr owt handdev el
opment .
3.Regul ateoper ati
onofr eproduct i
v esystems.
4.Hel pest ablishci rcadianrhy t
hms.
Circulati
ngandLocalHor mones
Mostendocr inehor monesar ecirculati
nghor mones—t heypass
from thesecr etor ycell
st hatmaket hem intoint
ersti
ti
al f
lui
dand
thenintot hebl ood.Ot herhor mones, termedlocal
hormones, actl ocallyonnei ghbor i
ngcellsoront hesamecel l
thatsecr etedt hem wi thoutf i
rstent er
ingt hebl
oodstream .Local
hormonest hatactonnei ghbor i
ngcel l
sar e
calledpar acr i
nes( PAR- a-
kri
ns; para-_besi deornear)
,and
thoset hatactont hesamecel lthatsecr et
edt hem ar ecal
led
autocr i
ne

THERESPI
RATORYSYSTEM
her
espi
rat
orysy
stem cont
ri
but
est
o
homeostasi
sbyprov i
dingfortheexchangeofgases—oxygenand
carbondi
oxi
de—between
theatmospher
icair,blood,andtissuecel
ls.I
talsohelpsadj
ust
thepHofbodyflui
ds.

Yourbody ’scel
lscontinual
lyuseoxygen(O2)f ort
hemet abol
ic
reactions t hatrelease energy fr
om nut r
ientmol ecules and
produce
ATP.Att hesamet ime, t
hesereact
ionsreleasecarbondi oxi
de
(CO2) .Becauseanexcessi v
eamountofCO2pr oducesacidit
y
that
canbet oxictocell
s,excessCO2mustbeel iminat
edqui cklyand
effi
ciently.Thecardiovascul
arandrespir
atorysystemscooper ate
tosuppl yO2andel iminateCO2.Ther espi
ratorysystem provi
des
forgasexchange—i nt akeofO2andel imi nati
onofCO2—and
thecar diov ascularsy st em t ranspor tsbl oodcont ainingt hegases
bet ween t he l ungs and body cel ls.Fai l
ure ofei t
hersy stem
disrupt s
homeost asi s by causi ng r api d deat h ofcel lsf rom oxy gen
starvat i
on
andbui ldupofwast epr oduct s.I naddi tiontof unct ioningi n
gas exchange,t he r espi rator y sy st em al so par ti
ci pates i n
regulat i
ng
blood pH,cont ains r ecept orsf ort he sense ofsmel l,f il
ter
s
i
nspi red
air,producessounds, andr i
dst hebodyofsomewat erandheati n
exhal edai r .Asi nthedi gest iveandur i
nar ysy stems, whi chwi l
lbe
cov eredi nsubsequentchapt ers, i
nt her espir
at orysy stem t her eis
anext ensi vear eaofcont actbet weent heexter nal env i
ronment
andcapi llar ybloodv essel s.
Ther espi ratorysy stem ( RES- pi-ra-to¯ r-e¯)consi stsoft henose,
phar ynx( t
hr oat),l
ary nx( v oicebox) ,tr achea( wi ndpi pe), bronchi ,
andl ungs( Figure23. 1) .I tspar tscanbecl assifiedaccor dingt o
eitherst ruct ureorf unct ion.St ructur ally, t
herespi rat orysy stem
consi stsoft wopar ts: (1)Theupperr espi r
atorysy stem i ncl udes
thenose, nasal cav i
ty ,phar ynx, andassoci atedst r
uct ures.( 2)The
l
owerr espi ratorysy st em i ncludest hel arynx, t
rachea, br onchi ,
andl ungs.Funct ional ly, ther espi rator ysy stem al soconsi stsof
two par ts:( 1)The conduct i
ng zone consi sts ofa ser ies of
i
nt erconnect i
ng
cav i
tiesandt ubesbot hout sideandwi thinthel ungs.
Thesei ncl udet henose, nasal cav it
y ,phar y
nx, l
ar ynx, tr
achea,
bronchi , bronchi oles, andt ermi nal bronchi ol
es; theirf unct ion
i
st of ilt
er ,war m, andmoi st enai randconducti tintot hel ungs.
(2)Ther espi rat oryzoneconsi stsoft ubesandt i
ssueswi thint he
l
ungswher egasexchangeoccur s.Thesei ncl udet her espirat ory
br onchiol es,alv eolarduct s, alveolarsacs, andal v eoli andar et he
mai nsitesofgasexchangebet weenai randbl ood.
The br anch ofmedi cine t hatdeal s wi tht he di agnosi s and
treat ment
ofdi seasesoft heear s, nose, andt hr oat( ENT)i scal l
ed
Ot orhinol aryngol ogy( o¯ _ -
to¯ -rı̄_
-no¯- l
ar_-in-GOL- o¯ -
je¯ ;oto-_ear ;
-rhino-_nose; - lary ngo- _v oice box; - logy _ study of ). A
pul monol ogist
(pul _-
mo- NOL- o¯- jist)isaspeci alisti nt hedi agnosi sand
treat mentofdi seasesoft hel ungs
Nose
Thenosei saspeci alizedor ganatt heent ranceoft her espirat or
y
sy stem t hati sdi videdi nt oanext er nal portionandani nternal
por ti
oncal ledt henasal cav ity.Theext ernalnosei st hepor tionof
the nose v i
sibl e on t he f ace and consi st s ofa suppor ti
ng
framewor k
ofboneandhy ali
necar til
agecov er edwi thmuscl eandski n
andl i
nedbyamucousmembr ane.Thef ront al bone, nasal bones,
andmaxi llaef ormt hebonyf ramewor koft heext er nal nose
(Figur e23. 2a) .Thecar til
agi nousf ramewor koft heext ernal nose
consi stsoft hesept alnasal car ti
lage, whi chf ormst heant er i
or
por ti
onoft henasal sept um; thelat er alnasalcar til
agesi nferior
tot henasal bones; andt heal arcar t
ilages( A¯ -lar) ,whi chf or ma
por ti
onoft hewal l
soft henost ril
s.
St ructuresoft her espi rat orysy stem.
Theupperr espi rat orysy stem i ncl udest henose,nasalcav i
ty,
phar ynx, andassoci atedst ruct ures; thel owerr espi rator y
sy stem incl udest hel ar ynx, trachea, bronchi , andl ungs.
FUNCTI ONSOFTHERESPI RATORYSYSTEM
1.Provi
desf orgasexchange: int
akeofO2f ordeli
veryto
bodycellsandr emov alofCO2pr oducedbybodycel ls.
2.HelpsregulatebloodpH.
3.Containsreceptorsforsenseofsmel l,
fil
tersinspi
redair
,
producesvocal sounds( phonati
on),andexcretessmall
amount sofwat erandheat .
Respi
rat
oryst
ruct
uresi
ntheheadandneck.
Locat
ionoft
het
racheai
nrel
ati
ont
otheesophagus

Thetr
acheaisanteri
ort
ot heesophagusandext
endsfr
om t
he
l
ary
nxtothesuper
iorbor
deroft
hef i
ft
hthor
aci
cver
tebr
a
Branchingofai
rwaysfr
om t
hetrachea:t
hebr
onchi
alt
ree.
Thebr onchi
alt
reebegi
nsatthetr
acheaandendsatt
hetermi
nal
bronchiol
es
Lungs
Thel ungs( _light weight s,becauset heyf loat)ar epairedcone
shaped
organsi nthethor aciccav ity.Theyar esepar at edfrom
eachot herbythehear tandot herst ructur
esoft hemedi asti
num,
whi chdi vi
desthet horaciccav i
tyintotwoanat omicall
ydisti
nct
chamber s.Asar esult,i
ft raumacausesonel ungtocol l
apse,
the ot hermayr emai n expanded.Each l ung i s encl
osed and
protect ed
byadoubl e-l
ayer edser ousmembr anecal l
edt hepleural
membr ane(PLOOR- al;pleur-_si de).
Sur faceanat omyoft hel ungs.
Theobl i
quef issur edi vi
dest hel eftlung i ntot wo lobes.The
obliqueandhor izontal f
issur esdi vi
det herightl unginto
threel obes.

PULMONARYVENTI
LATI
ON
Descr ibet heev ent st hatcausei nhal ationandexhal ation.
Thepr ocessofgasexchangei nt hebody ,cal ledr espiration,has
threebasi cst eps:
1.Pul monar yv ent ilati
on( pul mon-_l ung) ,orbr eat hi
ng, i
s
thei nhal ation( infl
ow)andexhal at i
on( out flow)ofai rand
i
nv olv est heexchangeofai rbet weent heat mospher eandt he
alveol ioft hel ungs.
2.Ext ernal( pulmonar y)respi rati
oni st heexchangeofgases
betweent heal veoli ofthel ungsandt hebl oodi npul monar y
capi l
lar iesacr osst her espirat orymembr ane.I nt hisprocess,
pulmonar ycapi l
larybl oodgai nsO2andl osesCO2.
3.Int er nal( t
issue)r espi r
at i
oni stheexchangeofgasesbet ween
bloodi nsy stemi ccapi l
lari
esandt i
ssuecel ls.I nthisst ept he
blood l oses O2 and gai ns CO2.Wi thin cel l
s,t he met abol
ic
react ions
thatconsumeO2andgi veof fCO2dur ingt hepr oduct i
onof
ATPar et ermedcel lularrespi ration( discussedi nChapt er25) .
Inpul monar yv entilation,airf lowsbet weent heat mospher es
and t he al veol ioft he lungs because ofal ternating pr essure
differences
creat edbycont ractionandr elaxat i
onofr espi rator ymuscl es.
Ther at eofai rflowandt heamountofef for tneededf or
breat hing ar e al so i nfluenced by al v eol ar sur face t ensi
on,
compl iance
oft hel ungs, andai rwayr esi stance
l
ungswhent heai rpr essur ei nsidet hel ungsi sgr eatert hant heair
pressur ei nt heat mospher e.
Inhal ation
Breat hi ngi ni scal ledi nhalat ion( inspi r
at ion) .Justbef or eeach
i
nhal at ion,t heai rpr essur ei nsidet hel ungsi sequalt ot heai r
pressur e
oftheat mospher e,whi chatseal evel i
sabout760mi l
li
met ers
ofmer cury( mmHg) ,
or1at mospher e( atm) .Forai rt oflow
i
ntot hel ungs, thepr essur einsi det heal veol i mustbecomel ower
thant heat mospher i
cpr essur e.Thi scondi tioni sachi eved by
i
ncr easi ng
thesi zeoft hel ungs.
The pr essur e ofa gas i n a cl osed cont aineri si nversely
propor ti
onal
tothev olumeoft hecont ainer.Thi smeanst hatift hesi zeof
aclosedcont ainerisi ncr eased, t
hepr essur eoft hegasi nsidet he
cont ainerdecr eases,and t hati fthe si ze oft he cont aineris
decr eased,
thent hepr essur einsi dei tincr eases.Thi si nv erser elati
onshi p
betweenv olumeandpr essur e, call
edBoy le’sl aw, may
bedemonst ratedasf ol lows: Supposewepl acea
gasi nacy l
indert hathasamov ablepi stonandapr essuregauge,
andt hatt hei nitialpressur ecr eat edbyt hegasmol eculesst r
iki
ng
thewal loft hecont aineri s1at m.I ft hepi stoni spusheddown,
the
gasi scompr essed i nto a smal l
erv ol ume,so t hatt hesame
number
ofgasmol eculesst rikel esswal larea.Thegaugeshowst hatthe
pressur edoubl esast hegasi scompr essedt ohal fitsor i
ginal
volume.
Inot herwor ds, thesamenumberofmol ecul esi nhal fthe
volumepr oducest wicet hepr essur e.Conv er sely,ift hepi stonis
rai
sedt oincr easet hev ol ume, thepr essur edecr eases.
Thus, thepr essur eofagasv ar i
esi nversel ywi thv olume.
Dif
ferencesi npressurecausedbychangesi nlungvolume
for
ceai rintoourlungswhenwei nhaleandoutwhenweexhal e.
Forinhalati
ont ooccur ,
thelungsmustexpand, whi
chincr eases
l
ungv olumeandt husdecr easest hepr essureint hel ungst o
below
atmospher ic pressure.The f i
rstst ep i
n expanding t he lungs
during
normal quietinhalati
oninvol
vescont ract
ionoft hemai n
musclesofi nhalation,t
hediaphragm andext ernali
ntercost al