Module 6: Innovations and Renewal in Education

Introduction

Education is recognised by many governments as a key instrument towards promoting

development because it is through education (it can be formal, non-formal, and/or

informal education) that human being develops the capacity to participate/contribute

to the welfare of society and to meet his own needs.

Soon after independence, most of the independent African states started to invest in

education so that to enable citizens to be productive so as to bring about rapid

individual and societal development. So elsewhere in Africa, there were rapid growth

of schooling after independence although it did not marched with the employment

opportunities existed in those countries because the number of graduates were bigger

compared to the formal employment posts existed in those countries. This raised

concerns about unsuitable and irrelevant inherited curricula; a realization that

educational growth and economic growth were not necessarily in step and that jobs

did not emerge directly as a result of educational inputs.

As a result, post-primary school unemployment and rural development rapidly

became a big issue of political debate. This led to the introduction of several new

post-primary school institutions and programmes that were expected to make school

leavers better able to enter labour markets, whether in rural or urban contexts.

Famous examples of the new innovations introduced by the African countries to

tackle the problem of unemployment were Village (Later youth) polytechnics of

Kenya, the brigades of Botswana and Folk Development Colleges of Tanzania etc.

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The innovation in non formal education (vocational training) was seen as an

alternative mean to curtail the unemployment and problems associated with it as

poverty in Botswana, Tanzania and Kenya.

Innovation

Rogers (2003) defines diffusion as “the process in which an innovation is

communicated thorough certain channels over time among the members of a social

system” (p. 5). It is an idea, practice, or object that is perceived as new by an

individual or other unit of adoption (Rogers, 1995). As expressed in this definition,

innovation, communication channels, time, and social system are the four key

components of the diffusion of innovations.

i. Innovation

Rogers offered the following description of an innovation: “An innovation is an idea,

practice, or project that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption”

(Rogers, 2003, p. 12). An innovation may have been invented a long time ago, but if

individuals perceive it as new, then it may still be an innovation for them. Uncertainty

is an important obstacle to the adoption of innovations. An innovation’s consequences

may create uncertainty: “Consequences are the changes that occur in an individual or

a social system as a result of the adoption or rejection of an innovation” (Rogers,

2003, p. 436).

ii. Communication Channels

The second element of the diffusion of innovations process is communication

channels. For Rogers (2003), communication is “a process in which participants

create and share information with one another in order to reach a mutual

understanding” (p. 5). This communication occurs through channels between sources.

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Rogers states that “a source is an individual or an institution that originates a

message. A channel is the means by which a message gets from the source to the

receiver” (p. 204). Rogers states that diffusion is a specific kind of communication

and includes these communication elements: an innovation, two individuals or other

units of adoption, and a communication channel. Mass media and interpersonal

communication are two communication channels.

iii. Time

According to Rogers (2003), the time aspect is ignored in most behavioral research.

He argues that including the time dimension in diffusion research illustrates one of its

strengths. The innovation-diffusion process, adopter categorization, and rate of

adoptions all include a time dimension.

iv. Social System

The social system is the last element in the diffusion process. Rogers (2003) defined

the social system as “a set of interrelated units engaged in joint problem solving to

accomplish a common goal” (p. 23). Since diffusion of innovations takes place in the

social system, it is influenced by the social structure of the social system. For Rogers

(2003), structure is “the patterned arrangements of the units in a system” (p. 24). He

further claimed that the nature of the social system affects individuals’

innovativeness, which is the main criterion for categorizing adopters.

Attributes of Innovations and Rate of Adoption

Rogers (2003) described the innovation-diffusion process as “an uncertainty reduction

process” (p. 232), and he proposes attributes of innovations that help to decrease

uncertainty about the innovation. Attributes of innovations includes five

characteristics of innovations: (1) relative advantage, (2) compatibility, (3)

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complexity, (4) trialability, and (5) observability. Rogers (2003) stated that

“individuals’ perceptions of these characteristics predict the rate of adoption of

innovations” (p. 219). Also, Rogers noted that although there is a lot of diffusion

research on the characteristics of the adopter categories, there is a lack of research on

the effects of the perceived characteristics of innovations on the rate of adoption.

Rogers (2003) defined the rate of adoption as “the relative speed with which an

innovation is adopted by members of a social system” (p. 221). For instance, the

number of individuals who adopted the innovation for a period of time can be

measured as the rate of adoption of the innovation.

1. Relative Advantage

Rogers (2003) defined relative advantage as “the degree to which an innovation is

perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes” (p. 229). The cost and social

status motivation aspects of innovations are elements of relative advantage.

2. Compatibility

In some diffusion research, relative advantage and compatibility were viewed as

similar, although they are conceptually different. Rogers (2003) stated that

“compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with the

existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters” (p. 15). If an

innovation is compatible with an individual’s needs, then uncertainty will decrease

and the rate of adoption of the innovation will increase. Thus, even naming the

innovation is an important part of compatibility. What the innovation is called should

be meaningful to the potential adopter. What the innovation means also should be

clear.

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 3. Complexity

Rogers (2003) defined complexity as “the degree to which an innovation is perceived

as relatively difficult to understand and use” (p. 15). As Rogers stated, opposite to the

other attributes, complexity is negatively correlated with the rate of adoption. Thus,

excessive complexity of an innovation is an important obstacle in its adoption. For

instance, technological innovation might confront faculty members with the challenge

of changing their teaching methodology to integrate the technological innovation into

their instruction (Parisot, 1995).

4. Trialability

According to Rogers (2003), “trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be

experimented with on a limited basis” (p. 16). Also, trialability is positively correlated

with the rate of adoption. The more an innovation is tried, the faster its adoption is.

5. Observability

The last characteristic of innovations is observability. Rogers (2003) defined

observability as “the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others”

(p. 16). Role modeling (or peer observation) is the key motivational factor in the

adoption and diffusion of technology (Parisot, 1997).

In summary, Rogers (2003) argued that innovations offering more relative advantage,

compatibility, simplicity, trialability, and observability will be adopted faster than

other innovations. Rogers does caution, “getting a new idea adopted, even when is has

obvious advantages, is difficult” (p. 1), so the availability of all of these variables of

innovations speed up the innovation-diffusion process.

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Adopter Categories

Rogers (2003) defined the adopter categories as “the classifications of members of a

social system on the basis of innovativeness” (p. 22). This classification includes

innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. In each adopter

category, individuals are similar in terms of their innovativeness: “Innovativeness is

the degree to which an individual or other unit of adoption is relatively earlier in

adopting new ideas than other members of a system” (Rogers, 2003, p. 22). For

Rogers, innovativeness helped in understanding the desired and main behavior in the

innovation-decision process. Thus, he categorizes the adopters based on

innovativeness.

Innovators

For Rogers (2003), innovators were willing to experience new ideas. Thus, they

should be prepared to cope with unprofitable and unsuccessful innovations, and a

certain level of uncertainty about the innovation. Also, Rogers added that innovators

are the gatekeepers bringing the innovation in from outside of the system. They may

not be respected by other members of the social system because of their

venturesomeness and close relationships outside the social system. Their

venturesomeness requires innovators to have complex technical knowledge. These

people are always optimistic i.e. looking forward believing that the idea must succeed.

Early Adopters

Compared to innovators, early adopters are more limited with the boundaries of the

social system. Rogers (2003) argued that since early adopters are more likely to hold

leadership roles in the social system, other members come to them to get advice or

information about the innovation. In fact, “leaders play a central role at virtually every

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stage of the innovation process, from initiation to implementation, particularly in

deploying the resources that carry innovation forward” (Light, 1998, p. 19). Thus, as

role models, early adopters’ attitudes toward innovations are more important. Their

subjective evaluations about the innovation reach other members of the social system

through the interpersonal networks. Early adopters’ leadership in adopting the

innovation decreases uncertainty about the innovation in the diffusion process.

Finally, “early adopters put their stamp of approval on a new idea by adopting it”

(Rogers, 2003, p. 283).

Early Majority

Rogers (2003) claimed that although the early majority have a good interaction with

other members of the social system, they do not have the leadership role that early

adopters have. However, their interpersonal networks are still important in the

innovation-diffusion process. The early majority adopts the innovation just before the

other half of their peers adopts it. As Rogers stated, they are deliberate in adopting an

innovation and they are neither the first nor the last to adopt it. Thus, their innovation

decision usually takes more time than it takes innovators and early adopters.

Late Majority

Similar to the early majority, the late majority includes one-third of all members of

the social system who wait until most of their peers adopt the innovation. Although

they take long time to adopt the new ideas because they are skeptical about the

innovation and its outcomes, economic necessity and peer pressure may lead them to

the adoption of the innovation. To reduce the uncertainty of the innovation,

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interpersonal networks of close peers should persuade the late majority to adopt it.

Then, “the late majority feels that it is safe to adopt” (Rogers, 2003, p. 284).

Laggards

As Rogers (2003) stated, laggards have the traditional view and they are more

skeptical about innovations and change agents than the late majority. As the most

localized group of the social system, their interpersonal networks mainly consist of

other members of the social system from the same category. Moreover, they do not

have a leadership role. Because of the limited resources and the lack of awareness-

knowledge of innovations, they first want to make sure that an innovation works

before they adopt. Thus, laggards tend to decide after looking at whether the

innovation is successfully adopted by other members of the social system in the past.

Due to all these characteristics and others like (traditional, conservativeness, they are

also the oldest age and are least educated), laggards’ innovation-decision period is

relatively long.

Factors for Innovation

Factors for innovation can be grouped into three;

i. Enabling

ii. Facilitating and

iii. Militating factors

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Enabling factors

These are the factors that connect the innovator and client system. they govern the

relationship between the innovators and clients. There are two things to consider,

these are:

 Knowledge and background of the clients for instance the institutions and their

values, cultures etc were needed in to simplify the adoption of the idea. The

idea might contradict with value of the institutions hence take longer or

sometimes rejected. The innovators must thoroughly study the clients’ system

in order to avoid contradiction. The knowledge will have the change agent to

implement the idea.

 Client involvement: the clients must be actively involved for instance teachers

towards ESR. During ESR teachers were expected to implement but they were

not prepared therefore misinterpretation.

Importance of involvement:

a) It leads to morale which is an important and necessary element for any

innovation.

b) It leads to greater commitment

c) It leads to greater clarity

d) It reduce initial resistance

Facilitating Factors

These may involve both internal and external supports for the innovations; some

important elements are:

a) Adequate and relevant recourses such as human resources, financial and

technological resources.

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 b) The need for training and retraining of the clients. People need to know

the new idea.

c) Optimal planning to meet the client needs i.e. how and which resources

will be used

d) A motivating presence of the motivator i.e. the nature of how the

innovators respond to the needs of the people (listen to people’s

problems)

Militating Factors

Traditionalism and conservatism are the factors within it for instance the traditional

society will take longer to adopt the idea due to

 their conservative nature,

 Communication breakdown (feedback and the way to communicate with the

clients),

 Costs and expenses. It is a financial implication to get the innovation to get the

innovation implemented. The new idea may need technical resource which is

expensive.

 Time costs affect the innovation

 Professional hegemony/authority which refers to power of professional.

The guiding principles towards effective innovation

There are several determinants that guide us towards effective innovation

 Any educational innovation beyond an initial period of formulation you must

make it a public matter progressively. People should feel it as theirs. Allow

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 popular discussion and engaging the interest and support of those expected to

implement it.

 Communication should be a vital link between the innovators (source of

innovation) and the clients

 Innovation in the change effort by the school leaders, district leaders,

communities etc if you are not sure about the understanding of the people, you

have to train them.

Forces that led to an innovation are include;-

a) New needs in economy (incentives)

b) Technological changes

c) Social changes (dynamism).

The Selected Case Studies

The Youth Brigades (YB), Folk Development Colleges (FDCs) and Village

Polytechnics in Botswana, Tanzania and Kenya are very practical examples of

innovations in vocational training education provided out of formal system to meet

the challenges exerted by high unemployment rate for school leavers. The

programmes were emerged as an innovation to solve pressing problem in any given

society. It is goal and purpose oriented not certificate oriented. It emphases on

tackling specific problems and rather than learning abstract subject matters. It is

flexible, leaner centred, and participatory. It is more practical than theoretical and

has autonomy at the program level and less chance for external control; and more

economical because it could use existing facilities; it is a continuous education (life

long process)

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The Youth Brigades in Botswana

The youth brigades in Botswana were founded as response to the needs of youth

unable to get places at secondary schools. They are autonomous, community-based

and government aided school-run enterprises engaging in three main activities,

namely

i) vocational training

ii) income-generating production

iii) community development and extension work

Historically, the brigades’ movement was introduced by Patrick van Rensburg who at

first introduced secondary schools basing on practical ideas at Serowe in 1965. The

schools were basically low-cost targeting out of school and pre-job entries. Young

primary leavers who did not get places in secondary schools formed the core of the

trainees to get work experiences. From Serowe, the school spread to number of areas

in Botswana and appeal to some communities. The following are set of the objectives

the Brigades aimed to achieve;-

a) To establish an alternative to the existing formal education system. To

provide vocational education to young who failed to be absorbed in formal

secondary system.

b) To combines education and training with production that cover the cost of

running these institutions.

c) To provide young people with skills for self-employment and find

employment elsewhere

d) To cultivates the values, attitudes and skills among youths that would form a

basic resource for a positive socio-economic and ideological orientation.

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The Brigades system: Combining vocation training with production

The brigades aimed to cover a wide training and production areas-building, carpentry,

mechanical and electrical work, leatherwork, ceramics, furniture, dress making,

spinning, weaving, fabric painting, dyeing, printing and publishing, ranching,

farming, animal husbandry, handcrafts, beadwork, and knitting.

These various brigade activities are grouped under four major categories

1) Training Brigades-denote those Brigades which put annual intakes through

courses in modern-sector skills, leading to Government Trade Tests, e.g.

Builders, carpenters, mechanics, and electricians

2) Industrial Brigades-include those Brigades which train and work in a

workshops, e.g. tanning, chalk-making, textiles, furniture, etc. They typically

use a sizable amount of capital and are recognized on a factory production basis

3) Handcraft Brigades-are small, low capital groups receiving training in the

production of arts and crafts. Production and training is less formal and usually

less productive than in the Industrial Brigades.

4) Farmers Brigades-denote all groups receiving agricultural training, ranging

from a small mobile unit giving short courses.

At the beginning, 13 brigades were established with a total of 2000 trainees with 106

average numbers of trainees in a brigade. The training is a mixture of theoretical

(20%); and practical and on-job training (80%). By 1979, the system had established

Builders brigade with 552 participants, Carpenters Brigade 162, Mechanical Brigade

101, Textile Brigade 94, Farmers Brigade 63, Electrical Brigade 38, and advanced

Builders 30. Currently, there are 33 Brigades operating through out Botswana training

in 16 different trades, such as building, carpentry, textiles, office skills, general

maintenance, computer studies and business studies.

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The training duration for those who join with these brigades is either two or three

years in length depending on the level of basic education of the participants.

Achievements of the Brigades

 Through youth brigades, the trainees acquire/learn the basic life skills such as

positive attitudes towards manual work. Participants are trained to work, are

more committed, and are not afraid to get their hands dirty.

 The system has produced a large number of craftsmen with nationally

recognised certification.

 The programme managed to reduce the problem of youth unemployment

because most of the graduates from the brigades are either employed in the

modern sector or self employed.

 The employed graduates help to reduce or eradicate poverty especially in rural

areas in Botswana. This simulates the development/growing of Botswana’s

economy especially in mineral industry which absorbs many graduates from

the brigades.

Problems and challenges facing Brigades

 The major problems associated with brigades as alternative training to secure

self-employment and modern sector is the loss of interest and poor quality of

graduates.

 The persisting unemployment rate in Botswana among the graduates is also

seen as a problem since its original objective fails to make trainees self-

reliant.

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  Expansion of the system is limited by the small internal market and the

customs union with South Africa, which floods Botswana with inexpensive

goods from the Republic.

 In many areas/places, the Brigades are no longer the sole providers of goods

and services.

 Without advanced business skills among Brigade managers, Brigades may

fall behind their competitors with the consequences that the central concept of

training with production will suffer.

 Due to shortage of resources, the government fail to subsidise all brigades in

Botswana hence the brigades can not operate as planned due to financial

difficulties.

The Village Polytechnics in Kenya

The post-independent rising unemployment in Kenya is a major concern of the

government, as over 60% of the young populations are affected most. The National

Christian Council of Kenya (NCCK) initiated the village polytechnics movement in

1966 to solve this problem. The NCCK recognising the rapid development of a

serious unemployment problem within the primary school leaver population, decided

to establish low-cost post primary school training centres in rural areas in 1966, which

later became known as Youth Polytechnics.

The general argument for the establishment of Youth Polytechnics (YP) programme

was that school leavers were unable to become self-employed or get salaried jobs

because of inappropriate education. The village polytechnics were originally to

provide rural primary school leavers with skills which were in demand in the local

economy, thereby engendering a cadre of self-employed artisans and independent

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work groups. The main hope was that the training in the YPs would be both practical

and productive. In addition, it was hoped that, the trainees would identify work

opportunities for themselves and thus select the appropriate areas in which to train.

Lastly, it was hoped that, the curriculum would largely be based on the job type of

experience and thus be flexible. It was hoped that this kind of training would reduce

the influx of school leavers into urban areas.

Purpose of YP programme

 To offer training to primary school leavers with no prospect of regular wage-

earning employment for eventual rural self-employment through locally

financed and operated low-cost rural vocational training centres.

 To provide primary school leavers (and presumably unemployed secondary

school leavers) from that area skills, understanding and values which will

make them able to look for money-making opportunities where they live.

 To contribute to rural development by building up the economic strength of

their own community.

By 1975, there were 150 youth polytechnics centres in Kenya, 100 of then were

government assisted, comprising about 6000 trainees and over 35 courses are

offered in carpentry, masonry, tailoring and dressmaking, motor mechanics, sign

writing, agriculture, metal work, plumbing, business education and home

economics. To day, there are about 300 government assisted village polytechnics

in Kenya which absorbs about 5% of all primary school leavers.

In general, the objective of the YP programme is that its graduates will obtain the

skills which they can use to become self-employed in rural areas. The overall

effect of this strategy would, theoretically, be to reduce youths’ unemployment,

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de-accelerate the pace of rural-urban migration, while enhancing the development

of the rural economy through non-farm rural enterprises.

Achievements of the YP programme

 The programme to a large extend managed to meet its objectives. YP’s have

been successful in changing the attitudes of youth/young people towards

manual work and technical education.

 The programme had also enabled many young people to engage in gainful

employment.

 The students had acquired many useful technical skills, ranging from

electricity and motor mechanics to bee-keeping, poultry-keeping, and

plumbing.

 Most of the YP graduates used their skills to earn a living and even create

employment for other youths.

 The programme had changed the youths’ attitudes towards rural areas and had

made them regard their rural home areas as their future places of employment.

 The success of YP can also be judged from its massive expansion over the

years e.g. in 1980, the number of government-aided YPs was 244, with a total

enrolment of 14,997 trainees and a combined staff of 1,335 instructors. Within

three years, the total number of government-aided YPs had increased to 287,

while the number of trainees and instructors had risen to 21,473 and 1620

respectively.

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 Problems and Challenges

Despite the above success, Kenya’s Youth Polytechnic Programme is widely

regarded as having failed to achieve its original objectives. This is simply because

of the following reasons;-

 The Youth Polytechnic programme offered opportunities to only a small

fraction of the unemployed primary school leavers living aside the majority of

the total primary school leavers.

 The focus of the curriculum in these Youth Polytechnic programme was very

narrow, while some of the skills offered, such as tailoring, dressmaking and

home economics, were not in high demand in the rural areas.

 While Youth Polytechnic leavers obtained production skills in their particular

trades, they received insufficient training in business management skills which

undermined their chances of succeeding in self-employment. Only a small

proportion of YP leavers (about 23%) become self-employed, and even a

smaller percentage of this number survive. Lastly, of those who survive, the

majority are unable to expand their businesses beyond a certain point.

 Currently, the Youth Polytechnic centres offer courses that are unrelated to the

needs of employers and industries. This means that, those who trained in these

YPs are unlikely to be employed as any other untrained school leavers.

 YPs have become more attached to the formal trades certification system, and

most trainees are more concerned about obtaining certificates for wage

employment rather than entrepreneurship.

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FOLK DEVELOPMENT COLLEGES IN TANZANIA

The Folk development colleges (FDCs) were established in Tanzania as institutions

for training rural people for useful service to their communities. The origin of FDCs

can be traced back to the adult education programmes introduced after independence

and based on the Swedish Folk High School model. The FDCs which were officially

established in 1975 and which began functioning effectively from the begging of 1976

are conceived as one of the programmes for meeting the needs and challenges of post-

literacy continuing education, by providing residential educational opportunities, both

general and vocational, for rural development. They were planned to constitute the

third stage of adult education after the first and second phases (adult literacy

campaign to eradicate illiteracy by 1975, and consolidation to prevent relapses into

illiteracy) of adult education by offering literacy as well as vocational skills. The

government of Tanzania set an objective of establishing one FDC in each district by

1980 through co-operation with the Swedish government. The objective/target was

not reached due to the number reasons;-

a) Shortage of building materials, especially cement

b) Poor administration, due to transport problems and shortage of expertise

c) Low estimates for building materials

d) Principals submitting incomplete reports on construction or not submitting any

report at all

e) Lack of enough financial resources to run the existing FDCs etc.

The courses which were offered in these colleges were include, agriculture, animal

husbandry, household management, metal work, commerce, management, politics etc.

Vocational courses are usually 60% practical and 40% theory. .

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Objectives of FDCs

i) FDCs were to serve as centres for development, to further the adult

education campaign, the co-operative movement, socialism and rural

development.

ii) The colleges could also offer courses to village leaders, concerned with the

initiation and implementation of various development projects at local

level.

iii) Further more, the colleges could enrol primary-school leavers and prepare

them for various leadership roles at village level.

iv) It was also introduced for the purpose of preparing Tanzanians to develop

their personalities and their capacity to think, and also to try to help them

understand national policies and international affairs, the need for co-

operation, further education, and ways to develop their culture.

Achievements of FDCs

 Providing leadership training to most tutors and college principals through the

training college at Kibaha

 Training students who on completing their studies return to the village and

make use of the skills gained for their own benefits and for the benefits of the

society at large.

 The colleges managed to introduce courses that lead to trade tests-Although

traditionally trade tests are the key to formal sector employment, their

introduction in the FDCs is believed to strengthen the level of skills in the

respective rural areas.

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  The colleges also managed to enrol many standard seven leavers who failed to

join with secondary education. This helped them to get life skills which were

used to support their daily lives.

 FDCs have been successful in changing the attitudes of youth people in

Tanzania towards manual work and technical education. Also the FDCs

managed to change the attitudes of the young people towards rural area and

had made them regard their rural home areas as their future places of

employment.

Problems and Challenges facing FDCs

o Thirty per cent of the tutors by 1977 and 34% in 1978 had no teacher-training

experience. The capability of such individuals to handle the teaching of

students with different educational backgrounds, let alone mastering the

syllabus, is highly questionable.

o The courses take a long time and require the students to stay at the FDCs. It is

difficult for married people to stay away from their families for a long time.

o Most of the FDCs offer courses that are unrelated to the needs of employers

and industry. This means that those who trained in these FDCs are unlikely to

be employed as any other untrained school leavers.

o While FDCs leavers obtained production skills in their particular trades i.e.

carpentry, agriculture, animal husbandry etc, they received insufficient

training in business management skills which undermined their chances of

succeeding in self-employment.

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Make a private study/survey on other innovations in education like;-

a) Community Education Centres in Tanzania

b) Universal Primary Education (UPE) in Tanzania

c) Education system in Nigeria and its innovations e.g UPE

d) PEDP, SEDP & COBET in Tanzania.

Some Cases of educational reform and Innovation in Tanzania.

 Education for Self Reliance (ESR)

 Community Education Centres

 Universal Primary Education (UPE)

 Folk Development Colleges

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