FACULTY OF BUSINESS & GOVERNMENT

WRITING A GOOD ESSAY

February 2009
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WRITING A GOOD ESSAY

The two main purposes of this paper are, first, to let students know what is expected of an
academic essay in the Faculty of Business & Government and, second, to help them meet
those expectations by suggesting ways to write good essays.

The ability to write well is essential in successful practical management in both business and
government. Even technical people need to be able to do more than merely communicate in
print – cases have to be made out persuasively, and arguments won. Writing skills are also
important at UC, where lecturers use written assignments to test not only your knowledge
and understanding of theories, facts, etc, from course subjects, but also your ability to
analyse, think logically, and communicate all that in writing. Accordingly, the Faculty of
Business & Government works to improve student writing skills by exercising and testing
those abilities in assignments, and by providing timely constructive criticism through written
comments. Working at essays will improve your skills in areas important for your future
career, including: finding relevant information and using it appropriately, organising and
presenting your findings, and formulating and presenting an argument.

The paper supplies broad guidelines on how to handle the tertiary essay-writing task, by
suggesting a relatively standard process to write the type of essay you will often be asked for
in this Faculty: by following this process, you can be assured of not missing essential
elements in your papers. It also provides information on the Faculty's academic writing
requirements, by including advice on points of detail in key areas such as essay structure,
presentation, style and standards. This knowledge will enable you to learn from someone-
else's experience and so short-cut the highly inefficient process of learning from your own
mistakes. While the paper is directed primarily at first-year undergraduates, the suggestions it
contains apply generally across a range of units from first-year to doctoral level. Not every
suggestion will be applicable in every case and students will need to exercise common sense
in this regard – hard though that may be! Furthermore, academic essay-writing standards vary
between Faculties, so that only part of what follows is mandatory, and acceptable alternatives
exist for some of the practices suggested: always seek specific advice on essay requirements
(and, especially, referencing standards) from your tutor in each course you take.

There may be a range of good answers to any essay question, but the best papers:
- answer the question actually asked, and stay focused on the question;
- demonstrate a good knowledge of the academic issues involved;
- link the theory to the question;
- present a reasoned argument, with pros and cons, all in the writer's own words;
- support that argument with brief, properly referenced, quotations from texts, etc;
- link each step in the argument to form a seamless whole;
- are well-presented and reader-friendly; and
- are 'rich' in content.

This paper is in three main sections, each containing specific suggestions on how to write a
good essay: The Broad Approach; The Technical Detail; and Getting the Marks!
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THE BROAD APPROACH

Essays are written on a wide range of subjects, and for a number of purposes: discussing,
persuading, evaluating, analysing, forecasting, and so on. In this Faculty, many of the essays
you will face will ask you to demonstrate your knowledge and understanding of some part
of the related course (a theory, a definition, a principle), eg through analysing an example or
a case study, or evaluating alternative viewpoints. This section of the paper sets out one way
to write such an essay well. The following six-step process, while not mandatory, is usually
both efficient and effective at meeting the criteria for a good essay set out above:
1. analyse the question;
2. determine the broad thrust of your answer;
3. draft the essay;
4. support your argument;
5. reference the essay; and
6. edit the essay.

1. Analyse the Question

First read the question carefully to identify the relevant key academic issues involved, ie the
theories, models, principles, etc, concerned. Then look beneath the surface of the question
and determine the specific part of the course the question is targeting – because that is the
core of what you need to write about. Finally, study the question to make sure you
understand exactly what the question is asking. This analysis is important. Every semester
there are one or two students who fail an essay because what they wrote – although good in
many ways – didn't relate to the question at all!!!

You should be able to recognise immediately at least some of the points raised by the
question. If you can't see any issues, that may mean you haven't understood a lecture and
therefore need to go back and consult your lecture notes and text books. Alternatively, the
essay question may be based on material considered only briefly in lectures or tutorials, and
in these cases you will need to carry out research reading (of texts, journals, etc) to recognise
the issues involved.

In all such reading you will need to apply both your knowledge of the subject area, and your
critical abilities, to determine the relevance of each source to your specific question. To save
time when identifying which parts of a book are relevant, first use the list of contents, then
the index, and finally skim each likely passage, before starting detailed reading. When
research reading, always take adequate notes at the time, including a record of the full
bibliographic details of any work you consult, in a draft List of References. Do not rely on
memory – it will take only a little time to key in each new item to your List of References at
the time of reading, and will save valuable time later, especially when you've forgotten
exactly where a useful quote came from!

Note, when reading textbooks, etc, you need to be aware of the values that the author has
brought to the work. Some authors try to present a balanced and objective account of the
issues concerned, and then either evaluate that account or leave it to readers to make their
own judgment. Other works openly – or covertly! – advocate a particular viewpoint, and in
so doing often present only one side of a case. For example, an author under contract to be
the head of a government department might feel it appropriate – and indeed necessary for
their continuing employment! – to write articles containing only material that was actively
supportive of the Minister's views and the Government's policy. You need to assess what type
of approach has been taken for each work, and qualify its evidence accordingly.
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Note also, if, after giving the research a good try, you still have difficulty in recognising the
issues it is important not spend too much time trying to puzzle it out on your own – get help
from colleagues or your tutor. You do not have a lot of time!

2. Determine your Answer

Once you have identified the central issues in the question, you need to use your knowledge
of the related part of the course to decide what the general thrust of your answer is.
Depending on the particular wording of the question, this might involve deciding whether a
particular theory, principle, or model, is applicable to a certain case, or which of two or more
principles, etc, is desirable or appropriate, and so on. If you can't quickly work out your
answer, you will need to do more reading, or consult your colleagues or tutor.

3. Draft the Essay

With the main issues, and your answer, broadly identified you now need to write about them.
This usually needs to be done by assembling a reasoned argument, the conclusion of which is
the answer you have now determined, ie you need to discuss the issues and show why your
answer is the right one. Suggestions on how to do this are set out in the next main section.

4. Support the Argument

One essential characteristic of academic documentary-based (and most other) papers setting
out an argument – arguing a position – is that all significant statements made in presenting
the case must be supported by evidence from appropriate authorities. In general, when
researching the literature for authorities to support the answer you are presenting in your
paper, you will need to refer both to the prescribed (and other) textbooks, and also to other
relevant books, professional journals, etc. They are the best and main sources of the
authorities you need to support the claims and arguments in your essay. To show the breadth
of reading necessary in your research, you need to have at least, say, eight references for a
short essay – up to 3 000 words.

Note, literature sources are not of equal worth in providing supporting material for your
work: a (descending) order of authority often appropriate for documentary-based work is:
- textbook;
- professional refereed journal;
- other article, etc;
- lecture material;
- tutorial material; and
- personal experience or contacts.

Note also, in documentary-based work, knowledge gained from personal experience may be
used in an answer provided it clearly relates to the subject of the essay, and is restricted to
brief passages illustrating some key point. On the other hand, if the essay is a paper on field-
work carried out by the student, then the primary source could well be the student's personal
work or experience. Furthermore, many case studies are built up from nonacademic sources –
the financial press, commissions of inquiry, etc. Of course, both these types of paper will
usually also need to include material on the associated (documentary-based) academic theory.
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Note thirdly, much material is now available on the Web. However material on the Web
varies widely in accuracy as well as authority, and should therefore be used with care and
discrimination. Where Web material is used the date of access should always be included, as
this material is volatile.

5. Reference the Essay

With the essay now broadly drafted, you need to reference it. In academic essay-writing, this
means providing in the paper appropriate bibliographical information about all the authors
(and about all the associated books, journals, and other documentary sources), that you have
used or drawn on in writing your paper. Suggestions on how to do this, and information about
the required referencing standards, are set out in the next main section.

6. Edit the Essay

The final step in writing your essay is editing it. In this process you should ensure:
- correct spelling and word usage;
- correct grammar, syntax (ie sentence construction), and punctuation;
- consistency in referencing, headings and layout;
- the logical development of your argument;
- the seamless flow of the text ie that each paragraph and section is linked to the next with
a ‘bridging’ passage;
- a consistent focus on the question asked;
- the elimination of redundant or irrelevant material; and
- a word count (excluding appendices, etc) inside the limit.
These issues are discussed in detail below.

THE TECHNICAL DETAIL

This section of the paper contains specific detailed suggestions on how to achieve the high
writing standards, good presentation, and reader-friendliness necessary for a good essay:
1. essay structure;
2. essay content;
3. writing style and standards;
4. writing method;
5. presentation;
6. referencing; and
7. how to write gooder!

1. Essay Structure
The structure of the essay (ie the nature and order of its various parts) is important because it
gives form, order, logic and readability to the essay. The following six-part main structure
will often be appropriate:
- title page;
- the essay question;
- introduction;
- the first main section – the theory;
- the second main section – applying the theory; and
- conclusion.
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Note, in general these six descriptors will not be suitable as headings in your essay, except
possibly for 'Conclusion'. The first three elements of the essay are never titled, and there will
usually be much more appropriate words for d) and e). Note moreover, that sometimes,
depending on the question, parts d) and e) may be better in the reverse order.

Note also, although the above form of essay will suit many essay questions in management –
and following the process outlined will both help ensure a good balance between the parts of
the essay, and help avoid omitting necessary material and including unnecessary material –
there are acceptable variations. For example, in some management topics an essay may need
a structure made more explicit by the use of a hierarchy of headings, discussed below.

a) Commence with a title page – using an assignment submission form such as the
standard Assignment Coversheet attached (check first with your tutor who may have a
preferred version of her/his own), containing data such as the following, often found
necessary:
- Your student ID number;
- The name and number of the course unit;
- The topic of the assignment;
- Your tutor's name;
- Your tutorial day and time;
- The essay word count; and
- A (signed and dated) declaration to the effect that "This paper is all my own work".

b) Reproduce the essay question in full – not a re-write nor a paraphrase – at the top of the
first sheet of the essay (it makes it easier for the marker!).

c) Set out a short introduction (say, 8-10 lines for a 2 500 word essay) concisely covering:
- the part of the course unit the question refers to;
- the central issue(s) involved and brief reasons why these issues are important; and
- the core of your answer.

These essays are not detective stories. Don't make the reader wait to the end to find out what
your answer is. Give the essence of the answer at the beginning, so that the reader can
follow your argument in context.

Keep the introduction short: it is simply inefficient to write a long introduction and then
repeat the same material in the body of the work. An introduction might commence thus:

"This question raises the issues of ..........."; or

"This essay involves the principle that .........".

You are then smoothly and efficiently launched on your answer with a minimum of words.

Never commence your answer by restating the facts of a case study: discussion of these
should be confined to the second main section of the essay, as noted below. In the typical
short essay, of up to, say, 3 500 words, it is usually superfluous to include a table of contents
or a preface.
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d) Set out a first main section of the essay, in which you show the examiner that you have
a good knowledge and understanding of the relevant theory, and of the broad part of the
course wherein the specific essay question is located. Do this by identifying, defining
and discussing in your own words relevant terms, theory, principles, models, etc, from
the course concerned. Suggestions on how to do this follow. This section should occupy
about one half of the essay, ie some four pages of an eight- to nine-page (2 500 word) essay.

e) Set out a second main section of the essay, in which you display your understanding of
the specific subject area of the question. Do this by analysing the question in terms of
the theory, ie by linking the theory, models, etc that you have identified to the question,
in the process answering (in your own words) any specific points raised. Suggestions on
how to do this follow. This section should also occupy approximately one half of the
essay, to ensure appropriate balance with the first main section.

f) Finish the essay with a short conclusion (say 8-10 lines). setting out succinctly your
answer to the essay question (explicit or implied), and a brief summary of the reasoning
behind your answer, being careful to include a specific yes/no response where the
question asks for this. Sometimes it may also be appropriate to evaluate the logic you
have used to arrive at that answer. As for the introduction, avoid spending too long on
the conclusion and on restating what you have already said.

2. Essay Content
Direct the content of the essay to meeting the four criteria against which the paper will
usually be measured:
- the knowledge you display of the subject area of the question;
- the understanding you display of the subject area of the question;
- the continuity, relevance, and orderliness of your answer, and the supporting argument
you present; and
- the degree to which you have answered the specific question asked.

a) Your knowledge should be shown by the information contained in the first main section
of the essay. As just mentioned, there you identify, define and explain as well as you can
in your own words the relevant theory, terminology, concepts and issues discussed in
the course lectures. This must all be supported with authoritative quotations from the
texts. Draw on and refer to the textbooks and, if necessary, the lectures. Importantly,
while there is merit in some brief cross-referencing in passing to show integration of
learning from different units, and to add desirable richness to an essay, the theories, etc,
that you discuss must be primarily those covered in the course concerned, and not those
dealt with in some other course. For instance, questions in a Public Sector Management
course should not be approached only – or even mainly – using theories from an
Introduction to Management course.

b) Your understanding should be displayed in the second main section of your essay. As
just mentioned, there you apply the theory to the question (and/or case study), and link
those issues, theories, etc to the specific question asked to provide your answer to the
essay question. The answer should often be presented in the form of a reasoned argument
(which you support by brief quotations from authorities, or by cross-references to the
first section of the essay) the conclusion of which is your answer to the essay question.
The argument should start at the beginning, lead step by logical step to your
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conclusion, and present a balanced view of the issues under consideration – which
means discussing both the supporting and opposing evidence.

Where a case study is involved (either explicitly or implicitly) this is where you use the case
to illustrate the theory by linking key points in the case to the relevant parts of the theory,
and similarly link key elements of the theory to the facts of the case study. At this stage – but
not before – discuss the key relevant facts of the case (it is rarely necessary even to outline
the case itself), and use both similarities and dissimilarities to the theory or model to explain
why these are or are not relevant. A common bad error involving case studies is merely
restating the facts of the case while failing to apply the theory.

It is most important to follow key statements with material answering questions such as
'...and so?'; and '...but why?'; and '...why is this relevant to the question?'. The process of
asking and answering such questions is analysis and is always an absolutely essential part of
your essays. Analysis, and not description or quotation, MUST form the bulk of the
second main section of the essay.

Where the question is of the yes/no type, canvass the main issues on both sides of the
question in this part of the essay, even if you have already made up your mind what your
answer will be. This is both because you may be wrong, and also because you still need to
show the examiner as much as you can of what you know about the part of the course to
which the question refers.

In summary, note that in writing about your knowledge and understanding, you must first
decide what your answer to the essay question is going to be. Then you must set down in
your paper in your own words a series of linked points that lead to that answer as a
conclusion – an argument based on models and information from lectures and readings, and
supported by properly referenced quotations from the texts. It is most important that you do
not just set down a collection of quotations and paraphrases from the textbooks relating to
the question, loosely strung together with a minimum of your own words.

c) Orderliness, continuity, and relevance. Start at the beginning of your argument and
set out the essay in a continuous series of steps arranged in logical order, with each
step carefully linked with a ‘bridging’ sentence or passage to the previous step to
provide a seamless, coherent whole. To ensure that you have provided an adequate link,
read each paragraph after you have written it and ask yourself the following questions:
'....... and so?'; '........ but why?'; '....... because?'; and '.......relevance?'. The answers to
these questions will often supply the link you need. Headings will sometimes be of use to
assist the reader to follow your argument.

Include only material relevant to the essay question and keep your writing focussed on the
question asked. To meet these aims, stop at every second paragraph, carefully re-read the
essay question and compare it with what you've just written.

d) Comprehensiveness. As well as setting down your knowledge and understanding of the

subject area of the question, it is essential to give a direct, explicit, succinct answer
where the question calls for this, either explicitly or implicitly. This is often done in the conclusion.
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3. Writing Method
Some suggestions follow to help you find the best way for you to succeed at the essay-
writing task. There are two broad approaches. One useful way can be to draw up on a piece
of paper a list of advantages and disadvantages, or supportive and opposing points, for each
of the major issues you have identified. Next write down an outline – a skeleton – of the
basic structure of your answer (using the sections suggested below), and then expand each
section of the outline to form your completed essay. This method can help you arrange your
answer in a logical sequence, and can be useful in identifying areas where further research is needed.

An alternative approach is to begin by keying your ideas straight into the computer right
from the start (again using the sections suggested below), even before you have identified all
the important issues. The essay is then completed by revising and expanding this draft as
many times as necessary, still covering both sides of the question. Experience has shown that
people differ in their reaction to the two methods. You should, perhaps, try both ways and
then use the one that you find suits you best.

Whichever method you use, begin by filling in the Assignment Coversheet, then key in the
essay question and as much as you can – off the top of your head – of the introduction, the
two main sections and the conclusion. That is to say, immediately put down on paper what
you already know – even though you don't know it all – before you start reading anything.
This has two advantages: it will help you to crystallise your thoughts, and it will help to
identify any holes in your knowledge, so that you can then concentrate your reading on these
areas. There is no need at this stage to refine your writing – indeed, correcting and polishing
as you go may impede the flow of your ideas! Finally, it is clearly always advisable to start
the task – get words on paper – as early as you can. The writing may take longer than you
expected, and anyway few people like having to work to a really tight deadline!

4. Writing Style and Standards

Style in writing refers to the manner in which you express your thoughts. For different
purposes an author may choose a style that reflects their own distinct personality, or is
impersonal and officious, which clarifies, or which obfuscates, or is vague and lacking
precision, or is gossipy, and so on. When answering an assignment in this Faculty with an
essay or mini-essay you should aim for a style that communicates your thoughts (and
persuades!) clearly and concisely in a polite conversational way. Use a narrative style of
writing (ie make the essay a story you are telling the examiner), unless the question
specifically asks for an answer in dot-point or requires some other special format. While
there is a place for the abbreviated – dot-point – document format, for most people writing
well this way is more difficult than narrative writing.

Use short words, short (but not too short) sentences, and plain English whenever you can.
Avoid slang and jargon (although the last may sometimes be used as an efficient shorthand),
avoid the impersonal, cliches (eg ‘the bottom line’, ‘at the end of the day’), unnecessary
technical terms, unusual words, and mixed metaphors. Minimise punctuation (commas,
etc) and capitals.

Note, while it is often seen as appropriate to avoid the use of the first person (eg "I", "me",
"we", and "the writer"), in some types of written work (eg, a report on field work) the use of
the first person may be crucial. Similarly, it may be quite appropriate to say "I have chosen to
look at the works of X and not of Y.... because....", especially where this avoids having to use
a verb in the passive voice. Importantly, aim to produce a ‘reader-friendly’ document. The
marker is human too, and will respond positively to an interesting read!!
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Other writing guidelines are:

a) Use paragraphs appropriately to avoid the two undesirable situations of the reader
facing either a page of solid print, or of fragmented text. A good guideline is not less
than two and not more than four paragraphs on every page.

b) If you use an acronym several times (eg UC), then the first time you do so, spell the
name out in full and follow this immediately by the abbreviation in brackets. For
example:

She lectured at the University of Canberra (UC) for many years.

c) Use headings to help structure your essay by flagging the next part of the answer, or
making the whole essay easier to read. In general:

- use headings sparingly in essays – seldom more than one to a page to avoid
fragmentation; they may be used more frequently in reports;
- indicate the difference between major and subordinate headings by using an hierarchy
of headings, with each level having its own characteristics (eg font size, type, location
- ie centered, left justified, etc, – and so on), and use these consistently through the
'style' feature of the software.
- do not underline headings;
- avoid the use of decimal numbers, and of capital and lower case letters mixed with
upper and lower case Roman numbers; and
- keep headings short.

d) Always use the computer spell-checker. If you use a word not in the computer
dictionary, don't guess the proper spelling but use a good dictionary – preferably the
Macquarie Dictionary, the Australian standard. A check may also be made for
grammatical errors by using the computer's grammar-checker, but note that these are not
always completely satisfactory. This may be because their rules are based on American
rather than Australian usage, or because they do not suit your own style. In any case,
read the final draft of your essay out aloud to yourself. This process will pick up many
grammatical errors – the ear will detect what the eye misses.

Note, for detailed guidance on writing style and standards (eg matters such as punctuation),
you should refer to the 'Style Manual (for Authors, Editors and Printers)', published by John
Wiley), 6th (or more recent) edition.

5. Essay Presentation
Ensure your presentation is to easy read – it helps put the marker in a good mood!
a) Produce your essay on a computer and print it out on a laser or ink-jet printer. With the
prior agreement of your tutor/lecturer, electronic submission may be an option. Never
submit a handwritten essay.

b) Use plain white A4-sized paper, printed on one side only.

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c) Avoid gratuitous decoration (and especially decoration in a second colour) or other

embellishment or clip art anywhere in the paper or cover sheet. However, note that
graphs, diagrams, tables and scanned photographs can often be used (with discretion)
to advantage to convey information concisely. Do not use coloured paper.

d) Leave a left hand margin 3 cms wide (to allow space for examiner comment), and
margins of 2.5 cms on the other three sides.

e) Space lines at 1.5 spacing, for ease of reading and to leave room for examiner comment.

f) Make your work look professional by using fully justified text, and a serif font – such
as Times New Roman (like this paper) or Palatino.

g) Use font size 12 (like this paper), for ease of reading.

h) Number each page in the top right-hand corner, for ease of access.

i) Leave at least half a page at the end of the essay for the examiner's general comments.

j) Assemble the portions of your essay in the following order: cover sheet, essay,
appendices (if any), bibliography (if any), list of references.

k) Set up standard 'styles' for your essays (for both text and headings) in your computer –
and save to default – based on the above.

1) Keep at least two copies of the essay, one on floppy disc/CD/DVD/memory stick/etc.,
and one hard copy, in case the original is lost or mislaid, or in case the hard disc crashes;
it has happened. People who neglected this have had to rewrite essays from scratch!

m) Put a single staple across the top left-hand corner of the sheets, for ease of reading. Do
not put the essay in any sort of folder or cover.

6. Referencing and Acknowledgment

As already noted, referencing in academic essay-writing means providing in the paper
appropriate bibliographical information about all the authors and all the associated books,
journals, and other documentary sources that you have used or drawn on in writing your
paper. There are two reasons for the provision of this information.

The first reason is to enable a reader to reconstruct the writer's work. It is an essential
characteristic of the academic paper that it contains sufficient material for this purpose. Thus,
if you have used learned journals, academic or other books, reports, or other documentary
sources, directly or indirectly, in writing your paper, then each of these must be specifically
mentioned in your essay. This will enable your reader, for example, to read your sources for
further detail, or to make a judgement about the reliance that can be placed on a statement or
argument. (Similarly, if your essay is based on your own field or survey work, then that
needs to be documented so that the work can be replicated by the reader. Again, if you have
used critical analysis or deductive reasoning, then the process needs to be clearly spelled out.)

Note, even where the essay is based on field work, reasoning, etc, in virtually every case the
writer of an academic paper will have sourced statements and ideas used in the writing from
text books, journals, and so on, if only to discuss the associated theory. In practice,
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therefore, every academic essay will need to be referenced, that is, it must contain sufficient
bibliographical information to allow the reader to readily identify each document used. As
discussed below, this data is provided in a List of References, at the end of the essay.

The second reason for referencing is to acknowledge other writers whose concepts, theories,
etc., have contributed to your essay. This contribution occurs in two main ways: first, in
providing ideas helpful in your formulation of your answer to the essay question, and second,
in providing the quotations forming the support needed for the arguments you advance in the
essay. (As already discussed, the significant statements and arguments set out in
(documentary-based) essays must be supported by evidence from appropriate authorities in
the form of quotations – direct or indirect – from textbooks, other books, journals, interviews,
etc.) In every case the debt to the other author for the use of their words or ideas must be
made clear by acknowledging that indebtedness. It is an essential characteristic of academic
papers that they contain an explicit acknowledgment of each author whose work has been
so used. There is a very simple rule to follow: if you use anything from a source other than
your own experience or general knowledge, you must acknowledge that source by giving its
reference. Note however, that it is not necessary to give references for a general law, rule or
principle well established in the relevant discipline. For example, no reference is required for
the statement "When demand for a good rises, if supply is constrained, the price generally rises".

Acknowledgment is first of all a matter of professional courtesy among scholars. It is also a

matter directly affecting your personal integrity: to be blunt about it, using someone else's
work and not making this clear, is just plain cheating. Acknowledgment additionally involves
a fundamental academic principle. To use someone else's thoughts or words – directly or
indirectly – without acknowledgment is plagiarism and in academic writing is not
acceptable. This includes other students' essays. UC encourages students to discuss course
work – including assignments – among themselves, but it is quite improper for a student to copy
any part of another student's assignment. Talk to colleagues, but show your writing to no-one!

Referencing Standards
There is no single detailed standard for referencing. There are two basic approaches, each
with some essential core elements, and each with some degree of flexibility:

- using the author/year system (also known as the Harvard system), and
- using notes (footnotes or endnotes).

While the use of footnotes and endnotes for referencing is usual in the Faculty of Law and
may also be acceptable elsewhere, the practice most widely used by current Australian
academic writers in management, business and government – and the social sciences
generally – is the author/year system. You should therefore use author/year referencing
when writing papers in this Faculty.

Note, endnotes and footnotes are used in some academic papers as places to put material of
secondary relevance to the main argument, or to elaborate a simplification. However in your
student business and government essays it is better to avoid this usage, working on the basis
that if it's worth saying, put it in the text; if not, leave it out!
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The standards you should use for referencing in business and government essays are either:
- the author/year standards set out in the Style Manual (for Authors, Editors and
Printers, John Wiley, 6th (or later) edition, which is the Commonwealth's referencing
authority; or
- variations of the AGPS author/year system in current use by many academics in the
Faculty of Business & Government, such as those in Appendix A below.

Full referencing standards and practices are very detailed and you should refer to the Style
Manual for complete coverage. Whichever of these two approaches you choose to use, it is
essential that you use it absolutely consistently in every detail (including punctuation)
through the whole essay.

Note, the UC Library has publications and material on it’s website about referencing.
However these need to be used with care, and modified as appropriate to accord with this
Faculty's standards and practices set out above. In particular, the title of a book or journal
should be emphasised by italicising and not by underlining.

The author/year method of referencing comprises two parts: the reference (the
acknowledgment) – an indication within your essay of the source of the material you have
used; and the List of References – a list at the very end of the paper containing the
bibliographical information of all the works acknowledged/referenced in the text.

Author/Year Referencing – in the Text

In the author/year method, reference/acknowledgment is made of the author of the idea or
words you are using by inserting the author's surname, and the year of publication of the
work, in round brackets at the appropriate place in the sentence concerned. If the name of an
author appears in the text of your paper, follow the name with brackets containing the year.
When the author's name is not part of the text, put the author and year data in round brackets
at the end of the sentence containing the quotation. Thus:

As Wettenhall (1980) has argued, statutory authorities are ...

Smaller treasuries were located at strategic castles throughout the land so that ready
cash was always to hand (Roseveare 1969: 28).

Give subsequent references in the same way as the first. Do not use ibid., op.cit., loc. cit.,
infra, or supra, as these terms are used only in footnotes.

Note, every reference in the text must contain author and year data, including references
from the Web, and direct quotes must be quoted absolutely accurately, retaining both any
errors contained in the original and the author's cultural or idiosyncratic habits. For example,
while you would follow Australian practice and spell organisation with an 's', when quoting
you must use the original spelling in the work – whether this is an 's' or a 'z'. Even errors in
the original must be faithfully copied. For part quotes, add a connecting word – in square
brackets – within a quotation when the added word is required by the grammar of the
sentence. In the main, use indirect references (eg Bloggs (1937: 93) says that hard work is
usually necessary for good results), rather than direct quotes (eg "Most students will need to
work hard for top marks" (Bloggs 1937: 93)). Quote verbatim only when the original writer
has used a striking phrase, or when you wish to give the quote added authority by using the
original words. In any case avoid over-long direct quotations, say greater than 30-40 words.
14

Author/Year Referencing – The List of References and the Bibliography

You must include a List of References at the end of the essay, containing – in alphabetical
order of (primary) author's surname – the proper author/year reference for each direct or
indirect reference made in the text. Additionally, all books, articles, etc read in preparation
for the essay, but not actually referred to in the text (either directly or indirectly) should be
placed in a second list titled "Bibliography". Note, while some academics consider these two
titles to be interchangeable, others do not. Play it safe by keeping them separate!

At the most basic level, each item in the List of References (and in the Bibliography) must
contain the following information: author's surname and initials (or first name), year of
publication, title of work, name of publisher, and place of publication. No full stop is
needed at the end. Examples of commonly used references are in Appendix A.

7. How to Write Gooder

Here are a number of important but often neglected Rules of English Writing!!

1. Always avoid alliteration.

2. Prepositions are not usually words to end sentences with.
3. Avoid cliches like the plague. (They're old hat.)
4. Even if a mixed metaphor sings, it should be derailed.
5. Eschew ampersands & abbreviations, etc.
6. Parenthetical remarks (however relevant) are often unnecessary.
7. Some think that it is wrong to ever split an infinitive.
8. Contractions aren't usually necessary or desirable.
9. Foreign words and phrases are neither de rigeur nor apropos.
10. As a rule, one should never generalise.
11. Be economical with quotations. As Ralph Waldo Emerson once said: "I hate quotations.
Tell what you know."
12. Comparisons as are bad as cliches.
13. Don't be redundant; don't use more words than necessary; it's highly superfluous.
14. Be more or less specific.
15. Understatement is always the best.
16. Exaggeration is a million times worse than understatement.
17. One-word sentences? Eliminate.
18. Analogies in writing are like feathers on a snake.
19. The passive voice is usually to be avoided.

For more detail on writing standards, refer to 'The New Fowler's Modern English Usage'
(1996, 3rd ed, Oxford University Press), or later edition.

GETTING THE MARKS!

Of course learning the facts, theories, principles, models, and so on contained in the course is
important – it is what you are here for, isn't it? – but we all know that getting a good grade is
also a vital target, especially when you've done the work!! This section of the paper makes
some additional suggestions about how to do that.
 15

The Marking and Grading of Essays

Essays may be either marked or graded: either way, note that there is no standard conversion
between grades and marks. However, as a guide, the following equivalences are often used:

50% - 64% Pass

65% - 74% Credit
75% - 84% Distinction
85% - 100% High Distinction

There is also no standard way of marking essays. Some markers will make a single judgment
of the essay taken as a whole. Others may use a more structured approach, allocating marks
in terms of, for example: Does the essay

. answer the question?, cover the key issues?, stay focussed? 25%
. show understanding of the theory?, link it to the question? 20%
. present a persuasive argument? link the steps in the argument? 15%
. show proper referencing?, good English? 15%
. show wide reading?, present a balanced account? 15%
. show good structure?, logical flow?, easy readability? 10%

It is also important to be aware that there is necessarily always a subjective element in the
grading of essays. This is in major part because of the nature of essay marking itself: there
will always be a number of different – but equally good – approaches to writing any essay.
Thus marking judgements have to be made – if not quite between apples and oranges – then
at least between different sorts of apples!

Note, in addition to grading the essay your marker will provide both specific comments in the
text of the essay (offered with a view to advising the student on the nature of particular
problems and on suggested remedies), as well as a general comment on the essay at the end.
As already indicated, you need to leave space for both these types of comment. Often a
lecturer will also put general comments on the web.

Note also that an essay assignment is a means to an end, not an end in itself. Your tutor
should both mark your work and return it within a reasonable time (say two weeks), and also
provide written comment on the work which facilitates your learning. Collect your marked
work promptly, and go over it carefully so that you extract the full value from the essay-
writing task. If you have difficulty understanding the marker's comments, or if you feel that
the comments made are unhelpful or unfair, talk it over with your tutor.

Marking Standards
For a mere bare Pass, you will need to identify – and show you know something about – at
least some of the key issues (theories, models, etc) involved in the question, relate these to
the question, provide some proper referencing, and give your answer to the specific essay
question, all in fair written English.

For a high Pass or Credit, you will need to have correctly identified all the key issues and
shown you know about them. You will have clearly linked these issues to the essay question
in a narrative-style text – with each step in your argument linked to the preceding point. You
will have supported your argument adequately with proper referencing, and concluded it with
your answer to the essay question. You will have ensured good English by using the spell-
16

checker and by reading the paper aloud. To lift a Credit right answer to a Distinction – or
even a High Distinction – right answer, you must add 'richness' to the correct answer.

The 'Rich' Right Answer

It is also important to be aware that there is a competitive element in marking. A correct,
minimal, bare-bones answer will gain you a minimal, bare-bones mark – 5 out of 10: enough
for a Pass but that's all. Among your colleagues there will always be someone who will be
writing an essay which not only provides a correct answer to the question, but does so in a
comprehensive, richly detailed, well-organised and well-referenced way. Such answers, of
course, deservedly earn a higher mark. Here are some standard academic ways of enriching your
papers – techniques that are being successfully used by students right now to get better grades:

a) Answer generously. Write right up to the word limit on relevant issues (but without any
padding): the marker cannot give you marks for what you do not write down.
Remember that essays are your golden opportunity to show all you can about the part of
the course the question refers to.

b) Framing. Give your essay a superior, sophisticated – but still short – introduction by
commencing it by framing the question. That is to say, very briefly place the question in
several widening contexts. First there is the question. The first frame places the question
in the context of the course by identifying the part of the course the question refers to ie
the issues in the course that underlie the question. For example the question may deal
with public service corruption, in which case the theoretical issue may be ethics. The
second and further frames respectively place the issue in steadily widening contexts, eg –
to continue the example – the relevance and importance of corruption and of ethics to the
Australian public sector, to Australian society, to Western democracies, and to societies
globally. A few words on some or all of these will further enrich your answer.

c) Core theory. Having identified the part of the course the question relates to, in just a few
lines set out the one or two most significant core points made in the lectures about that
part of the course. For example, part of one course deals with the measurement of
organisational performance: two of the associated core points are that conventional
numerical measures (such as profit and loss statements) are meaningless without
knowing the assumptions (such as for accounting) involved, and that even with this
knowledge such measures cannot provide an holistic measure of organisational health!

d) Comparison. In writing your correct answer, create opportunities to slip in a few brief
comparisons between the points raised in your essay and related matters beyond the
strict narrow scope of the question – or even beyond the course! For example, suppose
the question asks about an issue in the APS. As the question relates to an institution in
the public sector, a first area to look for a comparison might be the private sector: how is
the matter handled there – better, worse? what are the similarities, differences? A second
area to look for comparison would be the State public services, a third would be
Westminster systems of government generally, and a fourth, systems of government
globally. A few words on comparisons such as these will enrich your answer.
 17

e) Wide reading. Show that you have read widely:

i) have, say, 12 to 15 references in your List of References – including at least one
example each from the prescribed text books, other text books, journals, and web
articles;
ii) avoid too heavy reliance on one or two reference sources on any one page or two of
the essay. Even if discussing the same item, use a mix of reference authorities on the
same, or following, pages; and
iii) have a Bibliography with, say, 6 or 8 items extra to those in the List of References.

f) Related information. Provide information related to, but extra to, the question. For
example, if a question requires mention of the mode of a distribution, then as well as
defining 'mode', also very briefly mention, relate and define median and mean, and
maybe even skewness. For instance, to continue that example, sketch in frequency
distribution graphs illustrating the three types of skewness, complete with median, mode
and mean shown for each case. You might alternatively add a diagram or table or two to
support and illustrate your analysis. These, of course, would need to be clearly labelled
and, where appropriate, correctly acknowledged and referenced.

g) Theories. Where you mention a theory – or sometimes even an author – in just a line or
two also set down the essence of what the theory or author says about the issue
concerned. For example, in relation to organisations considered as systems, Perrow says
that in complexly interactive, tightly-coupled systems, accidents are normal, even
inevitable. Again, in management, Taylor says that for a really good organisation; pay
people well, match each person's skills to their job, find through experiment the best way
to do each element of the job and require staff to do it that way, etc.

IN CONCLUSION
While there may be a range of good answers to any essay question, the best papers:
- demonstrate a good knowledge of the academic issues involved;
- stay focused on the question and answer the question actually asked;
- link the theory to the question;
- present a reasoned argument with pros and cons, in the writer's own words;
- support that argument with brief, properly referenced, quotations from texts, etc;
- link each step in the argument to form a seamless whole;
- are reader-friendly; and
- are 'rich' in content.

John Laver
February 2009
18
Appendix A
EXAMPLES OF AUTHOR/YEAR REFERENCING
1. References in the Text
a) Where the reference is to a whole book, to a lecture, or to a personal communication,
use (Author Year), without punctuation:

• The use of the parliamentary committee by a parliamentarian as a platform for

personal publicity is not uncommon (Fritz 1988).
• Arkey (2000) argues that ...

b) Where the reference is to a specific page (or pages) in a book, use (Author Year: Page):

• By 22 October there had been thirteen referrals to the Committee, resulting in seven
reports (McColl 1890: 1345).
• Laver (1997: 175-178) concludes that .....
(The only punctuation needed here is a colon to separate the date and the page numbers.)

c) Where less than about 25 words are quoted directly, include them in the text in single
inverted commas:

• Defence works were excluded in 1913 on the ground that ‘the question has to be
considered in the light of the strategic requirements of the Army and Navy’ (Cook
1913: 4248).
Use double quotation marks only for a quotation within a quotation.

d) Where a direct quotation is longer than about 25 words, separate it out as an indented
citation, at single line spacing, one font size smaller (11), and without inverted commas:

• At the level of the industrial plant the relationship between technology, social organisation,
and culture becomes a potentially fruitful point of entry into this complex (industrialisation
in developing states) of problems (Zwerman 1970: 150).

e) Where there are two or three authors:

in the text, use 'and':

• Campbell and Halligan (1992: 60) have found that ...

in the bracket, use an ampersand, ie '&':

• "The Australian Public Service has its own distinctive mix of characteristics"
(Campbell & Halligan 1992: 60).

f) Where there are more than three authors, use 'et al' (from the Latin ‘et alii’, meaning
'and the others'):

• Modern management covers a wide range of issues (Robbins et al 1997).

• Robbins et al (1997) have found that ...
 19

g) Where the author's name is not given, use the name of the organisation, or website:

• (State Services Commission 1998: 44)

• The Canberra Times (1996)
• The Body Shop (2000)

h) Where you quote from more than the one work by the one author published in the same
year, add (a), (b), (c), etc, to the year:

• (Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers 1861(a))

• (Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers 1861(b))
• (Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers 1861(c))

i) Where the date cannot be found or even estimated, use n.d. (no date):

• (Smith n.d.) refers to ....

j) Where the date can be established approximately, use c. (from the Latin ‘circa’,
meaning 'about'):

• Smith (c. 1723) explained that .....

k) Where only portion of a sentence is quoted, this must be done in a way that does not
alter the original author’s intention, and the omission must be indicated by the use of an
ellipsis, ie three dots:

• As Coghan (1994: 37) has said: “... what the worker has to offer is of ... value ...”.

l) For references from newspapers or journals; if the author is named, reference as for a
book: if not, use the paper's name (in italics) as author:

• (Canberra Times 2000)

• Time (1998)

2. Referencing in the List of References (and the Bibliography)

The general format for entries in the list of References is:

• Author surname, initials, Year, Title, Publisher, Place of publication

The elements are mandatory; the punctuation is recommended, but should be kept to a
minimum. Other elements will be required from time to time. These include:

- page number(s) where these are not in the text reference;

- ed (for editor) or eds – immediately before Year ;
- vol (for volume number).

The following standards are recommended, in addition to those set out above for references
in the text.
20
a) Where the reference is for a book, put the title of the book in italics:

• Ahern, CJ 1913, in Australia, Parliamentary Debates 1913, Vol 72, Government

Printer, Melbourne
• Commonwealth of Australia 1994, Style Manual, 5th edn, Australian Government
Publishing Service, Canberra
• Kast, FE & Rosenzweig, JE (eds) 1973, Contingency Views on Organisation and
Management, Science Research Associates, Chicago

Note, you should indent the second and any subsequent lines, for ease of reading

b) Where the reference is for an article in a book, journal or newspaper, write the title of
the article in ordinary script and enclose it in single inverted commas but put the title of
the journal (book, newspaper) from which the article was taken in italics, and include
volume numbers:

• Lee, DJ 1981, ‘Skill, Craft and Class: A Theoretical Critique and a Critical Case’,
Sociology, vol 15: 56-78
• Canberra Times 2000b, ‘NRMA profits revised after end-of-year rally’,
15 July 2000: C6

c) Where the reference is for material from the Web, put the title of the article in inverted
commas, add the URL, and at the end add the date you accessed the article:

• Walker, JR 1995, ‘MLA Style citations of electronic sources’, [online]

http://www.cas.usf.edu/ english/walker/mla.html (29 March 1996)
• The Body Shop 2000, ‘Resources’ [online] http://www.the-body-shop.com/
about/us/index.html (16 July 2000)

Notes: 1) break the URL at any convenient place to keep full lines;
2) delete the hyperlink from the URL (use Ctrl K)

d) for unpublished material, including lectures, etc, treat generally as for an article but
with minimal capitals:

• Arkey, AJ 1993, (Airport Planner, Australian Construction Services), personal

communication
• Chief Minister’s Department (CMD) 1998, ‘Essential Values, Practices and Terms
and Conditions of Employment’, roneo.
• Gill, D 2000, ‘New Zealand's experience with public management reform: why the
grass is always greener in the other side of the fence’, paper presented at the
International Public Management Workshop, Wellington, 10 May
• Hinton, F 1999, ‘Central office staff enterprise agreement – voting arrangements’,
letter, 5 May. Draft enterprise agreement attached
• Keating, PJ 1993, ‘Performance and accountability in the public service: a statement
by the Prime Minister, P.J. Keating’, Parliament House, 1 July
• McAuley, IA 2000, ‘Performance Management and Analysis’, unpublished lecture,
June
 21
Appendix B

EXAMPLES OF WRITING STANDARDS

1. Abbreviations and Commas

Full stops are not required after abbreviations, capital abbreviations, degrees or units of
measure, eg, eds, ACT, BComm, km. Minimise the use of commas by omitting them where,
on reading the text, there is a natural break in the sentence.

2. Capital Letters
Use capital letters:

. for personal names, and the names of organisations;

. where the word would have a different meaning if spelt with the lower case, eg, Act,
Cabinet; and
. for references to specific government institutions, eg, New South Wales Parliament.

Use lower case letters for non-specific references, and for plurals, eg, many government
programs; New South Wales and Victorian governments.

3. Dates
Write dates as 4 January 2002 not 4th January 2002.
Use the 1990s not the ‘nineties, nor the 1990's, nor the nineteen-nineties.
For a span of time use 1991-95 or 1991-1995 not 1991-5.

4. Italics
Use italics for:
. the short titles of bills and legislation;
. to emphasise particular words.

Italics are not used for:

. titles of chapters, articles, essays, or lectures.

Do not use underlining at all.

5. Numbers
Use words for:
. numbers up to and including ten, except where figures are needed for clarity;
. numbers that begin a sentence;
. where the number is indefinite, eg, about four hundred not about 400;
. numbers such as hundred, thousand, million, etc;
. ordinal numbers up to and including ninety-nine, eg, sixty-seventh birthday.
22
Use figures for:
. time, eg 9 am, but use words for ten o’clock
. numbers above and including 11;
. percentages, money, dates, section numbers (in acts), and numbers in tables.

A space is not required between figure and symbol in sums of money, eg, $40.56. A space is
required in expressions such as 100 km, s 8, p 34 (but full stops are not).
For numbers greater than 999, use a space not a comma, eg 1 000 not 1,000.

6. Pages
For a span of pages use as few numbers as possible, eg, 28-9, 350-67. Do not abbreviate
numbers between 10-19, eg, use 11-14, 216-19.

7. Spelling
Use as your primary reference the current edition of the Macquarie Dictionary. Set the
computer spell-checker to Australian spelling if you can, and failing that then to English
spelling, both of which are preferred to American spelling. Note however, to use -ise rather
than -ize.
 FACULTY OF BUSINESS & GOVERNMENT

Assignment Coversheet
(NOTE: This is a generic coversheet, a lecturer may have a unit-specific coversheet
he/she would like you to use. Please check with your lecturer
before using this coversheet if you are in doubt).

Student ID number

Unit name

Unit number

Name of lecturer/tutor

Assignment topic

Due date

You must keep a photocopy or electronic copy of your assignment.

Student declaration

I certify that the attached assignment is my own work. Material drawn from other sources has been
appropriately and fully acknowledged as to author/creator, source and other bibliographic details. Such
referencing may need to meet unit-specific requirements as to format and style.

Signature of student: ________________________________________ Date: ____________

Date of submission ____________________________