2.

1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds

A. Elements and Compounds

a. Matter
i. Anything that takes up space and has mass
ii. Made up of elements
b. Element
i. Substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical
reactions (H2 is an element, NOT a compound)
ii. 92 elements
c. Compound
i. Substance consisting of two or more different elements in fixed ratio
ii. Has characteristics different than those of its elements
(ie. Na-metal ; Cl-poisonous gas; NaCl- edible salt)
B. Essential Elements of Life
a. 25 of 92 elements essential in life
b. Four make up 96% of living matter
i. Carbon (C), Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N)
c. Trace Elements
i. Required by organisms in very small quantities
ii. Some needed by all forms of life (ie. Iron (Fe))
iii. Some only needed by certain species
1. (ie. Iodine (I) for vertebrates – essential of a hormone produced by
the thyroid gland)

2.2 An elements properties depend of the structure of its atoms

A. Atom- small unit of Matter that still retains properties of an element

B. Subatomic Particles
a. Tiny bits of matter that make up an atom
b. Atomic Nucleus
i. Dense core at center of atom
ii. Tightly packed neutrons and protons
c. Electron Cloud
i. Electrons moving at speed of light form cloud around nucleus
d. Neutrons and Protons= 1 Dalton (1 amu)
C. Atomic Number and Atomic Mass
a. Atomic Number
i. Number of Protons
b. Mass number
i. Protons + Neutrons
c. Electrically Neutral Atom # of Electrons= # of Protons
 d. Number of Neutrons = Mass Number – Atomic Number
e. Atomic Mass- total mass of an atom ( precise number with decimals)
D. Isotopes
a. Elements with same # of Protons, DIFFERENT # of neutrons
i. Most common= Carbon-12 (accounts for 99% of the carbon in nature)
b. Behave identically in chemical reactions
c. Slightly different masses
d. Radio-Active Isotopes
i. Nucleus delays spontaneously, gives off particles and energy
1. (ex. Carbon-14)
ii. Decay leads to change in # of protons, atom changes to different element
1. (ex. Radioactive Carbon decays to form Nitrogen)
iii. Useful as tracers
1. Follow atoms through metabolism (chemical process of organism)
2. Use as they would nonradioactive isotopes but radioactive tracers
are easily detected
3. Could diagnose kidney diseases using tracers in blood
a. Used in combination with imaging instruments (PET scan)
4. Radiation from decaying isotopes poses hazard by damaging cell
molecules
E. Energy Levels of Electrons
a. Only electrons involved in the chemical reactions between atoms
b. Energy
i. Capacity to cause change (by doing work)
ii. Atoms electrons vary in amount of energy
c. Potential Energy
i. Energy that matter possesses due to its location/ structure
ii. Farther electrons= Greater potential energy
d. Energy Levels
i. Different states of potential energy that electrons have in an atom
ii. Energy level correlated with its electron shells
e. Electron Shells
i. Average distance of electrons from the nucleus
1. First shell, closest to nucleus, lowest potential energy
2. 2nd shell more energy than 1st, 3rd shell more energy than 2nd…
ii. Electrons can change shell it occupies
1. Must absorb or lose amount of energy equal to the difference in
potential energy between position in old shell and that of the new
shell
2. If it absorbs energy- goes further away from nucleus
3. If it loses energy- “falls back” to shell closer to nucleus
a. Lost energy released as heat
 4. Valence Electrons
a. Outer electrons
i. Behavior of an atom depends on valence electrons
b. Valence Shell
i. Outermost shell
c. Inert Elements
i. Have full valence shells
ii. Chemically un-reactive
1. (ie. Helium, Neon, Argon)
5. Electron Orbitals
a. 3-D space where an electron is found 90% of the time
b. Component of an electron shell
c. Each orbital holds only 2 electrons
d. Reactivity of Atoms
i. Due to presence of unpaired electrons in orbitals of
valence shells

2.3 The formation and Function of Molecules depend of Chemical Bonding between Atoms

A. Chemical Bonds
a. The attraction between two atoms
b. Strongest are covalent
B. Covalent Bonds
a. Sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms
b. Molecule
i. Two or more atoms held by a covalent bond
(ie. H-H hydrogen molecule)
ii. Single Bond
a. One Pair of Shared Electrons
iii. Double Bond
a. Two Pairs of Shared Electrons
c. Valence
i. Atoms bonding capacity
ii. Number of unpaired electrons in the valance shell
d. Electronegativity
i. The attraction of a particular kind of atom for the electrons of a covalent
bond
ii. More electronegative= Pulls more strongly on the shared electrons
e. Non- Polar Bond
i. Electrons shared equally (equally electronegative) [ie. H 2, O2]
 f. Polar Covalent Bond
i. Electrons are NOT shared equally
*(ie. CH4 is a NONPOLAR MOLECULE (symmetrical) with POLAR
BONDS because they C and H differ in electro negativity)
C. Ionic Bonds
a. Involves the Transfer of electrons
b. Ion
i. A charged molecule that results from the transfer of electrons
a. Cation- positive ion (1+)  one less electron than proton
b. Anion- negative ion (1-)  one more electron than proton
**(Doesn’t have to be only 1, can be more )**
c. Ionic Bond [metal and non metal]
i. Attraction between a Cation and Anion
ii. Transfer of electrons do NOT form the bond, only allows a bond to
form because it results in two ions
iii. ANY TWO ions of opposite charges can form bond
a. ** They don’t need to have acquired their charge by an
electron transfer with each other
iv. Ionic Compounds (high melting and boiling points)
a. Aka Salts
a. No definite size or number of atoms (not a molecule)
b. Don’t need to have equal numbers of cations/anions
D. Weak Chemical Bonds
a. Ionic, Hydrogen, van der Waals interactions
b. Hydrogen Bonds
i. Weak attraction between one electronegative atom and a hydrogen
atom that is covalently linked to another electronegative atom