Mechanical Behavior

of Materials

Ch. 1
Stress and Strain Revisited

By Jae-il Jang
 Pi
Primary concern off this
hi course
What happens to a solid when forces are imposed on its
boundaries, i.e., how does a solid behave when it is
mechanically loaded.
loaded

In general, solid deforms (=changes volume and shape) –

also
l internal
i l structure can change.
h
Possibilities are
 Elastic
 Anelastic
 Plastic
 (1) Elastic
- Deformation which is instantaneous and recoverable.
- Hooke’s law – When stress and elastic strain
are linearly related.
- e.g.) Rubber elasticity – most dramatic!

Force

time

Displacement

time
 (2) Anelastic
- Deformation which is recoverable but time-dependent.
- Strain is a function of time

Force

time

Displacement anelastic
elastic
time
 (3) Plastic
- Deformation which is permanent
(both instantaneous and time-dependent)
- Great amount of attention on plastic flow
- e.g.) avoid plastic folw for high strength
allow plastic flow for deformation processing

Force

time

Displacement plastic
elastic
time
 Concept of Stress
• Applied Forces vs. Deformation

Applied forces on a
material element and
i d
its deformation
f i
 Concept of Stress
• External forces are internally transmitted to geometric
internal surface forces
: engineering stress, true stress
 Concept of Stress
•Normal (tensile) stress, : •Shear stress, :
Ft
Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Ft Fs
Ft Fs
   Ft
Ao Eng. Stress Ao F
original area
before loading Stress has units:
N/m2 or Pa or gf/m2 or psi 1 kgf = 9.8 N
1 ksi = 6.89 MPa
 Concept of Stress
•Simple tension: cable
F F
A o = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F
  
Ao
Ski lift
•Simple
p shear: drive shaft
M Fs Ao
Ac 
Fs
 
M Ao
2R
 Concept of Stress
• Normal (compressive) stress:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

F Note: compressive
Balanced
B l dRRock,
k A
Arches
h  structure member
b
National Park Ao ( < 0 here).
 Concept of Stress
What is the state of the stress at this point in solid?
fyy

fyz fyx
fxy
fzy 
y
fxz
fxx
fzx

z
x
fzz
fij: i, j = x, y, z
i = plane normal

Stresses are defined as; f ij j =direction of force

 ij  lim
A0 A (A: area normal to i axis)
The general state of stress at a point is described
as (a matrix having 9 components)
or as ((a 2nd Rank tensor)) ij ((i,j,j = x,y,z)
,y, )

xx xy xz

yx yy yz
zx zy zz
 xx xy xz
yx yy yz
zx zy zz
Moment equilibrium

If Mz = 0
d
dy M 0  r  F  ( xF y  yF x ) k

( xy dydz ) dx  ( yx dxdz ) dy  0

  xy   yx
dz
dx S M
So, Mi = 0
xx xy xz
xy yy yz
xz yz zz
- Stress tensor is symmetric:
Pair of equal shear stresses acts on mutually perpendicular planes.
- Thus, only 6 independent quantities are needed to specify the stress!
* Moment of force: a vector physical variable, which
characterizes rotational effect of force.
- Moment of force to the point A is defined as:

M A  rF
- Right-had rule: direction of moment vector
direction of rotation

- Calculation
r  ( x, y , z ) F  ( Fx , F y , Fz )

i j k
A P (x,y,z)
MA  x y z  ( yF z  zF y , zF x  xF z , xF y  yF x )
Fx Fy Fz
* Moment of force: a vector physical variable, which
characterizes rotational effect of force.

r  ( x , y ,0 ) F  ( Fx , F y , 0 )

A P (x,y,0) M A  r  F  ( xF
F y  yF
Fx ) k
* Unit of moments
SI unit: Nm, gfm US: inlbs, ftlbs

- Moment of force to an axis a:

e.g., if  lies at xz plane
cos  0 i 
sin
M A  (r  F )  a  x y z
Fx Fy Fz
 Concept of Stress
Hydrostatic Stresses

Pure hydrostatic pressure P

-P 0 0
P 0 -P
P 0
0 0 -P
P
Pure hydrostatic tension
T
T 0 0
T 0 T 0
T 0 0 T
0 xy xz
Pure Shear Stress
ijD = xy 0 yz
xz yz 0
- in this coordinate system, all the diagonal terms are zero
- more generally defined by (xx+yy+zz)/3 = 0
 Concept of Stress
We may always write a stress in terms of its hydrostatic and deviatoric parts;
  xx  xy  xz 
 
  xy  yy  yz 
  yz  zz 
 xz 
T (=-P) = (xx+yy+zz)/3 =m ij
T 0 0   ( xx  T)  xy  xz 
   
0 T 0   xy ( yy  T)  yz 
 0 0 T    yz 
( zz  T) 
   xz

hydrostatic stress deviatoric stress

ijH ijD
 Concept
p of Stress

Stresses on inclined planes.

 Concept of Stress
Principal Stress
It is always possible to find a set of coordinates for which the stress can
be represented by

  0 0 
 
0   0 
0   
 0

The diagonal
g terms are the principal
p p stresses and I, II, III are the
principal stress axes. On the principal plane, only normal stresses are
acting (i.e., no shear stress).
 Concept of Stress
Principal Stress
For 2-dimensional stress state (defined by xx, yy, xy),
 xx   yy  xx   yy
 max   I   ( ) 2   xy
2

2 2
 xx   yy  xx   yy
 min   III   ( )   xy
2 2

2 2
Angle between original axis and principal axis can be obtained by
2 xy
tan 2 
 xx   yy
Maximum shear stress
Max. shear stress always
y at 45O to p
principal
p stress axes;;
 max   min  I   III
 max   (if I  II  III)
2 2
 Concept
p of Stress
Mohr’s Circle of stress (and strain)

<Mohr’s circle of stress> <Mohr’s circle of strain>

 Concept of Strain
Normal Strain loading
oad g
displacement of points
deformation

 : the total axial displacement

 : the normal strain.



L
P iti sign
Positive i : elongation
l ti
Negative sign : contraction
Shear Strain Concept of Strain
Shearing strain: the tangent of the
1 total change on angle occurring between
two perpendicular lines in a body during
deformation.
 ' : the angle between the two rotated edges.
2  : the shearing strain.
 
  tan(  1   2 )  tan   tan(  ) 
'
  '     1   2  tan  1  tan  2 )
2 2
Distortion of a rectangular plate

Shear stress
Sh t
= F/A

Shear strain
L

  tan (   1  2 ) 
L
 Concept
p of Strain u
u  u ( x) du  dx
x

(a) linear strain

(b) shear strain

Normal Strain Concept of Strain
Co s de a ca
Consider cartesian
es a coo
coordinate
d a e sys
system
e eembedded
bedded in a
solid which is to be deformed. Consider the relative displacements
of the material points located on the axes
uz t = u
x displacement
di l  x
y uy y displacement = uy
ux z displacement = uz ui
eij 
Definition j
y u x u x
uz
x uy
 xx  lim   exx
x  0  x x
z
x
ux u y u y
 yy  lim   e yy
uz 
uy y 0 y y
ux
u z u z
 zz  lim   ezz
z z  0 z z
 ij  eij (i = j , i,j = x,y,z)
Shear Strain
y
ux
1
y

 2 uy x
x

u x u y u x u y
 xy  lim  lim    exy  e yx
y 0 y x 0 x y x
u y u z u y u z
 yz  lim  lim    e yz  ezy
z 0 z y 0 y z y
u x u z u x u z
 xz  lim  lim    exz  ezx
z  0  z x  0  x z x

 ij  eij  e ji   ji (i  j , i,j = x,y,z)

 Concept of Strain
Engineering Strain vs. Tensor Strain
So the strain component can be described by a matrix;
So,
  xx  xy  xz    xx  xy  xz 
   
  xy  yy  yz    xy  yy  yz 
  zz  
 xz  yz   xz  yz  zz 

For some problems in elasticity, it is convenient to describe strain
as a symmetric 2nd rank tensor
1 ui u j 1
 ij  (  )  (eij  e ji ) (i, j = x, y, z)
2 j i 2
Note that this gives the shear strain as
1 u x u y 1
 xy  (  )   xy
2 y x 2
which differ by a factor of ½ from engineering shear strain!
The Uni-axial Tension Test

Crosshead

Gi
Grips

E t
Extensometer
t

Let’s Pull!!!
The Uni-axial Tension
Test
E i
Engineering
i Stress-Engineering
St E i i Strain
St i P
Engineering Stress
S
A0
PY
- Yield Strength: SY 
A0
- Tensile Strength: SUTS 
PUTS
A0
Engineering Strain

L  L0 L 
e  
L0 L0 L0
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
E i
Engineering
i Stress-Engineering
St E i i Strain
St i P
Engineering Stress
S
A0
Elongation
Uniform PY
g
Elongation - Yield Strength: SY 
A0
- Tensile Strength: S UTS 
PUTS
A0
Engineering Strain

L  L 0 L 
e  
L0 L0 L0
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
E i
Engineering
i Stress-Engineering
St E i i Strain
St i

Regime Elastic Young’s Modulus

Elongation Poisson’s Ratio

Uniform
g
Elongation Plastic

Major Properties Obtainable

Strength Yield strength

Tensile strength

Fracture strength
(Failure strength)

Elongation
Ductility
(deformability) Reduction of Area
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
D tilit
Ductility
L f  L0
Elongation ef 
L0

U if
Uniform Elongation
El ti LU  L0
eU 
L0

Reduction of Area A0  A f
q
A0
Elongation vs. Reduction of Area q
e0 
Equivalent zero-gage-length elongation
1 q
(based on very short gage length near fracture)
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
True Stress
P PL
   S (1  e)
A A0 L0
True Strain
L1  L0 L2  L1 L3  L2
    
L0 L1 L2
L dL L A
  ln  ln 0  ln( 1  e)
L L
0 L0 A
True Stress
Stress-True
True Strain
P
  S exp(
p( )  p( )
exp(
A0
 Ductile Materials

Brittle Materials

Uniaxial
compression
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Elastic Properties: Young
Young’s
s Modulus

  E
d / d 
tangent
modulus

 /
secant
modulus
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
El ti P
Elastic Properties
ti ffor iisotropic
t i solids
lid

 x  E x

 : poisson' s ratio

 x
 y   z   x  
E
Atom간의 스프링
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Elastic
El ti Properties:
P ti Poisson’s
P i ’ Ratio
R ti
In the elastic range, the ratio of the lateral
strain to the axial strain.
strain
z  yy
lateral ~ strain  xx  yy zz 2
   
axial ~ strain  zz  zz
 zz
2
 xx
Usually, 0.25-0.35
2
steel : 0
0.3
3 y

concretes : 0.1
zz
x
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Elastic Properties

Poisson’s ratio

Elastic Modulus
 Theory of Elasticity

General way to determine mechanical solution!

 Equilibrium equation

 Constitutive equation

 Compatibility equation

 Boundary condition
 Theory of Elasticity
Equilibrium equation In-2D
In 2D,
F x 0
 x  xy
( x  dx)dy   x dy  ( xyy  dy )dx   xyy dx  0
x y

 xx  xy
 0
x y
  yx  yy
 0
x y

 ijj, j  0
 Theory of Elasticity
Equilibrium equation
 xx
In-3D,
F
 yx
x 0

  xx dydz  ( xx  dx )dydz   yxdxdz  ( yx  dy)dxdz   zx dxdy  ( zx  zx dz)dxdy  0
x y z

 xx  xy  xz
  0
x y z
 yx  yy  yz
 x

y

z
0

 zx  zy  zz
  0
x y z

 ij, j  0
 Theory of Elasticity
Compatibility equation

There should be some relationship between 6 strain values!

(Deformation of a body is continuous
= No voids are created in the body)

  xx
2
  yz
 zx  xy   xy
2
  xx   yy
2 2
 [   ] 2  
yz x x y z xy y 2
x 2

  yy
2
  yz  zx  xy  2  yz  2  yy   zz
2

 [   ] 2  
zx y x y z yz z 2 y 2

  zz
2
  yz  zx  xy  2  zx  2  zz  2  xx
 [   ] 2  
xy z x y z zx x 2
z 2
 Theory of Elasticity
Compatibility equation

Under plane-strain condition (zz=yyz=xz=0),

this equation can be simplified as;

  xyy
2
  xx   yy
2 2

2  
xy y 2
x 2
 Theory of Elasticity
Boundary condition

- Case by case
- e.g.)
plane-stress condition (thin plate)

zz=yz=xz=0

plane-strain condition (very thick plate)

zz=yz=xz=0
 Theory of Elasticity
Constitutive equation (stress-strain relationship)
- Hooke’s
H k ’ LLaw Assume - isotropic, elastic solids.
- normal (or shear) stress does not produce
shear (or normal) strain
strain.
- superposition principle.
Under uniaxial tension

  E
If tensile direction is xx-direction
direction,

 xx  E xx
Poisson’s ratio
 yy  zz xx
   yy   zz   xx 
 xx  xx E
 Theory of Elasticity
Constitutive equation (stress
(stress-strain
strain relationship)
- Hooke’s Law
1
 xx  [ xx   ( yy   zz )]
E
1
 yy  [ yy   ( xx   zz )]
E
1
 zz  [ zz   ( xx   yy )]
E
 xy  yz  xz
 xy  2 xy   yz  2 yz   xz  2 xz 
G G G
E
G
2(1   )
 Theory of Elasticity
 xx  2G  xx   ( xx   yy   zz )  2G  xx   
 yy  2G  yy   ( xx   yy   zz )  2G  yy   
 zz  2G  zz   ( xx   yy   zz )  2G  zz   
 xy  2G  xy  yz  2G  yz  zx  2G  zx

•  is the Lame constant, and G is the shear modulus.

• Young’s modulus, E Shear Modulus, G

• Poisson’s ratio,  Bulk modulus, K (= 1/ = -p/ = m/)
• Volume
V l change,
h 
• Some relationships:
 = E/(1+)(1
E/(1+)(1-2)
2) E = 2G (1 + )
 = /2 (+ G) K = E/3 (1 – 2)
Volume change

V (1   xx )(1   yy )(1   zz )dxdydz

y  dxdydz
y
 
V dxdydz
 (1   xx )(1   yy )(1   zz )  1
1  2
   xx   yy   zz  ( xx   yy   zz )
E
For volume conservation,    xx   yy   zz  0  = 0.5
For most materials in the linear elastic range   0.5
.
since some change in volume occurs.
Shear strain, G: shear modulus
 xy  G  xy ,  yz  G  yz ,  xz  G  xz

 max   I   II
 max 
  I   II   I   II   I 1   
1
2 E E
 max E
G 
 max 2 (1   )

Volumetric (=hydrostatic=dilatational) strain, K: bulk modulus

 xx   yy   zz   m
 m  KV
V 3 m
V    xx   yy   zz  (1  2 )
V E
1 m E
K   
  V 3(1  2 )
 Theory of Elasticity
Constitutive equation (stress
(stress-strain
strain relationship)
- Stiffness (c) and Compliance (s)

 1 6 5   1 6 5 
   
Stress =   2 4  strain =  2 4 
   3 
  3 
   

 i  c ij j  i  s ij j
The elastic constant matrices are symmetric and we have
only
l 21 independent
d d elastic
l constants!
 Theoryy of Elasticityy
Constitutive equation (stress-strain relationship)
- Stiffness
Stiff (c)
( ) and
d Compliance
C li (s)
( )
The elastic constant matrices are symmetric and we have
only 21 independent elastic constants! For cubic system,
(n = 3) * Zener ratio for cubic

2C44
A 0
C11  C12

For isotropic system,

(n = 2)

 = C12;  = (C11-C12)/2 = (for isotropic) G = C44

 Theory of Elasticity
Elastic constants
 Theory of Elasticity
Constitutive equation (stress
(stress-strain
strain relationship)
- Hooke’s Law
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Yielding Criteria Tresca Yield Criterion
(Maximum Shear Stress Criterion)
 max   min  I   III
 max   (I  II  III)
2 2
Yielding occurs when max reaches specific value (k = 0)
“Plastic flow starts when the maximum shear stress in a complex stress state reaches a value
equal to the maximum shear stress at the onset of flow in uniaxial tension (or compression).”
I uni-axial
In i i l test,
t t 0: normall yield th,
i ld strength
t 0 (=
( k ): shear
h yield
i ld strength
t th

 max   min 0 0 
0
( max ) complex   k   0  ( max ) uni axial  2
2 2
 max   min   0
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Yielding Criteria Von Mises’ Yield Criterion
(Distortion-Energy Criterion or J2 Criterion)
Quadratic stress invariant (or 2nd invariant of the stress deviator)
1
J 2  [( I   II ) 2  ( II   III ) 2  ( III   I ) 2 ]
6
Yielding occurs when J2 reaches specific value (k2 = 02)
“A body flows plastically in a complex stress state when the distortional deformation energy
is equal to the distortional deformation energy in uniaxial stress (tension or compression).”
In uni-axial test, 0: normal yield strength, 0 (= k ): shear yield strength

( 0 ) 2 0
( J 2 ) complex  k 2   0  ( J 2 ) uni axial
2
 0 
3
3
1 ( 0 ) 2
[( I   II )  ( II   III )  ( III   I ) ] 
2 2 2

6 3
1
Thus, in effective stress form [( I   II ) 2  ( II   III ) 2  ( I   III ) 2 ]1 / 2   0  3 0
2
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Combined Stress Tests
e.g.) a thin-wall tube (i.e., plane-stress condition)

Tresca Yield Criterion

(Maximum Shear Stress Criterion)
 xx 2  xy 2
( )  4( )  1
0 0
Von Mises’ Yield Criterion
(Distortion-Energy Criterion)
 xx 2  xy 2
( )  3( )  1
0 0
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Yielding Criteria
Fo plane
For plane-stress
st ess (2
(2-D)
D) condition:
ondition
if yy=xy=yz=0 3

Bi i l (=2-D
Biaxial ( 2 D principal
i i l stress
t condition)
diti )
  0 0 
   I 0 
 0 0 0  or  
 0   0  III 
 0   

if zz=yz=xz=0
Biaxial ((=2-D
2 D principal stress condition)
  0 0
   I 0 
 0  I 0  or  
 0  II 
 0 0 
 0
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Pressure-Sensitive Yielding Criteria

M h C l b Yield
Mohr-Coulomb Yi ld Criterion
C it i
0: Effective yield stress for shear on the shearing plane
 0  k   n n n: friction coefficient
n: normal stress on the shear plane

Pressure-sensitive Tresca Yield Criterion

p: pressure dependence coefficient
0  k  p p P : hydrostatic pressure
1
p   m   ( I   II   III )
3
Drucker-Prager
Drucker Prager Yield Criterion
1 
[( I   II )  ( II   III )  ( I   III ) ]   p p  [1  ]( 0 ) comp
2 2 2 1/ 2

2 3
( 0 ) comp :  0 in compression
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Flow Curve

Baushinger effect

All of these may happen in real world, but are

generally neglected in plasticity theories
theories.
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Flow Curve 1200

1000
[J.H. Hollomon, 1945]

stress(MPa)
800

  K n or    0  K n 600

True s
400

[D.C. Ludwigson, 1971]

  K1  exp( K 2  n2 )

200
n1
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14

True strain
N
   
* Ramberg-Osgood
g g Eq.
q     
0 0 0 

Rigid, perfectly plastic Elastic- Linear hardening

Perfectly plastic
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Flow Curve
Power--law hardening behavior
Power Linear hardening behavior

  K 1 n1  exp(K 2  n 2  ) [[D.C. Ludwigson,

g , 1971]]
  K
K n
[J.H. Hollomon, 1945]

c.f.   A  E T 
1200

800
1000

True sttress(MPa)
ess(MPa)

600 800
True stre

600
400

400

200
200

0 0
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

True strain True strain

Applied for most of steels Applied for austenitic stainless steel

 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Necking (Plastic Instability)
From maximum P at onset of necking From S-e curve at onset of necking

dP   dA  Ad   0 d[ ]
dS e p()
exp(
 0
From consistency-of-volume relationship de d[exp()  1]
AL  A 0 L 0  1 d
  x 0
[exp()] 2
exp() d[exp()  1]
LdA  AdL  0
d
  exp(()
d dA dL d[exp()  1]
   d
 A L d
 exp()d[exp()  1]  d


d
d
 nK n 1
 K n
n
A. Considere, Ann. ponts et chaussees, vol. 9, ser. 6, pp. 574-775, 1885.
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Necking (Plastic Instability)

Before necking : d
Strain-hardening effect > 
d
Area reduction effect
After necking (  u n ):
d
Strain hardening effect <
Strain-hardening 
Area reduction effect
d
Inhomogeneous Deformation Triaxial stress sate

Compatibility

 22  22

x1
x3
x2
 The Uni-axial Tension Test
Stress concentraion & Necking
Macro scale Microstructural inhomogeneity
Necking

- grain
i b boundary
d
- vacancy
- precipitate
- inclusion (oxide, nitride)
- interface (stacking fault, twin)
Notch
- crack
- pore
- void
id ((cavity)
it )