DIGESTIVE SYSTEM o More lymphoid nodules

o Without teniae coli

Large Intestine/colon
 Mucosa
o No folds except in the rectum (rectal
columns of Morgagni)
o Absence of villi
o Simple columnar epithelium
o Abundant goblet cells
o Deep crypts of Liebrkuhn (intestinal
glands)
o Lamina propia with more lymph nodules
than S.I.

 F— lymphatic nodule
 LP— lamina propria
o With goblet cells

 Area with folds— rectum (upper right)

 Goblet cells stained blue (lower left)

 5-serosa
 4- muscularis externa
 2- mucous cells
 3-lymphatic nodule at the base of area of
submucosa
 1– serosa

Anal canal
 Submucosa
o Hemorrhoidal plexus of veins in the
lower rectum
 Group of veins near the
junction of anus and rectum
 Muscularis externa
o Smooth muscle (longitudinal bands)
 Teniae coli
 Adventitia/Serosa
o Ascending and transverse= adventitia
o Lower descending and rectum= serosa
 Mucosa
o With short crypts (1st 2 cm)
o Stratified squamous epithelium to
the opening
 Submucosa
o With sebaceous and sweat glands
 Muscularis externa
o With thickened inner circular smooth
muscle (anal sphincter)

Appendix
 Resemble colon except for:
o Small lumen
o Fewer and shorter crypts
 Accessory Organs

Associated Organs and Strucutres of the Mouth

and Buccal Cavity
 SS— stratified squamous  Lips
 RM— rectal mucosa  Tongue
 Hemmorhoidal vessels— irregular shaped  Tooth

Liver

 Largest gland
 Covered by Glisson’s capsule
 Made up of lobules (hepatic lobules)
 With dual blood supply (PV & HA)
 With 3 drainage system (HV, LV, & BD)
 Hepatocytes— liver cells

Hepatocytes
 Marked by the positions of portal triads
 Each lobule marked with a central vein
 Radiating hepatocyte plates with sinusoids
in between
 Chief functional cells of the liver
 Polygonal in shape
 Functions:
o Metabolism of absorbed nutrients
o Storage of excess glycogen and lipid
o Synthesis and secretion of plasma
proteins
o Production and secretion of bile
o Degradation of metabolic
 Kupffer cells— macrophages
Hepatic Sinusoids
 The liver’s blood capillaries
 Receive blood from HA and HV (mixed
blood flow
 With discontinuous endothelial walls
o Lined with Kuppfer cells
o Space of Disse (between
endothelium and hepatocytes)
 Serve as the liver’s lymphatic
vessels
Portal Triad
 Occupies a portal space at each corner of a
lobule
 3 components
o Portal venule/portal vein
 Largest
o Portal arteriole/portal artery
 2nd largest
o Bile ductule/duct
 Smallest
 o Hepatic acinus (of Rappapport)
Blood Supply of the Liver Classic Lobule
 Hepatic portal vein

o Supplies 75% of liver’s total blood  Based on the direction of blood flow
volume
o Formed by the junction of Portal Lobule
mesenteric and spleenic veins

 Hepatic artery

o Supplies about 25% of liver’s blood

volume
o A branch of the celiac artery
o Empties oxygen-rich blood into the
sinusoids
 Based on the direction of bile flow
Blood Supply and Drainage System
Hepatic acinus

 Based on the content of oxygen, nutrients,

and toxins
Liver Histoarchitecture and its Functions
Pancreas

 Three models:
o Classic lobule
o Portal lobule

 Serous compound acinar gland
 Without striated ducts
 With exocrine and endocrine function
o Endocrine portion
 Islets of Langerhans
o Exocrine portion
 Pancreatic acinar and
centroacinar cells
 Pancreatic acinar cells
o Pyramid-shaped cells with luminal
spices
o Enzyme-secreting cells
 Trypsin, chymotrypsin
(zymogen granules)
 Centroacinar cells
o Duct-lining cells with condensed
nucleus and clear cytoplasm
o Secrete bicarbonate-rich fluid
Gallbladder
 Blind-ending sac at the lower surface of liver
 Hollow organ with layered walls
o Without definitive submucosa
 Fused with muscularis and
serosa
 Functions
o Store and concentrate the bile
 Mucosa
o Consists of simple columnar
epithelium
o Deep invaginations (crypts) forming
the glands
o With large sinuses (cistern)
 Muscularis
o Interwoven smooth muscle fibers
 Adventitia and serosa
o Outer layer consisted of adventitia
that attaches to the liver
o Serosa covers its peritoneal surface
o Attached to the liver— adventitia
o Covers the organ— serosa
Salivary Glands
 Types
o Parotid
o Submandibular and submaxillary
o Sublingual
 Features
o Numerous adenomeres
o Lobules separated by CT septa
o Release secreations thru
intercalated, striated, and
interlobular ducts (intercalated and
striated
 Cell types
o Serous & mucous cells
 Predominant cells
 Serous: relatively small,
basophilic cells
 More opaque
 Mucous: larger; acidophilic
cells
o Myoepithelial cells
  Contractile cells between
basal lamina and epithelial
cells of adenomeres and
ducts
 Help in the contraction of
adenomeres to help release
secretions
o Other cells
 Antibody-secreting cells in
the CT septa

Parotid

 Branched acinar gland

 Almost excusively serous
 Produce 70% of the salivary enzymes
o Amylase
 Catalyzes hydrolysis of
starch to maltose
o Sialomucin
Submandibular/Submaxillary Gland

 Branched tuboloacinar glands

 Both mucous and serous adenomeres
o Mostly serous
 Produce 70% of the salivary volume
 Serous demilunes cap mucous adenomeres
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Ventilating mechanism part of conducting
portion
 Conducting Portion
o The respiratory tree
o Nasal cavity (nose) until terminal
bronchioles (conducting zone/area)
o Transport gases from the external
to the lungs
o Humidification and filtration
 Respiratory Portion
o Respiratory bronchioles to alveolar
sacs
o Where gas exchange happens
 Shifting of epithelium
o Pseudostratified columnar—>
columnar—> low columnar—>
squamous
 Involves inhalation and exhalation
 Diaphragm and rib cage— main parts
 Diaphragm— skeletal muscle that separates
the upper and lower areas of the body
(thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity)
o Innervates by phrenic nerve (branch
of the vagus nerve)
 Intercostals— part of the rib cage
o Minor use in the process of
inhalation and exhalation
 Abdominal muscles— labored breathing
 Quiet breathing— involves diaphragm and
intercostal muscles
 More elastic the connective tissue in the
lungs the more compliant it will be (higher
compliance)
 Choanae— posterior nares
 Nasopharynx—> Oropharynx—>
Laryngopharynx
 Larynx guards entrance to trachea
 Cricoid cartilage— first tracheal ring,
complete cartilagenous ring
 Thyroid cartilage— cartilage that protects
the larynx, found in the external portion
 Epithelial lining
o From pseudostratified to cuboidal
 Respiratory Epithelium

Wall structure  Pseudostratified ciliated columnar

epithelium
 Epithelial cell types:
o Ciliated columnar
o Mucous goblet cells
o Brush cells
o Basal cells
o Small granule cells
 Lamina propria
o With glands from nasal cavity—>
trachea
 Skeletal CT
o Bone/cartilage in the nasal cavity
o Cartilage only in the larynx—>
bronchi
 Arytenoid cartilages move
the vocal cords
 With epithelium o Disappears at the level of the
o Respiratory epithelium bronchioles
o Pseudostratified columnar or o Cartilage also found at the septum
columnar o Turbinates (concha) at the lateral
 With lamina propia surface of nasal cavity
 With cartilage  Smooth muscle
o Hyaline— in trachea o Begins in the trachea—> alveolar
 Trachealis muscle ducts
o Connect C-shaped hyaline cartilage  Skeletal muscle
o Smooth muscle o Absent in nasal cavities
 With smooth muscle o Nasopharynx—> larynx
 Adventitia
 Each layer undergoes gradual change in Nasal Cavity
thickness
 Metaplasia
o Gradual change of epithelium from
its functional epithelium to a non-
functional epithelium seen in chronic
smokers
 o Venous sinuses and Bowman’s
glands in the lamina propria
 Humidifies air, gives moisture
o Supported by bones
o Specialized epithelium in the roof of
each fossa
 At the area of the cribiform
plate at the anterior ethmoid
 Olfactory and sustentacular
cells

Naso-pharynx
 Upper part of the pharynx; overlying the soft
palate
 Lined by respiratory epithelium
 Lamina propia contains:
o Lymphoid nodules
o Mucous
o Serous glands
 With skeletal muscles

Larynx

 Divided by nasal septum—> 2 cavities

 2 chambers within each cavity
o Vestibule
o Nasal fossa
 Vestibule
o Smaller, wider, more anterior
chamber
o Lined by keratinized to non-
keratinized stratified squamous—>
respiratory epithelium
o Bowman’s glands in the lamina
propia
 Combination of serous and
mucous
o With short hair (vibrissae)
 Nasal fossa

 Lies between base of oropharynx and

o Larger, narrower, more posterior
chamber
o Lined by respiratory epithelium
trachea
 Opening protected by epiglottis
 Glottis— is a space where you find the
vocal cords
 Subglottis— space below the glottis
  Supraglottis space above the glottis
 Walls supposeted by laryngeal cartilages
 Skeletal muscles around cartilages
 Houses the vocal apparatus
 Lined by respiratory epithelium
 Vestibular fold— for talking
 Vocalis—muscle that help in movement of
vestibular folds/vocal cords
 When talking vocal cords in adduction
 When breathing vocal cords in (????)

Bronchus

 CC— cricoid cartilage

Trachea
 Cartilage seen in segments
o Hyaline cartilage islands/plates
 Columnar epithelium lower than trachea
 Lung parenchyma visible

Bronchioles

 Lined by respiratory epithelium

 Lamina propia with
o Mixed serousmucous glands
 Presence of 16-20 C-shaped cartilages
 With fibroelastic ligament and smooth
muscle (trachealis muscle)
o Connects the C-shaped hyaline
cartilage
  Respiratory bronchiole
o Lined by cuboidal epithelium
o Interrupted by alveoli
 Alveolar ducts
o
o sion of RB
o With alveoli almost entirely lining the
walls
 Alveolar atria and sacs
o Distal terminations of alveolar ducts
 Pneumocytes
 Lined by simple columnar with cilia and o Go back to vid
goblet cells
 Lamina propia without glans
 Each bronchiole—> 5-7 terminal
bronchioles

Terminal bronchioles

Alveoli

 Smallest component of the conducting

portion
 Lined by ciliated cuboidal or columnar  Lined by simple squamous epithelium
epithelium
o With cilia
o With goblet cells
o With Clara cells
 Also produces surfactant
 Each terminal bronchiole—> 2 +
respiratory bronchioles
 Surfactant— a type of sphingomyelin
o Secreted by type 2 cells of the  Chambers of simple squamous epithelium
lung  Connect to one another an to the alveolar
o Lower surface tension of air sacs duct
 Prevents bursting  Form a sponge-like arrangement of gas
 Atelectasis filled spaces in lung tissue
o Collapsed lung

Respiratory Portion
  Pulmonary
surfactants
 Alveolar macrophages
o Dust cells
o Monocyte-derived (MPS)
o Found on the surface of alveolar
septa an in the interstitium
o Removes debris that escape the
mucus and cilia in the conducting
portion
o Phagocytose blood cells that enter
the alveoli due to heart failure
 Connected by interalveolar septum
o Specialized for gas exchange
o Consists of nonfenestrated
capillaries

 Alveolus with alveolar type II cell (type II

pneumonocyte) that secretes surfactant and
capilliars that form the blood-air barrier
o Type I part of blood air barrier
 Blood-air barrier
o Layers
 Film pulmonary surfactant
 Cytoplasm of simple
squamous cells
 Fused basal laminate
between Type I alveolar cells
and endothelial
 Cell types
o Type I cells
 Alveolar type I cells/ Type I
pneumocytes/ Squamous
alveolar cells
 Make up 97% of alveolar
surfaces
 Specialized to server as
blood-air barrier
o Type II cells
 Type II alveolar cells/ Type II
pneumocytes/ Great alveolar
cells/ Alveolar septal cells
 Cover remaining 3% of
alveolar surfaces
 Secretory cells
  Intima— simple squamous
 Media— smooth muscle

Tunica Intima/Interna
 Sublayers
o Endothelium
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 Simple squamous epithelium
o Subendothelium
 Areolar CT
o Internal elastic membrane (arteries)
 Wavy and scalloped layer
Tunica media
 Components
o Vascular smooth muscle fibers
o Elastic and collagenous fibers

Tunica adventitia
 External elastic membrane
 Components
o Nerves
o Vasa vasorum
 Blood vessels within the wall
 Supply nutrients and oxygen
o Collagen and elastic fibers

Neurovascular Bundle

Fundamental Plan of the Blood Vessels

 Arteries
 Combination of nerve, artery, and vein
 Nerve shown are group of axons
 In between are loose connective tissue and
adipose
 In vivo blood vessels are usually
accompanied by a nerve
 Large arteries
o With abundant elastic fibers (aorta)
o With the thickest tunica intima
 Muscular, small-medium sized arteries
o Distributing arteries
o Prominent internal and external
elastic membrane
 Arterioles
o Smaller arterial vessels
o Often lacks subendothelial CT
o Lacks internal and external elastic
membrane
 Descending Thoracic Aorta

Artery and Vein

o 1 = tunica intima
o 2 = internal elastic membrane,
membrane elastica interna
o 3 = tunica media
o 4 = tunica adventitia
 Artery

Comparison of Arteries and Veins  Radial Artery

Arteries Veins
Lumen Smaller and Larger with
round blood,
irregular
Thickest layer Tunica media Tunica externa
Wall Thicker, Thinner,
regular form collapsed
Valves Absent Present
(extension of (except in
endothelium) venules)
 Valves— prevent backflow o 1 = tunica intima
o 2 = tunica media
 o 3 = internal elastic membrane
o 4 = tunica adventitia
 Femoral Artery

 Endothelial junctions between arteries and

o 1 = internal elastic membrane veins
o 2 = tunica media  Capillaries
o 3 = tunica externa o With endothelium and reticular fibers
o 4= tunica adventitia  Sinusoids
o 5= vasa vasorum (vessel of the o Winding path and enlarged diameter
vessel) o Walls with discontinuous endothelial
cells
Veins o Present in liver, spleen bone marrow
 Large veins (vena cavae, portal veins)  Pericytes/advential cells
o Largest diameter-vein o Small mesenchymal cells scattered
o Tunica intima well-developed along capillaries
o Tunica media poorly developed o Covered the outer surface of the
o Smooth muscle reduced/absent capillary
 Small-medium sized o Can contract
o No distance internal elastic  Aid in the blood flow of the
membrane capillary system
o Thin tunica intima with less o Help in injury
subendothelial layer  Pluripotent, and can replace
damaged tissue
 Venules
o Intima with endothelium only
o Without valves
o With outer sheath of collagenous
fibers

Types of Capillaries
 Continuous

Capillaries and Sinusoids

o Smooth, non-porous endothelium
 o Muscles, brain, and peripheral
nerves
 Fenestrated/Visceral
o Perforated endothelium (fenestrae)
o Some with pores covered by
diaphragms
o Kidneys, intestines, and certain
endocrine organs
 Sinusoids/Discontinuous
o With discontinuous basal lamina
o With wide lumen
o With gaps in between endothelial
lining
Cross sections
 Continuous capillary
 Fenestrated capillary
o 1 = fenestrated membrane with
diaphragm
o 2 = Golgi apparatus
o 3 = endothelial cell nucleus
o 4 = mitochondria
o 5 = sections of endocrine cells
Arteriovenous Anastomoses
 Direct connections between A & V that
regulate blood flow by smoot muscle
contraction
 When open, blood flow passes directly from
A to V circulation by-passing the capillary
bed
 Glomera
o Complex anastomoses between
arterioles and venules in the finger
pads, nail bed, and ears
 Allow efficient management of blood
distribution during stress, heavy exertion,
and temperature changes
 Important in regulating blood pressure
during other physiologic processes such as
erection and menstruation
The Heart
  Chambers
 Valves
 Cardiac skeleton
 Cardiac tunics
 Conducting fibers Cardiac Valves
 Folds of endocardium enclosing a plate like
Chambers of the Heart core of dense CT
 Tricuspid valve (3 cusps)
o Free edge of each cusp anchored to
papillary muscles in the floor of each
ventricle by Chordae tendinae
 Bicuspid valve (2 cusps)
 Semilunar valves (3 cusps)
o Cusps not attached by chordae
tendinae
o With thickened nodule at the center
of the free edge
o Two types
 Pulmonary
 Atria: thinner walled chamber  Between R.V. and
 Ventricle: the thicker walled chamber P.A
 Atrial myocardium (SA node) differed from  Aortic
ventricular myocardium (Purkinje fibers)  Between L.V. and
aorta
 Trabeculae carnae
o Rounded or irregular muscular
columns
o Project from the inner surface of left
and right ventricle

Cardinal Skeleton

 Dense CT rings that form:

o Insertions of cardiac muscles
o From which cardiac valves extend
 Annuli fibrosae
o Surround and reinforce AV valves Conducting System
o Origins of PA and aorta
 Trigona fibrosae
o Containing some cartilage
o Lie in between annuli fibrosae
 Septum membranaceum
o Interventricular septum

 SA node
o Main pacemaker of the heart
o Fires the highest
 AV node
 Bundle of His
 Purkinje Fibers
o Also pacemakers
o Lesser firing
o Found between endocardium and
myocardium
 Ventricular cardiac muscles
 Purkinje fibers:
Cardiac Tunics

 Endocardium
o Inner layer
o Similar to tunica intima of blood
vessels
o Sublayers: Lymphatic Vessels
 Endothelium  Lymphatic vessels and ducts
 Subendothelial CT (elastic o Walls resemble those of veins
fibers and smooth muscle) o Beaded appearance (due to
 Subendocardium (areolar presence of valves)
tissue) o Adventitia thin and lacks smooth
 Bundle of His & muscle
Purkinje fibers o Tunica media with both longitudinal
and circular smooth muscle
 Myocardium (middle layer)  Longitudinal predominates
o Cardiac muscle fibers  Lymphatic capillaries
o Similar to tunica media of blood
vessels
o Contains the impulse-conducting
system
 Epicardium
o Outermost layer
o Similar to tunica adventitia of blood
vessels
o With smooth mesothelial surface

o Resemble B.V. capillaries

o Large diameter than B.V. capillaries
o Lack fenestrations
 Fewer tight junctions than
B.V. capillaries
BLOOD  Mature RBCs lack nuclei and cytoplasmic
organelles
 Limited lifespan of around 120 days in
circulation

White Blood Cells

 Nucleated, larger than RBCs

 Variations of nuclear morphology
 With two types of granules:
o Specific granules
 Occur in granulocytes
Composition of Plasma o Azurophilic granjules
 90% water by volume  Occur in both agranulocytes
 10% solutes by volume and granulocytes
o Plasma proteins
 Albumin
 Globulins
 Fibrinogen
o Other organic compounds
 Amino acids
 Glucose
 Vitamins
 Peptides
 Hormones
o Inorganic salts  Basophils
o Least numerous, 1% of WBCS
 Electrolytes such as sodium,
potassium, and calcium o Size
 10-12 µm in diameter
Red Blood Cells  Usually smaller than
neutrophils
o Nucleus
 Basophilic
 Highly condensed
 Usually 3-lobes twisted into S
tshape
o Cytoplasm
 Specific granules
 Metachromatically stained
(reddish-violet)
 Neutrophils
 With biconcave shape (specialized for o Most abundant, 60-70% of WBCs
transport) o Active phagocytes
o Size
  ~12 µm diameter in blood o Secrete antibodies/immunoglobulins
 20 µm in tissues (component of humoral immunity)
o Nucleus  T lymphocytes
 Condensed chromatin, o Produce variety of cytokines
 Usually 3-lobed but increases o Involved in immune response
up to 5 lobes (band  Monocytes
neutrophils) o Constitute 3-8% of the blood
o Cytoplasm o Outside the bloodstream, they
 Abundant with specific become phagocytic
granules (salmon pink) o Members of the MPC (mononuclear
 With azurophilic granules phagocyte system)
(reddish purple) o Size
 Eosinophils
 Large
o Constitute 1-4% of WBCs
 12-15 µm in blood
o Number increases during allergic  20 µm in tissues
reactions o Nucleus—
o Size  Usually kidney or horseshoe-
 9-14 µm shaped
 Smaller than neutrophils  Eccentric
o Nucleus  Less dense chromatin
 Condensed chromatin  2-3 nucleoli
 Usually 2-lobed connected by o Cytoplasm
chromatin bridge  Abundant blue azurophilic
o Cytoplasm granules
 Presence of large, numerous  No specific granules
specific granules
Platelets/Thrombocytes

 Lymphocytes
o Constitute diverse class of cells
o Account for 20-25% of WBCs
o Respond to invasion of foreign
bodies but not phagocytic
 Smaller formed elements
o Two types: B and T lymphocytes
 Disk-like fragments with diameter from 2-5
o Size
µm
 Small  Without nuclei
 6-8 µm
 150,000– 300,000/ µl in blood
o Nucleus—
 Approximately 8 days lifespan
 Spherical
 Appears in clumps
 Flattened on one side
 Densely heterochromatic  Function in adhesion/coagulation
(purplish blue-black)
o Cytoplasm
 Thin rim around nucleus
 Pale basophilic
 No specific granules
 Few azurophilic granules
 B lymphocytes
o Differentiate into plasma cells
Reading assignment
 Function of granulocytes
 Function of platelets
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Components of the System
 Circulating cells
o B lymphocytes
 Quick response (humoral)
o T lymphocytes
 Prolonged responses
 Lymphatic aggregates
o Encapsulated lymphoid organs
o Partly encapsulated lymphoids
o Unencapsulated lymphoid organs
 Reticular connective tissue stroma
component

Classification of Lymphoid Tissues and Organs  Blue dotted line— primary lymph nodule
 Peripheral lymphoid organs  Red dotted line— secondary lymph nodule
o Lymph nodes  Red arrow— germinal center of secondary
 Junctions (axilla, groin) nodule
o Spleen
o Tonsils
 Palatine/Faucial
 Pharyngeal
 Lingual
 Central lymphoid organs
o Bone marrow
o Thymus
 Unencapsulated lymphoid organs/diffused
o Lymphatic aggregates/nodules
 MALT, GALT, BALT
 Primary nodules
o Contain only small lymphocytes
o Lack germinal centers
o Present prenatal in the absence of  White dotted line— secondary lymph double
antigens  Red arrows— germinal center
 Secondary nodules  Yellow arrows— corona or mantle
o Appear after birth
o Size and number approximate to the Lymph Nodes
degree of stimulation  The smallest but most numerous
o With lighter-staining germinal encapsulated lymphoid organ
centers that contains mainly  Scattered in groups along lymphatic vessels
lymphoblasts o Neck
o Axilla
o Groin
o Thorax
o Abdomen
 Functions
o Filtration of lymph
o Lymphocyte production
o Immunoglobulin production

Structure of Lymph Nodes

  The only discrete central lymphoid organ
o Only found in the thoracic cavity
 Parts
o Lobules
o Interlobular connective tissue (septa)
o Cortex
o Medulla
 Arrow— thymic corpuscles (Hassall’s
corpuscles)
o Unknown function
o Sign that thymus is degrading
 The more corpuscles, the
more advanced its
degradation
 Functions
o T lymphocyte production
o Blood supply and blood-thymus
barrier
o Hormone production
 Thymopoeitin
 Thymosin

Spleen
Thymus

 Largest lymphoid organ

  Functions
o Filtration of blood
o Lymphocyte production
o Destruction of worn red blood cells
o Extramedullary hematopoiesis

 Red pulp components

o Splenic cords (Billroth’s cords)
o Spleenic sinusoids
o Surrounds white pulp
o With blood
o Originated from the splenic artery
 White pulp components
o Central arteriole surrounded by
PALS (periarterial lymphatic sheath)
o Peripheral white pulp
o No blood
o For maturation of lymphocytes

Comparison of the Tonsils

 Tonsilolith— stones at the pharyngeal tonsil

  Glomerulus
 Thin epithelial lining
 Tuff of capillaries
 Bowman’s capsule
 Squamous epithelium
o Proximal Convoluted Tubules (PCT)
 Simple cuboidal epithelium with
microvilli
 Reabsorption of water, glucose,
sodium
o Distal convoluted tubules
 Pressure sensor (JG cells)
o Peritubular capillaries
Distinguishing Features of Lymphoid Organs o Medullary rays
 Collecting ducts are present that
will lead them to the pelvis
 Renal helices
o Lead to the renal pelvis
 Dilated portion of the ureter
 Collecting ducts will end to it
 Kidney is the one that will filter and “clean the
blood”
o 25% of the cardiac output enters the
kidney through the renal artery

THE URINARY SYSTEM

Components
 Kidneys
o Back of the peritoneum (retroperitoneal)
 Sits on the dorsal wall
 Urinary tract
o Ureters
o Urinary bladder
 Stores the urine
o Urethra

General Organization of the Kidney

 Cp = capsule
 C = cortex
 Renal sinus
o Opening where renal artery and vein is
found
 P = pyramids
o Make up the whole segment of the
kidney
o Where you find cortex and medulla until
it reaches the renal sinus
 Loop of Henle
o Longer in medullary nephrons compared
 Cortex— outer portion to critical nephrons
 Medullary— inner portion Basic Organization of the Nephron
 Nephron
o Functional unit of the kidney
 Parts of the nephron
o Renal corpuscle (Filtration)
 o Glomerus with forward or favoring
filtration pressure
o Bowman’s capsule is the opposite,
counteracts forward pressure
o Net glomerular filtration pressure still
positive
 Still capable of filtering
 Podocytes
o Increase filtration capabilities
 Types of Poles/Faces of Renal corpuscles
o Vascular pole
 Has the afferent arterioles
 Where afferent and efferent
arterioles drain from
o Urinary pole
 Where proximal CT exits
 Juxta-cortical nephron (the one encircled)
o Most of the nephron parts are in the
cortical region
o Some in the medullary
 Medullary nephron
o Most of the parts of the nephron are in
the medullary regions
 Pars recta
o Part of the loop of henle of juxta-cortical
nephron
o Thicker or bigger portion
 Ascending thin limb of juxta cortical-loop of
henle thinner than descending limb
 Distal convoluted tubule
o Close to afferent nerve
o Where you can you find JG apparatus
o Leads to the collecting ducts
 Duct of Bellini
o Big collecting ducts
o Eventually leads to renal pelvis
 Glomerus only capillary in the body that is only
supplied by arterioles (no veins or venules)
 Peritubular capilliaries
o Branches coming from the renal vein
o Covers all the tubules

The Juxtaglomerular Apparatus

 Substance in the filtrate of the Bowman’s

capsule will exert an opposite pressure to the
pressure in the glomerulus
 o Polkissen
 Extraglomerular mesangial cells
 Function unknown
 Physiologically unimportant

 Other zones of renal cortex

o Zona fasiculata
 Secretes glucocorticoids
 For glucose reabosoprtion
o Zona reticularis
 For secretion of androgenic
hormones
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
o Also known as vasopressin
o Reabsorption of water

 For monitoring blood pressure

 Location
o Near vascular pole
 Point of contact between DCT
and afferent arteriole
 Component
o Juxtaglomerular cells (JG)
 Monitors the JG cells, blood
pressure
 Modified smooth muscle cell
 With secretory structures (PAS
+ cytoplasmic granules)
 Secrete renin
 Enzyme involved in
cleaving plasma
Proximal convoluted tubule
angiotensinogen (from
liver)—> angiotensin I
o Will be
converted to
angiotensin II
through ACE
 One reason why kidney
is also called an
endocrine organ
o Macula densa
 Amount of sodium in the filtrate
(monitoring blood osmolarity)
 Disk of tightly packed columnar
cells
 Aldosterone
 Hormone that regulates
sodium levels
 Promotes sodium
reabsorption
 Minerolicorticoid
 Secreted by renal
cortex (zona
glomerulosa)
  Lined by simple low columnar-to-cuboidal o Lined by simple squamous
epithelium  Thick limbs
 Lining cells with microvilli that form brush o Ascending
borders o Lined by simple cuboidal
 Convoluted part lies in the cortex  Thick and thin limbs
o Connected to thick DLH o Without brush borders
 Where most of sodium and water is reabsorbed  Transition from low columnar to cuboidal,
o Eventually filtrate is concentrated to squamous to cuboidal
become urine in the area of the loop of o Mostly cuboidal cells
henle o Small area that is squamous in the thin
limb

 The pars recta of the proximal tubule

 The thin descending limb
Distal Convoluted Tubule  The thin ascending limb
 The thin ascending limb
Collecting ducts and tubules
 Block like lining cells have distinct intercellular
borders
 Cuboidal cells in the smaller tubules columnar in
the larger ducts
 Cells appear clear and white
 Duct of Bellini
o Largest of the collecting ducts
 Flow of blood in the kidney:
 With low cuboidal epithelium o Focus on the boxed portion, where
 Without brush borders filtration occurs
o Wider lumen
 More basophilic lining cells than that of PCT
 Form disk of tightly packed columnar cells—>
macula densa (detects blood osmolarity)
o Found on the wall of DCT

Loop of Henle

 U-shaped epithelial tube

 Wit thick and thin descending and ascending Renal Calyces and Renal Pelvis
limbs
 Thin limbs
o Descending
  Walls consist of
o Mucosa
 Typical transitional epithelium
o Muscularis
 Meshwork of smooth muscle
o Adventitia

 Blends with surrounding

adipose tissues
o Without submucosa

Ureter  Triangular in shape

 Distensible muscular sac
 Thicker muscularis than ureter
 Lined with transitional epithelium
 Smooth muscle not organized into layers except
at internal sphincte
Urethra

 Narrower lumen than renal pelvis  3 main parts in male

 Similar wall structure to that of renal calyces o Prostatic portion (surrounded by
 Transitional epithelium prostatic gland)
o Membranous portion (shortest)
Urinary Bladder o Cavernous portion (covered by corpora
spongiosa and cavernosa)
o Longer than female urethra
 Prostatic portion
 o Proximal part; exits directly from neck of
urinary bladder
o Surrounded by prostate gland
o Lined by transitional epithelium
o Receives prostatic and ejaculatory ducts
o Empties into membranous portion
 Membranous portion
o Shorter segment
o Encircled by skeletal muscle of the
membrane-like urogenital diaphragm
o Lined by pseudostratified epithelium
o Empties into cavernous portion

 Cavernous portion
o Passing through corpus cavernous
urethrae (corpus spongiosum of penis)
 Divided into bulbous and pendulous parts
 Fossa navicularis
o Widened urethral lumen near tip of penis
 Urethral meatus
o Urethral opening at end of penis
 Glands of Littre
o Mucous glands along urethra
o Numerous at the pendulous part