UET LAHORE NAROWAL CAMPUS

GEOTECH LAB MANUAL

NAME Muhammad Nouman

SUBMITTED TO ENGR.AHAD ALI

REG. NO. 2019-CIV-337

DATE 30 july 2021

SEMESTER 4TH

SUBJECT GEO TECH. LAB 1

 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION (BY OVEN DRYING METHOD)

REFERENCE

ASTM D2216
Standard Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil and
Rock by Mass

OBJECTIVE

To determine the amount of water or moisture present in the given quantity of soil in terms of its
dry weight

NEED AND SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENT

In almost all soil tests natural moisture content of the soil is to be determined. The knowledge of
the natural moisture content is essential in all studies of soil mechanics. To sight a few, natural
moisture content is used in determining the bearing capacity and settlement. The natural moisture
content will give an idea of the state of soil in the field.

THEORY

Water content or moisture content determination is a routine laboratory test, the results of which
are used in evaluation of different important engineering properties of soil. The determination of
moisture content involves removing of soil moisture by oven-drying a soil sample until the
weight remains constant. The moisture content is expressed in percentage and is calculated from
the sample weight before and after drying.

Mathematically it can be written as;

𝑊𝑤
𝜔= × 100
𝑊𝑠
Ww = Weight of Soil Water
Ws = Weight of Soil Solids

APPARATUS

1. Moisture tins
2. Weighing balance (Least count of 0.01 grams)
3. Drying oven (temperature control at 110 ± 5 OC)
PROCEDURE

1. Take empty, clean moisture tin and mark it with an identifying number or code.
2. Weigh the container and record the weight as W1 to the nearest 0.01 grams.
3. Take representative wet soil sample (not less than 20 grams) and place it quickly in the
moisture tin.
4. Weight the moisture tin with wet soil sample to the nearest 0.01 gram and record this weight
as W2.
5. Place the moisture tin with the wet soil sample in drying oven at constant temperature of 110
± 5 OC for 24 hours.
6. After 24 hours remove the moisture tin from drying oven and weigh it to the nearest 0.01
gram. Record this weight as W3.
PRECAUTIONS

If it is not possible to place the container carrying wet soil sample in drying oven immediately,
cover the container with lid.
1. If it is suspected that gypsum is present in the soil, the soil sample should not be subjected to
a temperature beyond 60 oC. Otherwise gypsum will lose its water of crystallization affecting
thereby the results of moisture content. Oven drying at 60oC may, however, be continued for
a longer time in order to ensure complete evaporation of free water present in the sample.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

𝑊𝑤 𝑊2 − 𝑊3
𝜔= × 100 = × 100
𝑊𝑠 𝑊3 − 𝑊1

Where;

W1= Weight of tin =16(grams)

W2 = Weight of moist soil + tin =76(grams)

W3 = Weight of dried soil + tin =64(grams)

Can No. 1
76
Wt. of wet soil + can (grams)
64
Wt. of dry soil + can (grams)
16
Wt. of can (grams)
64+16=48
Wt. of dry soil (grams)
76+64=12
Wt. of moisture (grams)
25%
Water content (%)

𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝜔 = 25 %
COMMENTS:
This test is done to determine the water content in soil by oven drying method as
per IS: 2720 (Part II) – 1973. The water content (w) of a soil sample is equal to the mass of water
𝑊
content divided by mass of solid sample that is 𝜔 = 𝑊𝑤 × 100 . The oven-drying method is the
𝑠
most accurate method of determining water content.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION (BY SPEEDY MOISTURE METER)

REFERENCE

ASTM D4944
Standard Test Method for Field Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil by the
Calcium Carbide Gas Pressure Tester

OBJECTIVE

To determine moisture content of a soil sample by speedy moisture meter

THEORY

The speedy moisture meter provides a quick, simple means of determining the moisture content
of soil. It is particularly useful for field determinations of moisture contents in conjunction with
the field compaction testing. The speedy moisture meter is also known as calcium carbide gas
moisture tester.

The basic principle behind this method is that the free moisture in the soil reacts with calcium
carbide reagent to form a gas called acetylene gas. This gas exerts a pressure on the internal side
of the walls of speedy moisture meter which is reflected by a pressure dial. The pressure dial is
calibrated in such a way that pressure reading reflects the percent moisture by wet weight of soil
directly.

The reaction which takes place inside the speedy moisture meter is as follows;

CaC2 + H2O CaO + C2H2

Since the moisture content by definition is expressed as a percentage of dry weight of soil, the
readings obtained by speedy moisture meter are corrected using following expression;

𝜔𝑠𝑝
𝜔= × 100
(1 − 𝜔𝑠𝑝 )
Where;

ω = Moisture content in percentage of dry weight of soil

ωsp = Moisture content as obtained by speedy moisture meter expressed as decimal fraction
APPARATUS

1. Speedy moisture meter

2. Calcium Carbide reagent
3. Two (02) 1.25 inch steel balls
4. Cleaning brush and cloth
5. Scoop for measuring calcium carbide reagent

PROCEDURE

1. Weigh approximately 26 grams of wet soil sample on the tarred scale, and place it in the cap
of the tester.
2. Place three (03) scoops of calcium carbide and two (02) 1.25 inch steel balls in the larger
chamber of the moisture tester.
3. With the pressure vessel in an approximate horizontal position, insert the cap in the pressure
vessel and seal it by tightening the clamp.
4. Raise the moisture tester to a vertical position so that the soil in the cap falls into the pressure
vessel.
5. Shake the instrument vigorously so that all lumps are broken up to permit the calcium
carbide to react with all available free moisture. The instrument should be shaken with a
rotating motion so that the steel balls do not damage the instrument or cause soil particles to
become embedded in the orifice leading to pressure diaphragm.
6. When the needle stops moving, record the dial reading while holding the instrument in a
horizontal position at eye level.
7. With the cap of the instrument pointed away from the operator, slowly release the gas
pressure. Empty the pressure vessel and examine the material for lumps. If the sample is not
completely pulverized, the test should be repeated using a new wet soil sample.
8. Apply correction to the dial reading to convert the moisture content in terms of dry weight of
soil.

LIMITATION

The speedy moisture meter can determine the moisture content only up to 20 percent. If the
moisture content of the sample exceeds the limit of the pressure gauge, one half size sample must
be used and dial gauge reading must be doubled.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Care should be taken that no calcium carbide comes in contact with the soil until a complete
seal is achieved.
2. Shake the instrument by rotating the instrument in horizontal plane so that moisture tester is
not damaged during shaking.
3. After completion of test, slowly release the gas pressure pointing the instrument away from
operator.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
𝜔𝑠𝑝
𝜔= × 100
(1 − 𝜔𝑠𝑝 )
ωsp =

Sample No. 1 2 3

Container No. C-79 C-2 C-56

Initial reading 15 10.4 7.6

Zero Error 0.7 0.6 0.8

Final reading 14.3 9.8 6.8

𝜔𝑠𝑝 (%) = final reading / 100 0.143 0.098 0.068

𝜔(%) from formula

𝐖𝐒𝐏 16.68 10.86 7.29
w= 𝟏−𝐖𝐒𝐏 ×100 (%)

Average 𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝜔 = 11.61%

COMMENTS:

The speedy moisture test is the quick way of finding moisture content of soil using calcium
carbide. The acetylenes gas produced by the tester is tapped within the tester and registers on the
pressure dial, which is calibrated to read directly in percent of moisture by wet weight of soil.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
WATER CONTENT DETERMINATION (BY DIERCT HEATING METHOD)

REFERENCE
ASTM D4959
Standard Test Method for Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil by Direct Heating

OBJECTIVE:

To estimate the amount of water or moisture present in the given quantity of soil in terms
of its dry weight by direct heating

NEED AND SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENT

Determination of natural moisture content of the soil is required in almost all soil tests. The
familiarization of the natural moisture content is essential in all studies of soil mechanics.
Natural moisture content is used for evaluation of several parameters of soil properties such as
bearing capacity and settlement etc. The natural moisture content will give an idea of the state of
soil in the field.
THEORY

Water content or moisture content determination is a routine field test, the results of which are
used in evaluation of several important engineering properties of soil. The determination of
moisture content by direct heating involves removing of soil moisture by direct heating of a soil
sample until the weight remains constant. The moisture content is expressed in percentage and is
calculated from the sample weight before and after heating.

The moisture content of a soil is frequently used throughout geotechnical engineering practice
both in the laboratory and in the field. Moisture content determination of soils using Oven
Drying Method ASTM D2216 needs considerable time which may not be feasible on occasions
where more rapid results are required. Drying by direct heating is one such method can
compensate urgency of results in field. Results of direct heating test have been demonstrated as
satisfactory accurate for use in filed control work, such as in the determination of in-situ dry
density of soils.

Mathematically it can be written as;

 𝑊𝑤
𝜔= × 100
𝑊𝑠
Ww = Weight of Soil Water
Ws = Weight of Soil Solids

APPARATUS

1. Moisture tins/containers
2. Weighing balance (Least count of 0.01 grams)
3. Electric, gas, butane or oil stove (temperature control at 110 OC)
4. Container handling tools (gloves or any suitable apparatus
5. Miscellaneous (as required)

PROCEDURE:

1. Take empty, clean moisture tin and mark it with an identifying number or code.
2. Weigh the container and record the weight as W1 to the nearest 0.01 grams.
3. Take representative wet soil sample (not less than 20 grams) and place it quickly in the
moisture tin.
4. Weight the moisture tin containing wet soil sample to the nearest 0.01 gram and record
this weight as W2.
5. Place the moisture tin containing wet soil sample in any direct heating stove drying oven
at constant temperature of 110OC.
6. Continue application of heating until the specimen appears to be relatively dry. A
comparatively uniform color should be visible at this stage. Record this weight as W3.

LIMITATIONS

1. This test method is not suitable for flammable organic specimens or contaminants and
use of other test methods is recommended.
2. Specimens tested in this test should not be used for performance of other test as localized
high temperatures in the soil during testing may lead to change in physical characteristics,
degradation of individual soil particles along with vaporization, chemical transition or
loss of organics.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Additional care must be taken while testing sand and gravel size particles to avoid
possibility of particle shattering.
2. Container holders or gloves should be used for handling of hot containers. Due to
improper heating, some soils may retain considerable heat resulting into serious burns.
 3. Safety glasses or goggles are recommended for suitable eye protection during testing for
account of particle shattering during heating, mixing, or weighing.

4. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

𝑊𝑤 𝑊2 − 𝑊3
𝜔= × 100 = × 100
𝑊𝑠 𝑊3 − 𝑊1

Where;

W1 = Weight of container(grams)
W2= Weight of moist soil + container(grams)
W3= Weight of dried soil + container (grams)

Can No. 00 01 02

Wt. of wet soil + can (grams) 44.12 44.11 46.10

Wt. of dry soil + can (grams) 41.18 41.16 43.01

Wt. of can (grams) 20.12 20.08 20.00

Wt. of dry soil (grams) 21.06 21.08 23.01

Wt. of moisture (grams) 2.94 2.95 3.09

Water content (%) = (Ww / Ws) × 100 13.96 13.99 13.43

𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝜔 = 13.79 %

COMMENTS:
This experiment depends upon the mineral composition of material because
sample is diretly heated. The general procedure of this test method applies to all soils, but this
test is not apply to that soil which contain flammable organic content so other method is used
for this type of soil.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4
SPECIFIC GRAVITY DETERMINATION

REFERENCE

ASTM D854
Standard Test Methods for Specific Gravity of Soil Solids by Water Pycnometer

OBJECTIVE:

To familiarize the students with general method of obtaining the specific gravity of a mass of any
type of material composed of small particles (specifically soil).

THEORY

A value of specific gravity is necessary to compute the void ratio of a soil, it is used in the
hydrometer analysis, and it is useful to predict the unit weight of a soil. Occasionally, the
specific gravity may be useful in soil mineral classification; e.g., iron minerals have larger value
of specific gravity than silicas.

The specific gravity of any substance is defined as the unit weight of the material divided by the
unit weight of distilled water at 4 oC. Thu, specific gravity of soil can be found as;

𝛾𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐺𝑠 =
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

As long as equal volume of water and soil are involved, the above stated form can be simplified
as;

𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 ⁄𝑉
𝐺𝑠 =
𝑊𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ⁄𝑉

Strictly speaking above mentioned equation is only valid if we do not consider any density
change with temperature. However, a slight increase in precision to account for temperature
effects on the density of water can be obtained by rewriting above stated equation as;

𝑊𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
𝐺𝑠 = ×𝛼
𝑊𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Where, α is the ratio of the unit weight of water at temperature T of the test and at 4oC. The value
of Gs obtained at temperature T (which will be too large if T > 4oC) is appropriately reduced.
 𝛾𝑇
𝛼=
𝛾4𝑜𝐶

APPARATUS

1. Pycnometer
2. Weighing balance (Least count of 0.01 grams)
3. Thermometer
4. Hot plate or Bunsen burner
5. Funnel
6. Drying oven

Water
Water
Soil Soil

W1 W2 W3 W4
(𝑊2 − 𝑊1 )𝛼
𝐺𝑠 =
[(𝑊4 − 𝑊1 ) − (𝑊3 − 𝑊2 )]
PRECAUTIONS

1. Make sure no air is entrapped within the soil water mixture.

2. Weights should be obtained from a properly balanced weighing scale.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Test No. 1 2

W1 (grams) 193.1 165.5

W2 (grams) 263.8 285.9

W3 (grams) 728.6 727.4

W4 (grams) 690.1 663.4

𝛼 (T=35 *c) 0.9941 0.9941

(𝑊 −𝑊 )𝛼
Gs = [(𝑊 −𝑊2)−(𝑊
1
−𝑊 )]
2.18 2.12
4 1 3 2

Typical values of correction factor, α;

T (oC) Correction Factor, α

4 1.0000
15 0.9999
20 0.9982
25 0.9971
30 0.9957
35 0.9941

COMMENTS:
Specific gravity is an important property of fluids being related to density and
viscosity. We can calculate the specific gravity of any liquid by comparing it with water density
at specific temperature. Knowing the specific gravity of soils helps engineers understand how
porous the soil is or how many voids it contains. It also indicates how saturated the soil is with
water.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS (MECHANICAL ANALYSIS) FOR COARSE

GRAINED SOILS

REFERENCE:
ASTM D422
Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils

OBJECTIVE

To introduce the students to the method of making a mechanical grain size analysis of a
soil and presenting the resulting data.

THEORY

Grain size analysis carries much importance in determination of engineering properties of soil
e.g. suitability criteria of soils (for road, airfield, levee, dam and foundation material), soil water
movement, susceptibility to frost action etc.

The grain size analysis is the attempt to determine the relative proportions of the different grain
sizes which make up soil mass. For this, sample should be statically representative of the soil
mass.

By carrying out mechanical analysis, particle sizes and their relative distribution can be done for
the particle greater than 0.075 mm. The mechanical analysis is carried out by stacking the sieves,
one on top of the other, pouring a known weight of soil into the top sieve on the stack, and
shaking the sieve in a certain manner to allow the soil to fall down through the stack.

The stack of sieves is known as nest of sieves. The nest is arranged with the largest screen
openings (smallest sieve number) on top, progressing to the sieve with the smallest screen
opening (largest sieve number) on the bottom of the nest. A lid is placed on the top of the nest
and pan is placed below the bottom sieve to catch any soil that passes through the smallest
opening. The number or the sizes of the sieves used in the nest depends on the type of the soil
and the distribution of the particle sizes. Generally sieve No. 4, 10, 40, 100, 200 are used for
classifying the soil.

APPARATUS

1. A set of sieves
2. Mechanical soil pulverizer
3. Weighing balance (Least count = 0.01 grams)
4. Mechanical sieve shaker

PROCEDURE

1. Obtain 500 grams of soil sample which has already been pulverized by placing it on sieve
No. 200 and then oven dried.
2. Arrange a nest of sieves including sieves No. 4, 10, 40, 100, 200 and pan.
3. Place the set of sieves in the mechanical sieve shaker and sieve it for 5 to 10 minutes. Note
that if the entire set of sieves does not fit into the shaker perform a hand shaking operation
until the top few sieves can be removed from the stack and then place the remainder of the
stack in the mechanical shaker.
4. Remove the nest of sieves from the shaker and obtained the weight of the material retained
on each sieve. Sum these weights and compare with the actual weight taken. A loss of more
than 2 percent by the weight of the residual material is considered unsatisfactory and the test
should be replaced.
5. Compute the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on each sieve by
the original sample weight.
6. Compute the percent passing by starting with 100 percent and subtracting the cumulative
percent retained for that sieve.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Weight of sample = __100_ grams

Percentage Cumulative Percent

Sieve No. Weight of Soil Percent Passing
Weight Retained Retained
Retained (grams) (%)
(%) (%)
4 0.00 0.00 0 100

8 0.00 0.00 0 100

10 0.00 0.00 0 100

16 0.00 0.00 0 100

50 69.0 69.90 69.90 30.10

80 14.6 14.60 84.50 15.50

100 0.00 0.00 84.50 15.50

200 14.9 14.90 99.40 0.70

PAN 0.6 0.60 100 0.00

PRECAUTIONS

1. Particles that appear to be stuck in the sieve screen should never be forced on through the
mesh. There are two reasons for not doing this.
a) The particles would have passed the screen on their own had they been smaller than the mesh
opening. Forcing these particles through the screen to be retained on the next size would
distort the grain size results.
b) Secondly forcing the particles through the mesh can damage the screen and necessitate its
replacement.

Particles caught in a screen should be removed by brushing with the proper sieve brush.
Brushing should be done from the underside of the screen in order that the particles can be
brushed out of the screen in the direction from which it entered in the screen opening. Stubborn
(obstinate) particles that cannot be removed by rushing should be left in place.

2. Lumps of soils must have broken down into their individual particles in order for the grain
size analysis to be valid. This is accomplished in two ways. The first is to break up lumps
with a rubber-tipped pestle in ceramic mortar. It has been found that the rubber-tipped pestles
will not grind or crush the individual particles while a ceramic or metal-tipped pestle
will.The second is to wet-sieve the soil. Washing the particles that are retained on the No.200
sieve with water and this will accomplish two things.
a) It separates those small lumps that might not have been broken up with the rubber tipped
pestle into individual particles.

b) It washes the “Dust size” particles and through the No.200 sieve.

3. A 10 minute shaking period is suggested in procedure. A large sample is requires longer

shaking than a sample. Similarly a sample comprising primarily of fine grained material will
require a longer shaking period than a coarse grained sample of equal weight.

COMMENTS:
This experiment is very important for the analysis of soil using mechanical by
sieve analysis to define its physical property... Soil analysis is important to define which soil is
best for construction purpose and to design safe supports of foundations for structure.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6
PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS (HYDROMETER ANALYSIS) FOR FINE GRAINED
SOILS

REFERENCE

ASTM D422
Standard Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of Soils

OBJECTIVE

The hydrometer method is used to approximate the particle size distribution for particles that
passes sieve #200. The hydrometer test is held as an extension to the sieve analysis to make us
able to classify the soil.

THEORY

Hydrometer test is based on the principle that grains of different sizes fall through a liquid at
different velocities. The essence of this concept is that sphere falling through a liquid will reach a
terminal velocity expressed by Stoke’s Law;

2𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾𝑤 𝐷 2
𝑣= × ( ) … … … . (𝐸𝑞. 1)
9𝜂 2

v = Velocity of fall of sphere, cm/ sec

γs = Unit weight of soil, g/ cc
γw = Unit weight of water, g/ cc
η = Absolute viscosity of the fluid, dyne –sec/ sq. cm
D = Diameter of spheres, cm

The equation mentioned above is only valid for diameter approximately ranging from 0.0002 to
1 mm as large grains cause excessive fluid turbulence and very small grains are subjected to
Brownian movement (i.e. subject to particle forces of attraction and repulsion).

For determination of diameter above mentioned equation can be written as;

18𝜂𝑣
𝐷= … … … . (𝐸𝑞. 2)
𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾𝑤
The accuracy of using this equation to determine soil particle sizes is subjected to how well some
assumptions made to permit using stokes equation actually apply to the test conditions. Some of
these assumptions are;

1. Stoke’s equation was developed using a sphere, whereas most silt and particularly clay
particles are platy shaped.
2. Stoke’s equation was developed using only a single sphere, but a great many particles are
involved in even a sample as small as 50 grams of soil.
3. The specific gravity of Stoke’s sphere was accurately known, but the specific gravity of the
soil solids is actually an average value of all minerals comprising the particular soil being
tested.
4. Clay particles have a tightly bounded layer of adsorbed water that remains with the parcel as
it falls through the water column in the hydrometer bottle. Thus a great resisting surface than
that of the clay particle alone is in effect as the particle falls through the suspension.

To obtain the velocity of fall of the particles, the hydrometer is used. This is a device originally
develop to read the specific gravity of a solution, but by altering the scale it can be made to read
other values.

The hydrometer is usually a type 152 H (ASTM designation) and is calibrated to read grams of
soil of value Gs = 2.65 in 1.000 cu-cm of suspension as long as no more than 60 grams of soil is
involved. The reading is of course, directly related to the specific gravity of the solution. This
particular hydrometer calibration is a considerable aid in the computations. For this reason, this
type of hydrometer is widely used although other hydrometer can also be used.

The hydrometer displays the specific gravity of the soil water suspension at the centre of its bulb
as shown.
Any soil grains larger than those still in suspension in the zone L (the distance between the
centre of the volume of the bulb and the water surface) have fallen below the centre of volume,
and the constantly decrease the specific gravity of the suspension atconstant weight, the less the
specific gravity of the suspension, the deeper the hydrometer will sink into the suspension (the
larger the distance L will become). For water the specific gravity (or density) decreases as the
temperature rises from 4oC. This also will cause the hydrometer to sink deeperinto the
suspension.

Since ‘L’ represents the distance the particles fall in some time t, and the velocity term in Eq. 2 is
distance divided by time, it is evident that the velocity of the fall of the particle is;
𝐿
𝑣=
𝑡

Thus it is necessary to find ‘L’ corresponding to some elapsed time ‘t’ so that the velocity for use
in stokes equation can be found.

Fig. b shows the jar containing the soil suspension. When the hydrometer is immersed in the jar
(Fig. c), the water level aa rises to a1a1. The rise is equal to the volume V1 of the hydrometer
divided by the internal area of cross-section A of the jar. Similarly the level bb rises to b1b1.
Where bb is the level situated at depth L below the top level aa at which the density
measurement of the soil suspension are being taken. The rise between bb and b1b1 will be
approximately equal to Vb/2A. The level b1b1 is now corresponding to the centre of the bulb, but
the soil particles at b1b1 are of the same concentrations as they were at bb. Therefore we have,

𝐿2 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑏
𝐿 = (𝐿1 + + − )
2 2𝐴 𝐴
or
1 𝑉𝑏
𝐿 = 𝐿1 + (𝐿2 − ) … … … . 𝐸𝑞. 3
2 𝐴

The hydrometer reading must not be corrected for use in Eq. 3 except for meniscus (in turbid
suspension, one must read the top of the meniscus).

If the particle diameter and percentage of soil remaining in suspension are known which in this
case is also the percent finer sufficient data are available to plot a grain size distribution curve.

The percent finer is related directly to hydrometer reading of the 152 H hydrometer since it reads
grams of the soil still in suspension directly if the unit weight of type soil grains 2065 gm/cu-cm
and the density of the water is 1. Since a dispersing agent has been used, this is not likely to
occur often the temperature is likely to occur often the temperature is likely to be around 20 oC
and the Gs of the soil may not be 2.65-corrections must therefore be applied to the actual
hydrometer reading to make it accurately read the grams of the soil still in suspension. To keep
temperature a single valued variable, it is convenient to use a water tub to maintain a constant
temperature value for the duration of the test. To obtain the effect of water and dispersing agent
on the hydrometer reading, it is convenient to use a standard jar of clear water with the same
quantity of dispersing agent as used in the soil suspension to obtain a zero reading( a zero
correction value ) at the same temperature as the soil water suspension. A reading of less than
zero (i.e. a minus reading) is possible but all zero reading should be to the top of the meniscus. If
the temperature is too high in both the soil and standard suspension, obviously the density of
water is decreases equally in both suspensions and the hydrometer sinks too deep, but this is
directly a function of the temperature of the suspension and thus one has a temperature
correction Ct which can be obtained once for all, from table.

Since deeper the hydrometer sinks, smaller the reading R regardless of the amount of the soil in
suspension, corrections must be applied to the actual reading which accurately measures the soil
in suspension to make a percent finer computation.

𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝐶𝑡 … … … . 𝐸𝑞. 4

After correct hydrometer reading has been obtained, the percent finer can be computed by simple
proportion (if Gs = 2.65) as

𝑅𝑐
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 = × 100 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 … … … . 𝐸𝑞. 5
𝑊𝑠

Rc = Corrected hydrometer reading (grams of the soil in suspension at some elapsed time t)
Ws = weight of the original soil sample placed in suspension gm.

If Gs is not equal to 2.65, the a multiplier ‘a’ is computed to use with Eq. 5 by proportion as
follows

𝑎 1
=
𝐺𝑠 /(𝐺𝑠 − 1) 2.65/(2.65 − 1)

Solving for ‘a’ one obtains;

𝑎 = 𝐺𝑠 (1.65)/{(𝐺𝑠 − 1)2.65}

The percent finer when Gs≠ 2.65, is computed as percent finer = (Rc . a/Ws) 100 percent.

Typical values of ‘a’ are given in table-2.

For computation purposes Eq. 2 is usually written using ‘L’ in centimeters and ‘t’ in minutes to
obtain ‘D’ in millimeters as follows;
 30𝜂
𝐷 = √{ } 𝐿/𝑡 𝑚. 𝑚
980(𝐺𝑠 − 𝐺𝑤 )

Which can be even simplified further to;

𝐷 = 𝑘√𝐿/𝑡

Value of k can be obtained from table 4.

PRETREATMENT OF SOIL

By mixing a given quantity of soil with water and a small amount of dispersing agent to form a
1,000 Cu-Cm quantity of solution, a solution with a specific gravity larger than one is obtained
(since w of water is 1 at 4C). The dispersing also called deflocculating agent) is added to
neutralize the charges on the smaller soil grains, which often have plus or minus charges. With
proper orientation, these charged soil grains will be attracted to each other with sufficient force
to remain stuck together, thus creating larger particles. According to Stokes law, these large
particles will settle faster through the fluid then the smaller particles.

APPARATUS

1. Sedimentation cylinder (1,000 cu-Cm cylinder) also termed a hydrometer jar.

2. Hydrometer (152 H)
3. Soil-dispersion device (malt mixer)
4. Dispersion agent (sodium hexametaphosphate NaPO3), trade name calgon, or sodium
silicate (Na2Sio3) also called water glass.
5. Thermometer

PROCEDURE

1. Take exactly 50gm of oven-dry well pulverized soil and mix with 125 Cu-Cm of 4
percent sodium metaphosphate solution.
2. Allow the mixture to stand for about 1 hr (ASTM suggests 16hr for clayey soils).
Transfer the mixture to malt mixer cup and add tap water until the cup is two-third full.
Mix for 3 to 10 minutes.
3. Transfer all the contents of the cup to the sedimentation cylinder, being careful not to lose
any material. Add tap water to fill the cylinder to the 1,000 Cu-Cm mark.
4. Prepare a control jar of tap water with 125 cu-cm of 4 percent sodium metaphosphate
solution or with same quantity of sodium silicate solution as used in step 1 above.
 5. Take a No. 12 rubber stopper and cap the cylinder of soil suspension. Carefully agitate
for at least 1 min.
6. Set the jar down, remove the stopper, immediately insert the hydrometer and take
hydrometer readings at elapsed time of 1, 2, 3 and 4 min. also take a temperature reading.
7. Place the hydrometer and thermometer into the control jar (which should be within 1c if
soil suspension).
8. Take a meniscus reading from the control jar.
9. Replace the No. 12 stopper and reagitate the suspension. Take another series of
hydrometer readings at 1, 2, 3 and 4 min. of elapsed times.
10. Repeat as necessary until two sets of the readings agree within one unit.
11. When agreement is reached within a pair of readings, once more shake the mixture and
take hydrometer readings at elapsed time of 1, 2, 3 and 4 min and compare it with the
previously accepted pair of 4 min reading.
12. If good agreement is obtained, use the previously averaged pair of readings as the first
four readings and collect additional hydrometer and temperature readings at elapsed time
of 8,15 and 30 minutes, followed by 1,2,4,8,16,24 and 96 hrs.
13. Terminate the test prior to 96 hr. of elapsed time if the hydrometer readings drop below 5.
The hydrometer is stored in the control jar during these series of readings except when
the actual readings are being taken.

PRECAUTIONS

1. It is usual to leave the hydrometer in the soil suspension for the first 4 min, remove it and
reinsert it each time for all additional readings. Little error will be caused if the
hydrometer is left in the jar for all 4 of the readings as compensating errors of fluid
disturbance will tend to offset errors due to soil participating on the hydrometer bulb.
2. When placing the hydrometer in the soil suspension for a reading proceed slowly enough
that It takes about 10 sec. for the operation( the insertion time should not exceed
approximately 5 to 6 second).
3. Consistent readings indicate a uniform mixture of soil water suspension.
4. Time beyond first 2 hr. of readings are approximate and are set to give reasonable spread
of plotted points for the percent finer vs. grain size (diameter) curve.
 Table 2 Table 3
Table 1
Correction Factors Temperature
Properties of Distilled Water “a” For Unit Correction
Weight of Solids Factors Ct

Unit Weight Viscosity of Unit Temp.

Temp. Correction Ct
of Water Water Weight
Factor (°C)
(°C) of Soil
g /cm3 (poises)
(a) 15 -1.10
g / cm3
4 1.00000 0.01567
16 -0.90
2.85 0.96
16 0.99897 0.01111
17 -0.70
2.80 0.97
17 0.99880 0.01083
18 -0.50
2.75 0.98
18 0.99862 0.01056
19 -0.30
2.70 0.99
19 0.99844 0.01030
20 -0.00

20 0.99823 0.01005
2.65 1.00
21 +0.20

21 0.99802 0.00981 2.60 1.01

22 +0.40

22 0.90780 0.00958 2.55 1.02

23 +0.70

23 0.99757 0.00936 2.50 1.04

24 +1.00

24 0.99733 0.00914
25 +1.30
 25 0.99703 0.00894 26 +1.65

26 0.99682 0.00874 27 +2.00

27 0.99655 0.00855 28 +2.50

Poise=
28 0.99627 0.00836 dyne.s/cm2=g/cm.s 29 +3.05

29 0.99596 0.00818 30 +3.80

30 0.99568 0.00801

Table 4 Values of K for several unit weights of soil solids and temperature combinations:

Unit Weight of Soil Solids (G/CM2)

Temp.
2.50 2.55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2.75 2.80 2.85
(°C)

16 0.0151 0.0148 0.0146 0.0144 0.0141 0.0139 0.0137 0.0136

17 0.0149 0.0146 0.0144 0.0142 0.0140 0.0138 0.0136 0.0134

18 0.0148 0.0144 0.0142 0.0140 0.0138 0.0136 0.0134 0.0132

19 0.0145 0.0143 0.0140 0.0138 0.0136 0.0134 0.0132 0.0131

20 0.0143 0.0141 0.0139 0.0137 0.0134 0.0133 0.0131 0.0129

21 0.0141 0.0139 0.0137 0.0135 0.0133 0.0131 0.0129 0.0127

22 0.0140 0.0137 0.0135 0.0133 0.0131 0.0129 0.0128 0.0126

23 0.0138 0.0136 0.0134 0.0132 0.0130 0.0128 0.0126 0.0124

24 0.0137 0.0134 0.0132 0.0130 0.0128 0.0126 0.0125 0.0123

 25 0.0135 0.0133 0.0131 0.0129 0.0127 0.0125 0.0123 0.0122

26 0.0133 0.0131 0.0129 0.0127 0.0125 0.0124 0.0122 0.0120

27 0.0132 0.0130 0.0128 0.0126 0.0124 0.0122 0.0120 0.0119

28 0.0130 0.0128 0.0126 0.0124 0.0123 0.0121 0.0110 0.0117

29 0.0129 0.0127 0.0125 0.0123 0.0121 0.0120 0.0118 0.0116

30 0.0128 0.0126 0.0124 0.0122 0.0120 0.0118 0.0117 0.0115

Table 5Value of L (effective depth) for use in stokes formula for diameters of particles for
ASTM soil hydrometer 152 H.

Original Original Original

Effective Effective Effective
Hydrometer Hydrometer Hydrometer
Depth Depth Depth
Reading Reading Reading
(Corrected L (Corrected L (Corrected L
For Meniscus For Meniscus For Meniscus
(cm) (cm) (cm)
Only) Only) Only)

0 16.3 21 12.9 42 9.4

1 16.1 22 12.7 43 9.2

2 16.0 23 12.5 44 9.1

3 15.8 24 12.4 45 8.9

4 15.6 25 12.2 46 8.8

5 15.5 26 12.0 47 8.6

6 15.3 27 11.9 48 8.4

7 15.2 28 11.7 49 8.3

 8 15.0 29 11.5 50 8.1

9 14.8 30 11.4 51 7.9

10 14.7 31 11.2 52 7.8

11 14.5 32 11.1 53 7.6

12 14.3 33 10.9 54 7.4

13 14.2 34 10.7 55 7.3

14 14.0 35 10.5 56 7.1

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

D = K √(L/t)
Hydrometer

Hydrometer
Temperatur

Diameter of

Corrected %age finer

Corrected

Effective

Particles
% Finer
Reading

Reading
Elapsed

K
Actual

Table)
Depth
(from
Time

L/t (from
e

Table)

Rc = Ro - %
t T Zero Finer D
Ro L
(min) (⁰C) Correc. = (Rc x (mm)
+ Ct a)/Ws
0.25 24 1.0325 1.0306 97.85 7.70 30.8 0.0129 0.0506 85.37
0.5 24 1.0320 1.0301 96.25 7.84 15.68 0.0129 0.0506 83.98
1 24 1.0310 1.0291 93.05 8.10 8.10 0.0129 0.0260 81.19
2 24 1.0310 1.0291 93.05 8.10 4.05 0.0129 0.0164 81.19
5 24 1.0310 1.0291 93.05 8.10 1.62 0.0129 0.0116 81.19
10 24 1.0305 1.0286 91.45 8.23 0.823 0.0129 0.0083 79.79
20 24 1.0300 1.0281 99.85 8.36 0.418 0.0129 0.0068 78.40
30 24 1.0290 1.0271 86.66. 8.63 0.287 0.0129 0.0069 75.61
60 24 1.0270 1.0254 81.12 9.03 0.150 0.0129 0.0050 70.86
COMMENTS:

Measuring the particle size distribution of fine-grained soils like clay and silt is best
performed using the soil hydrometer test. This sedimentation method is familiar to all
geotechnical laboratories. The hydrometer analysis of soil, based on Stokes’ law, calculates the
size of soil particles from the speed at which they settle out of suspension from a liquid. Results
from the test show the grain size distribution for soils finer than the No. 200 (75µm) sieve.
However, when combined with a sieve analysis, offer a complete gradation profile of soils
containing coarser materials.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7
DETERMINATION OF ATTERBERG’S LIMITS (LIQUID LIMIT AND PLASTIC
LIMIT) AND PLASTICITY INDEX

REFERENCE
ASTM D4318
Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils

OBJECTIVE

To introduce the students to the procedure for determining the liquid and plastic limit

THEORY

The liquid limit and plastic limit are two of the five “limits” proposed by A. Atterberg, a
Swedish agricultural scientist. These limits are;

1. Cohesion limit – that moisture content at which soil crumbs just stick together.
2. Sticky limit – that moisture content at which soil just sticks to a metal surface such as spatula
blade. This would have some significance to the agricultural engineer since it is related to
soil sticking to the moldboard of a plow or disc in cultivating soil
3. Shrinkage limit – moisture content below which no further soil volume reduction (or
shrinkage) occurs OR It is the moisture content at which soil transforms from semi solid state
to solid state.
4. Plastic limit – moisture content below which soil is non-plastic OR It is the moisture content
at which soil transforms from plastic to semi solid state.
5. Liquid limit – moisture content below which the soil behaves as a plastic material. At this
moisture content, the soil is on the verge of becoming a viscous fluid OR It is the moisture
content at which soil transforms from liquid to plastic state.

The liquid and plastic limits have been widely used all over the world, primarily for soil
identification and classification. The shrinkage limit is useful in certain geographical areas where
soil undergo large volume changes when going through wet and dry cycles. The cohesion and
sticky limits are used very little worldwide.

APPARATUS

1. Liquid limit device with Cassagrande grooving tool (cuts a groove of size 2 mm wide at the
bottom, 11 mm wide at the top and 8 mm high).
2. No. 40 ASTM sieve
3. Water content equipment
4. Spatula
5. Glass plate
6. 1/8 inch diameter brass rod
7. Containers

PROCEDURE FOR LIQUID LIMIT DETERMINATION

1. Pulverize a sufficient quantity of air-dried soil to obtain about 250 grams of representative
sample passing through No. 40 sieve.
2. Adjust the height of fall of the liquid limit device to exactly 1 cm. Use the 1 cm calibration
block at the end of the grooving tool for making this adjustment.
3. Place about 250 grams of soil in a glass plate, (or container). Add distilled water very slowly
and using spatula mix the soil thoroughly until it becomes a thick, homogeneous paste. Be
careful not to add too much water. Add approximately that much water in the soil to make it
such consistent that a blow count of 30 to 40 blows to close the standard groove of ½ inch is
obtained.
4. Place a portion of the soil paste in the brass cup of liquid limit device, and by means of
spatula, level and smooth the surface of soil.
5. Cut a clean, straight groove in the soil by drawing the grooving tool along the diameter
through center of the hinge which separates the soil into two (02) parts.
6. Turn the crank of the liquid limit device at the rate of two revolutions per second and count
the number of blows (drops) until two parts of the soil come into contact at the bottom of the
groove along a distance ½ inch.
7. Take about 20-40 grams of sample of soil from the closed part of the groove for subsequent
water content determination and put it in a pre-weighed moisture content container. Remove
the remaining soil from the brass cup and return it to the container. Wash and dry the cup.
8. Repeat steps 4, 5, 6 and 7 atleast four times using the same soil sample to which further small
increments of distilled water have been added. The amount of water added must be such that
the blows (drops) count range between 10 and 50.
9. The test should always proceed from the drier to the wetter conditions. If it should occur that
too much water was added to the soil must never be “dried” by adding additional dry soil.
The proper procedure is to thinly spread the wet soil on the glass plate and let it air dry to the
desired consistency. Continuous mixing and fanning of the wet soil is permitted to expedite
the drying process.
10. Weight the moisture containers and place them in the oven to dry overnight.
11. The U.S Army Corps of Engineers found from an investigations conducted with 767 liquid
limit determinations that the liquid limit of a soil could be reliably obtained by conducting
only one trial and using the following correlation equation;
𝑁
𝐿. 𝐿 = 𝑤𝑛 ( )0.121
25
N = Number of blows required to close the standard groove for distance of ½ inch.
Wn = Moisture content of the soil which closed after N blows

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Can No. 1 2 3

34 30 32
Wt. of wet soil + can (grams)

Wt. of dry soil + can (grams) 30 26.5 28

Wt. of can (grams) 18 18 18

Wt. of dry soil (grams) 12 8.5 10

Wt. of moisture (grams) 4 3.5 4

Water content (%) 33.33 41.17 40

No. of blows 26 19 21
PROCEDURE FOR PLASTIC LIMIT DETERMINATION

1. Take about 20 grams of air dried soil from the thoroughly mixed portion of the material
passing No. 40 sieve. Mix it on the glass plate with sufficient distilled water to make it
plastic enough to be shaped into a ball. Leave the plastic soil mass for some time to mature.
2. Take about 8 grams of the plastic soil, make a ball of it, and roll it between the fingers and
glass plate with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter
throughout its length. When the diameter of the thread has decreased to 1/8 inch. The
specimen is kneaded together and rolled out again. Continue the process until the thread just
crumbles at 1/8 inch diameter.
3. Collect the crumbled soil thread in the container for water content determination.
4. Repeat the test for three to four times and take average value of these readings.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Can No. 1 2 3

Wt. of wet soil + can (grams) 28 25 24

Wt. of dry soil + can (grams) 25.5 23 23

Wt. of can (grams) 18 16 18

Wt. of dry soil (grams) 7.5 7 5

Wt. of moisture (grams) 2.5 2 1

Water content (%) 33.33 28.57 20

PRECAUTIONS

Make sure that the liquid limit test should always proceed from the drier to the wetter conditions.
Otherwise, drying of soil sample may cause wastage of time.

COMMENTS:
The Liquid Limit (LL) is the moisture content at which a fine-grained soil no
longer flows like a liquid. • The Plastic Limit (PL) is the moisture content at which a fine-grained
soil can no longer be remolded without cracking. We find the liquid limit and plastic limit by
recording the difference between the wet and dry weights as the weight of moisture. Calculate
the plastic limit wp by dividing the "weight of moisture" by the "dry weight of sample" and
multiply by 100. Plasticity Index (Ip) of a soil is the numerical difference between its Liquid Limit
and its Plastic Limit.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8
ENGINEERING CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS ACCORDING TO USCS & AASHTO

REFERENCE

ASTM D2487
Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil
Classification System)

ASTM D2487
Standard Practice for Classification of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures for Highway
Construction Purposes

AASHTO M 145

OBJECTIVE

To perform basic characterization tests (specific gravity test, Sieve analysis, Hydrometer
analysis, Atterberg’s limits) on soil specimens and to classify those soils according to USCS and
AASHTO methods

THEORY

A classification scheme provides a method of identifying soils in a particular group that would
likely exhibit similar characteristics. Soil classification is used to specify a certain soil type that
is best suitable for a given application. There are several classification schemes available. Each
was devised for a specific use. For example American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) developed one scheme that classifies the soil according to
their usefulness in roads and highways. However, Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
was originally developed for use in airfield construction, but was later modified for general
purpose. AASHTO and USCS are two major classification systems in use.

Unified Soil Classification System(USCS )

The USCS uses symbols for the particular size group:

G - Gravel particles retained on #4 sieve (4.75 mm)

S - Sand particles passing #4 sieve, but retained on # 200 sieve (0.075 mm)
M - Silt particles passing # 200 sieve
C - Clay particles passing # 200 sieve

These are combined with other symbols with expressing gradation characteristics
W- Well graded
P- Poorly graded

And, plasticity characteristics (figure 1)

H – High plasticity L- Low plasticity O- Organic matter

Silty and clayey soils can be located in a plasticity chart as shown in the figure 4 below.

Figure 4: Plasticity chart for the AASHTO classification system (Source: Das, 2006)

Group Index (GI)

A group index value (GI) is appended in parentheses to the main group to provide a measure of
quality of a soil as highway sub grade material. The group index is given as:

Group Index : GI = (F-35) (0.2+0.005 ( LL-40 ) ) + 0.01 (F-15) (PI-10)

Where,
F = % finer than #200 sieve size.

GI is expressed in a nearest whole number. If GI is less than 0, then set it to 0. If any terms in the
above equation are less than 0, set them to 0. For them partial group index is used. The higher the
group index, the lower the quality of soil as sub grade material. GI should not exceed 20 for any
of group A-4 through A-7.

PROCEDURE

Information Required
Grain size distribution curve
Plasticity information of the soil – LL, PL, and PI
 ASTM D 2487
AASHTO M 145

USCS Classification

1. Determine the % of soil retained on #200 sieve (R200).

2. If R200 is greater than 50%, it is a coarse grained soil otherwise it is a fine grained soil.
3. For fine grained soil:
a. Find whether the soil is organic, by comparing the liquid limit of oven dried specimen
with that of the original specimen. If the LL of oven dried specimen is less than 75% of
that of the non oven dried specimen, the soil is organic. Otherwise, the soil is inorganic.
b. Plot the LL and PI values on the plasticity chart, and find the group symbol for the soil.
c. Determine % of soil retained on the US #4 sieve (R4). This is the % of gravel fraction
(GF) in the soil.
d. Determine the % of sand fraction (SF) in the soil by, SF = R200 – GF.
e. Use the ASTM table to classify the fine grained soil.
4. For coarse grained soil,
a. If % of gravel is more than % of sand, it is gravelly soil otherwise sandy.
b. Using the grain size distribution curve, calculate Cc, and Cu.
c. Using the ASTM chart for the coarse grained soil, classify the soil. Be careful to check
whether they fall under dual classification or not.

AASHTO Classification
1. Determine the % of soil passing through #200 sieve (F200). If F200 is more than 35% soil
is fine grained otherwise coarse grained.
2. For coarse grained soil:
a. Determine F10, F40, F200, LL, and PI.
b. Match the soil group based on the AASHTO Classification.
3. For fine grained soil:
a. Determine LL, and PI.
b. Group soil according to the AASHTO classification.
4. Determine Group Index (GI) of the soil as:

Group Index : GI = (F-35)(0.2+0.005(LL-40)) + 0.01(F-15)(PI-10)

5. Express GI in whole number.

6. Express the classification first by soil classification and then GI in parenthesis.

CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the % of soil retained on the #200 sieve

R200 = (100 – F200)

2. Calculate the % of soil retained on the #4 sieve

R4 = (100 – F4)
 3. Calculate uniformity coefficient (Cu) and coefficient of gradation (Cc) using the
following equations.

(𝐷60 )
𝐶𝑢 = =
(𝐷10 )

(𝐷30 )2
𝐶𝑐 = =
(𝐷10 ) × (𝐷60 )
4. Calculate Group Index (GI)

GI = (F-35) (0.2+0.005 ( LL-40 ) ) + 0.01 (F-15) (PI-10)

100
Grain Size Distribution Curve
90
Percent Finer by Weight (%)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Grain Size (mm)

PRECAUTIONS

1. Particles that appear to be stuck in the sieve screen should never be forced on through the
mesh. There are two reasons for not doing this.
a. The particles would have passed the screen on their own had they been smaller than the
mesh opening. Forcing these particles through the screen to be retained on the next size
would distort the grain size results.
b. Secondly forcing the particles through the mesh can damage the screen and necessitate its
replacement.
 2. Particles caught in a screen should be removed by brushing with the proper sieve brush.
Brushing should be done from the underside of the screen in order that the particles can
be brushed out of the screen in the direction from which it entered in the screen opening.
Stubborn (obstinate) particles that cannot be removed by rushing should be left in place.

3. Lumps of soils must have broken down into their individual particles in order for the
grain size analysis to be valid. This is accomplished in two ways. The first is to break up
lumps with a rubber-tipped pestle in ceramic mortar. It has been found that the rubber-
tipped pestles will not grind or crush the individual particles while a ceramic or metal-
tipped pestle will. The second is to wet-sieve the soil. Washing the particles that are
retained on the No.200 sieve with water and this will accomplish two things.
a. It separates those small lumps that might not have been broken up with the rubber tipped
pestle into individual particles.
b. It washes the “Dust size” particles and through the No.200 sieve.
4. A 10 minute shaking period is suggested in procedure. A large sample is requires longer
shaking than a sample. Similarly a sample comprising primarily of fine grained material
will require a longer shaking period than a coarse grained sample of equal weight.

COMMENTS:
Soils are classified into groups according to size, and the groups
are further divided into coarse, medium and fine sub-groups. The grain-size
range is used as the basis for grouping soil particles into boulder, cobble,
gravel, sand, silt or clay.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9
COMPACTION TEST (STANDARD AASHTO)

REFERENCE

ASTM D698 OR AASHTO T 99

Standard Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Standard Effort
(12,400 ft-lbf/ft3 (600 kN-m/m3))

OBJECTIVE

To perform the standard compaction test and to obtain the moisture density relationship for a
given compactive effort on a particular soil

THEORY

Compaction is a type of mechanical stabilization where the soil mass is densified with the
application of mechanical energy also known as compactive effort. The mechanical energy may
be produced by dynamic load, static load, vibration, or by tamping. During compaction the soil
particles are relocated and the air volume is reduced.

Compaction of soil increases its density and produces three (03) important effects;
1. Increase in shear strength of soil
2. Decrease in future settlement of the soil
3. Decrease in permeability of soil

These three (03) effects carry much importance in the construction of any structure. As a general
rule, the greater the compaction, greater these benefits will be. Compaction is actually a rather
cheap and effective way to improve the properties of a soil.

The amount of compaction is quantified in terms of the density (dry unit weight) of the soil. As a
general rule, dry soil can be best compacted (and thus a greater density achieved) if for each soil
a specified amount of water is added to it. In fact the water acts as a lubricant and allows the soil
particles to be packed together better. Thus for a given compactive effort, there is a particular
moisture content at which the dry density is greatest and the compaction is best. This moisture
content is called the “Optimum Moisture Content” and the associated dry density is called
“Maximum Dry Density”.

The usual practice in the construction industry is to perform laboratory compaction tests on
representative samples from the construction site to determine the Optimum Moisture Content
and Maximum Dry Density. Thus Maximum Dry Density is used by the designer in specifying
the design shear strength, resistance to future settlement and permeability characteristics. The
soil is then compacted by field compaction methods to achieve the laboratory Maximum dry
density (or percentage of it). In-place soil density tests are used to determine if the laboratory
Maximum Dry Density (or an acceptable percentage) has been achieved.
For determining the moisture-density relationship, following are the two (02) methods;

1. Standard Proctor test (Standard AASHTO)

2. Modified Proctor test (Modified AASHTO)

APPARATUS

1. Compaction mould with base plate and collar

(Mould height = 4.584 inch, Mould internal diameter = 4 inch, Mould volume = 1/30 cft)
2. Standard compaction rammer
(5.5 lbs with free fall of 12 inch)
3. Moisture tins
4. Large mixing utensil
5. Large mixing spoon
6. Trimming knife
7. Steel straight edge
8. Drying oven
9. Weighing balance (Least count = 0.01 gram)
10. Weighing balance (Least count = 1.0 gram)

PROCEDURE

1. Take a representative quantity (3 kg) of air dried soil that passes the U.S No. 4 sieve. If the
material has to be broken up, it should be accomplished in a manner that does not crush the
soil particles.
2. Mix the soil sample with a percentage of water by dry weight from and inspection of the soil
specimen (about 7 % for sandy soils and about 10 % for clayey soils). Keep this soil in an air
tight container for 20 hours for maturation.
3. Weigh the compaction mould lass than the collar and base plate.
4. Measure the compaction mould to determine its volume. Attach the collar nad base plate to
the mould.
5. Use the standard compaction method and compact the soil in three (03) equal layers, each
layer being given 25 blows from the rammer weighing 5.5 lbs dropping from a height of 12
inches. The blows should be uniformly distributed over the surface of each layer. The amount
of soil used should be just sufficient to fill the mould leaving about ¼ inch to be struck off
when the collar is removed.
6. Remove the collar and base plate carefully; strike both the top and base of the compacted
cylinder of soil with a straight edge. Fill in any holes in the compacted specimen with soil.
7. Clean the mould from outside and weight it to the nearest 1 gram.
8. Extrude the cylinder of soil from the mould, split it and take soil sample for moisture
determination.
9. Break the sample to No. 4 sieve size and 2 percent (based on the original sample weight) of
water. Carefully remix and repeat step 5 to 9 until, based on wet weights, a peak value is
followed by two slightly lesser compacted weights.
10. Return to the laboratory the following day and weigh the oven-dry water content samples to
find the actual water content of each test.
11. Plot zero air void line/ saturation curve.

PRECAUTIONS

1. On each soil layer, blows should be applied uniformly.

2. If the mould is not filled above the collar joint from the last compacted layer, do not add soil
to make up the deficiency. Always redo the test.
OBERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Sample No. 1 2
Moisture can No. 35 6

Wt. of can + wet soil (g) 94 88

Wt. of can + dry soil (g) 82 74

Wt. of water (g) 12 14

Wt. of can (g) 16 18

Wt. of dry soil (g) 66 56

Water Content (%) 18.18 25

Assumed moisture content (%) 11 15

Water content (%) 18.18 25
Wt. of soil + mould (g) 3292 3138
Wt. of mould (g) 1198 1198
Wt. of soil in mould (g) 2094 1940
Volume of mould (cu.mm) 1145.15 1145.15
Wet density, γb (g/mm3) 1.829 1.694
Dry density, γd (g/mm3) 1.547 1.344

COMMENTS:
Standard Proctor Test is used to determine the compaction of different types of unsaturated
soil and the properties of soil with a change in moisture content. The mechanical energy may
be produced by the dynamic load, static load, vibration, or by tamping. During compaction, the
soil particles are relocated, and the air volume is reduced.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10
COMPACTION TEST (Modified AASHTO)

REFERENCE

ASTM D1557 OR AASHTO T 180

Standard Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort
(56,000 ft-lbf/ft3 (2,700 kN-m/m3))

OBJECTIVE

To perform the modified compaction test and to obtain the moisture density relationship
(modified) for a given compactive effort on a particular soil.

THEORY

This test method covers laboratory compaction procedures used to determine the
relationshipbetween water content and dry unit weight of soils (compaction curve) compacted in
a 4 in. or 6in. diameter mold with a 10 Ib (5 kg) hammer dropped from a height of 18 in. (457
mm)producing a compactive effort of 56,250 ft-lb/ft3 (2,700 kN-m/m3). The code provides three
alternative procedures based on the soil material tested. The detailsof the procedures are given in
Table 1. Tests shall be performed in accordance with ASTM D 1557 (AASHTO T 180).

Table 1: Specification for modified Proctor Compaction Test

APPARATUS

1. Compaction mould with base plate and collar

(Mould height = 4.584 inch, Mould internal diameter = 4 inch, Mould volume = 1/30 cft)
2. Standard compaction rammer
(10 lbs with free fall of 18 inch)
3. Moisture tins
4. Large mixing utensil
5. Large mixing spoon
6. Trimming knife
7. Steel straight edge
8. Drying oven
9. Weighing balance (Least count = 0.01 gram)
10. Weighing balance (Least count = 1.0 gram)

PROCEDURE

1. Take a representative quantity (3 kg) of air dried soil that passes the U.S No. 4 sieve. If the
material has to be broken up, it should be accomplished in a manner that does not crush the
soil particles.
2. Mix the soil sample with a percentage of water by dry weight from and inspection of the soil
specimen (about 7 % for sandy soils and about 10 % for clayey soils). Keep this soil in an air
tight container for 20 hours for maturation.
3. Weigh the compaction mould lass than the collar and base plate.
4. Measure the compaction mould to determine its volume. Attach the collar and base plate to
the mould.
5. Use the modified compaction method and compact the soil in five (05) equal layers, each
layer being given 25 blows from the rammer weighing 10 lbs dropping from a height of 18
inches. The blows should be uniformly distributed over the surface of each layer. The amount
of soil used should be just sufficient to fill the mould leaving about ¼ inch to be struck off
when the collar is removed.
6. Remove the collar and base plate carefully; strike both the top and base of the compacted
cylinder of soil with a straight edge. Fill in any holes in the compacted specimen with soil.
7. Clean the mould from outside and weight it to the nearest 1 gram.
8. Extrude the cylinder of soil from the mould, split it and take soil sample for moisture
determination.
9. Break the sample to No. 4 sieve size and 2 percent (based on the original sample weight) of
water. Carefully remix and repeat step 5 to 9 until, based on wet weights, a peak value is
followed by two slightly lesser compacted weights.
10. Return to the laboratory the following day and weigh the oven-dry water content samples to
find the actual water content of each test.
11. Plot zero air void line/ saturation curve.

PRECAUTIONS

3. On each soil layer, blows should be applied uniformly.

4. If the mould is not filled above the collar joint from the last compacted layer, do not add soil
to make up the deficiency. Always redo the test.

OBERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Sample No. 1 2

Moisture can No. 3 20

Wt. of can + wet soil (g) 84 96

Wt. of can + dry soil (g) 72 78

Wt. of water (g) 12 18

Wt. of can (g) 18 18

Wt. of dry soil (g) 54 60

Water Content (%) 22.22 30

5.
Assumed moisture content (%) 15 18
22.22 30
Water content (%)
7302 7178
Wt. of soil + mould (g)
3642 3642
Wt. of mould (g)
3660 3536
Wt. of soil in mould (g)
3010.13 3010.10
Volume of mould (cu.mm)
1.21 1.17
Wet density, γb (g/mm3)
0.99 0.89
Dry density, γd (g/mm3)
COMMENTS:

Modified Proctor testing is used to determine the optimum compaction and moisture
when a modified comp active effort is applied. This test is generally used when compaction is
applied on larger areas (eg. swabs or turnouts) using heavy compaction equipment such as
vibration or smooth drum rollers in the field.

EXPERIMENT NO. 11
DETERMINATION OF IN-PALCE SOIL DENSITY (CORE CUTTER METHOD)

REFERENCE

ASTM D 2937
Standard Test Method for Density of Soil in Place by the Drive-Cylinder Method

OBJECTIVE

To present to the students two (02) commonly used methods to determine the in-situ density of
soil.

THEORY

Once compaction criteria are established for the soil to be sued at a particular site, generally with
both moisture and density limitations, some means of verification of the results must be used. On
all small projects and all large projects, this verification is achieved by either the sand-cone
method or core cutter method. On a few large projects, nuclear devices have been and are being
used. The nuclear method is beyond the scope of this manual and will not be considered further.

Basically, both the sand cone and core cutter methods use the same principle. That is, one
obtains a known weight of damp (or wet) soil from a small excavation of somewhat irregular
shape (a hole) in the ground. if one knows the volume of the hole, the wet density is simply
computed as;

𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙

𝛾𝑤𝑒𝑡 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒

and if one obtains the water content (ω) of the excavated material, the dry unit weight of the
material is;

𝛾𝑤𝑒𝑡
𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 =
1+𝜔

The sand cone and core cutter enable us to determine volume of the material excavated and
weight of the excavated material is determined by simply weighing the sample on weighing
scale.

APPARATUS

1. Cylindrical core cutter of steel

(Height = 127.4 mm, Internal diameter = 100 mm, Wall thickness = 3 mm)
2. Steel dolly
 (Height = 25 mm, Internal diameter = 100 mm, Wall thickness = 7.5 mm)
3. Steel rammer
4. Knife
5. Steel rule
6. Spade
7. Weighing balance (Least count = 0.01 gram)
8. Weighing balance (Least count = 1.0 gram)
9. Moisture tin
10. Straight edge

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the inside dimensions of the core cutter and calculate its volume.
2. Weigh the core cutter without dolly to the nearest 1 gram.
3. Expose the small area, about 30 cm square, to be tested and level it. Put the dolly on the top
of the core cutter and drive the assembly into the soil with the help of a rammer until the top
of the dolly remains 1 cm above the surface.
4. Dig out the core cutter from the surrounding soil, and allow some soil to project from the
lower end of the cutter. With the help of the straight edge, trim flat the end of the cutter. Take
out the dolly and also trim the other end of the cutter.
5. Weigh the cutter full of soil to the nearest 1 gram.
6. Keep some representative sample of soil for water content determination.
7. Repeat the test at three locations.

PRECAUTIONS
1. While trimming the soil from both ends of core cutter, make sure a leveled and smooth
surface is obtained without cavities.
2. Core cutter should be driven in soil vertically; otherwise it would be difficult to extract the
core cutter.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Test No. 1 2
1138 1136
Wt. of core cutter (g)
2758 2964
Wt. of core cutter + wet soil (g)
1620 1828
Wt. of wet soil (g)
1020.5 1020.5
Volume of core cutter (cc)
1.587 1.791
Bulk density (g/cc)
53 3
Container No.
18 16
Wt. of container (g)
74 76
Wt. of container + wet soil (g)
68 70
Wt. of container + Dry soil (g)
6 6
Wt. of water (g)
50 54
Wt. of dry soil (g)
12 11.11
Water content (%)
1.416 1.612
Dry density (g/cc)

COMMENTS:

Core Cutter method is used to determine the field density of soft soils like clay soils
or other cohesive soils which are placed as fills. Core cutter method is used for determining dry
density of the soil (field compaction)

EXPERIMENT NO. 12
DETERMINATION OF IN-PALCE SOIL DENSITY (SAND REPLACEMENT
METHOD)

REFERENCE

ASTM D 4914
Standard Test Methods for Density and Unit Weight of Soil and Rock in Place by the Sand
Replacement Method in a Test Pit

OBJECTIVE

To present to the students two (02) commonly used methods to determine the in-situ density of
soil.

APPARATUS

1. Density apparatus, consisting of a cylinder with attached cone separated by a shutter and base
plate
2. Cylindrical calibrating container
3. Glass plate
4. Tools for excavating hole
5. Weighing balance (Least count = 0.01 gram)
6. Weighing balance (Least count = 1.0 gram)
7. Clean dry flowing sand (graded between B.S sieves No. 25 and 52)

PROCEDURE

Determining the in-situ density by sand replacement method mainly involves three (03) steps;

A. Determination of weight of sand filling the cone

B. Determination of bulk density of sand
C. Determination of dry density of soil in place

A. Determination of Weight of Sand Filling the Cone

1. Put sand in the apparatus and record the weight of the apparatus and the sand as W1.
2. Place the apparatus on a glass plate which is placed on a clean, level, plane surface (if base
plate is to be used then place the base plate on a glass plate and seat the apparatus in the
opening of the base plate)
3. Open the valve and keep it open until the sand stops running out of the jar.
4. Close the valve sharply. Remove and weigh the apparatus with its remaining sand and record
the weight as W2.
5. Determine the weight of the sand required to fill the cone as W3.

𝑊3 = 𝑊1 − 𝑊2

6. Replace the sand removed in the cone determination.

B. Determination of bulk density of sand

1. Determine the volume (V) of the calibrating container by filling it with water full to the brim
and finding the weight of water. This volume should be checked by calculating it from the
measured internal diameter of the container.
2. Weigh the calibrating container and record it as W4. Place the sand cylinder concentrically on
the top of the calibrating container. Open the valve and permit the sand to rum into the
container. When no further movement of sand is seen, close the valve. Remove the excess
sand, level and clean the calibrating container and weigh it along the sand. Let this weigh by
W5. Then weight of sand filling the calibrating container W6 is;

𝑊6 = 𝑊5 − 𝑊4

The bulk density of soil is;

𝑊6
𝛾𝑏𝑠 =
𝑉

C. Determination of Dry Density of Soil In-Place

1. If not already determined, weigh the apparatus with sand in it to the nearest 1.0 gram and
record as W7.
2. Prepare the surface of the location to be tested so that it is a level plane.
3. Dig the test hole inside the base plate opening; being careful to avoid disturbing the soil that
will bound the hole. Soils that are essentially granular require extreme care. Place all
removed soil in the container with a tight-fitting lid or cover to avoid loss of moisture, being
careful to avoid losing any material.
4. Seat the apparatus in the base plate opening and open the valve. Close the valve after sand
has ceased to run out of the cylinder. (Be careful not to vibrate the apparatus).
5. Weigh the apparatus and its remaining sand and record the weight as W8.
6. Weigh the wet soil that was removed from the hole and record it to nearest 1.0 gram as W9.
7. Mix the material taken from the hole thoroughly and select a representative sample for soil
moisture content determination. (Do not over mix, as this will dry the soil). Record the
weight of the sample to the nearest 0.01 grams).
8. Dry the wet soil sample and record its dry weight to the nearest 0.01 gram.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

A. Determination of Weight of Sand Filling the Cone

1. Wt. of apparatus + Sand (before test) = W1 = 7902(grams)

2. Wt. of apparatus + Sand ( after filling cone) = W2 =2832(grams)
3. Wt. of sand in cone = W3 = 5070(grams)

B. Determination of Bulk Density of Sand

4. Volume of calibrating container = V = 183.69(cm3)

5. Wt. of calibrating container = W4 = 1298 (grams)
6. Wt. of calibrating container + Sand = W5 =3772(grams)
7. Wt. of sand (in vol. V) = W6 = 2474(grams)
8. Bulk density of soil = γbs= 13.46(gm/cm3)

C. Determination of Dry Density of Soil In-Place

9. Wt. of the wet soil from the hole = W = 7946(grams)

10. Wt. of apparatus + Sand (before poring in the hole) = W7 =6578(grams)
11. Wt. of apparatus + Sand (after pouring in the hole) = W8 =1368 (grams)
12. Wt. of sand in the hole = W9 =W7-W8=5210 (grams)
13. Bulk density of soil = γb =43.25 (gm/cm3)

COMMENTS:
The basic principle of sand replacement method is to measure the in-situ volume of
hole from which the material was excavated from the weight of sand with known density filling in
the hole. The in-situ density of material is given by the weight of the excavate material divided
by the in-situ volume.