Solid is a state of matter in which the molecules are closely c. Intermolecular forces are strong.

packed and usually arranged in a regular pattern.

d. Their constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions)
General Characteristics of Solid State have fixed positions and can only oscillate about their
a. They have definite mass, volume and shape. mean positions.
b. Intermolecular distances are short. e. They are incompressible and rigid.

AMORPHOUS AND CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

- Based on the nature of order of arrangement of constituent - On heating, they become crystalline. Milky appearance of
particles, solids are 2 types: Crystalline & Amorphous. some glass objects from ancient civilizations is due to
Crystalline solid crystallization.
- It consists of many small crystals having a definite - Like liquids, amorphous solids tend to flow, though very
geometrical shape. slowly. Therefore, these are called pseudo solids or super
- It has long range order, i.e., there is a regular pattern of cooled liquids.
arrangement of particles which repeats itself periodically - Glass panes fixed to windows or doors of old buildings are
over the entire crystal. E.g. found to be slightly thicker at the bottom. This is because
NaCl & quartz. the glass flows down very slowly.
- Crystalline solids are - Amorphous solids are isotropic. It is because there is no
anisotropic i.e., physical long range order and arrangement is irregular along all the
properties like electrical directions. Therefore, value of any physical property
resistance or refractive index would be same along any direction.
show different values when Distinction between Crystalline & Amorphous Solids
measured along different Property Crystalline solids Amorphous solids
directions in the same crystals. This is due to different Definite characteristic
Shape Irregular shape
geometrical shape
arrangement of particles along different directions.
Melt at a sharp and Gradually soften
Amorphous solid Melting point characteristic over a range of
temperature temperature
- It consists of particles of irregular shape.
When cut w ith a sharp
- It has only short range order i.e., regular repeating pattern They cut into tw o
Cleavage edged tool, they split into
pieces w ith
is observed over short distances only. Such portions are property tw o pieces having plain
irregular surfaces
and smooth surfaces
scattered and disordered.
Heat of fusion Definite & characteristic Not definite
E.g. quartz glass. Anisotropy Anisotropic Isotropic
- Structure of amorphous Pseudo solids or
Nature True solids
solids is similar to that of super cooled liquids
Order in
liquids. E.g. Glass, arrangement
Long range order Short range order
rubber & plastics.
- Amorphous solids like glass, rubber & plastics are useful
- Amorphous solids soften
materials. Amorphous silicon is a good photovoltaic
at some temperature and
material for conversion of sunlight into electricity.
can be moulded and blown into various shapes.

CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

- Most of the solids are crystalline. E.g. all metals, non-
metals like sulphur, phosphorus & iodine and compounds
like NaCl, zinc sulphide and naphthalene.
- Based on the nature of intermolecular forces, crystalline
solids are 4 types: molecular, ionic, metallic & covalent.
1. Molecular Solids
- In this, molecules are the constituent particles.
- They are 3 types: Non-polar, Polar & Hydrogen Bonded.
a. Non-polar Molecular Solids
- They comprise of atoms (e.g. Ar & He) or molecules
formed by non-polar covalent bonds (e.g. H2, Cl2 & I2).
- The atoms or molecules are held by weak dispersion
forces or London forces.
- They are soft and non-conductors of electricity.
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- They have low melting points and are usually in liquid or
gaseous state at room temperature and pressure.
b. Polar Molecular Solids
- In this, the molecules are formed by polar covalent bonds.
- The molecules are held together by relatively stronger
dipole-dipole interactions.
- They are soft and non-conductors of electricity.
- Their melting points are higher than non-polar molecular
solids but most of them are gases or liquids under room
temperature and pressure.
- E.g. Solid SO2, solid NH3 and HCl.
c. Hydrogen Bonded Molecular Solids
- They contain polar covalent bonds between H and F, O or
N atoms. i.e., strong hydrogen bonding. E.g. H2O (ice).
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 - They are non-conductors of electricity. crystal. They are also called giant molecules.
- Generally they are volatile liquids or soft solids under room - Covalent bonds are strong and directional in nature,
temperature and pressure. therefore atoms are held very strongly at their positions.
2. Ionic Solids - These solids are very hard and brittle.
- In this, ions are the constituent particles. E.g. NaCl. - They have very high melting points and may even
- They are formed by three dimensional arrangements of decompose before melting.
cations and anions bound by strong coulombic - They are insulators and do not conduct electricity.
(electrostatic) forces. - E.g. Diamond, silicon carbide, graphite etc.
- They are hard and brittle. - Graphite is soft and conducts electricity. It is due to the
- They have high melting and boiling points. arrangement of carbon atoms in different layers.
- Since the ions are not free to move about, they are Each atom is covalently bonded to three of its neighbouring
electrical insulators in the solid state. But in the molten atoms in same layer. Fourth valence electron is present
state or aqueous solution, the ions become free to move between the layers and is free to move. These free
about and conduct electricity. electrons make graphite a good conductor.
Different layers can slide one over the other. This makes
3. Metallic Solids graphite a soft solid and a good solid lubricant.
- Metals are orderly collection of positive ions surrounded by
and held together by a sea of free mobile electrons.
- These electrons are evenly spread out and are responsible
for high electrical and thermal conductivity of metals.
- When an electric field is applied, these electrons flow
through the network of positive ions. Similarly, when heat
is supplied to one portion of a metal, the thermal energy is
uniformly spread throughout by free electrons.
- Metallic luster and colour are also due to free electrons.
- Metals are highly malleable and ductile.
4. Covalent or Network Solids
- It is formed by covalent bonds between atoms throughout
Different Types of Solids
Constituent Bonding/ Physical Electrical Melting
Type of Solid Examples
Particles Attractive forces Nature Conductivity Point
Dispersion or London Very
Non polar Ar, CCl4, H2, I2, CO2 Soft Insulator
1. Molecular forces low
Polar Molecules Dipole-dipole interaction HCl, SO2 Soft Insulator Low
solids
H- bonded Hydrogen bonding H2O (ice) Hard Insulator Low
Insulators in solid state
Coulombic or NaCl, MgO, ZnS, Hard but but conductors in
2. Ionic solids Ions High
electrostatic CaF2 brittle molten state and in
aqueous solutions
Positive ions
Hard but Conductors in solid
in a sea of Fairly
3. Metallic solids Metallic bonding Fe, Cu, Ag, Mg malleable state as w ell as in
delocalised high
electrons & ductile molten state
SiO2 (quartz), SiC, C Hard Insulators
4. Covalent or netw ork Very
Atoms Covalent bonding (diamond), AlN,
solids Soft Conductor (exception) high
C (graphite)

CRYSTAL LATTICES AND UNIT CELLS

- Crystal lattice is a regular three - Unit cell is the smallest portion of a crystal lattice. When
dimensional arrangement of repeated in different directions, it generates entire lattice.
particles (points) in a crystal. - Size and shape of a unit
- There are only 14 possible three cell is determined by the
dimensional lattices. These are lengths of the edges a, b
called Bravais Lattices. & c and angles between
- Each point in a lattice is called the edges, α (between b &
lattice point (lattice site). It c) β (between a & c)
represents one particle (an atom, a molecule or an ion). and γ
- Lattice points are joined by straight lines to bring out the (between a & b). Thus, a unit cell is characterised by six
geometry of the lattice. parameters, a, b, c, α, β & γ.

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- Unit cells are 2 types: Primitive and Centred.

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 (a) Primitive Unit Cells: In this, constituent particles are
present only on the corner positions of a unit cell.
(b) Centred Unit Cells: In this, constituent particles occupy
other positions in addition to those at corners.
Centred unit cells are 3 types:
a. Body-Centred Unit Cells: It contains one constituent
particle at its body-centre.
b. Face-Centred Unit Cells: It contains one constituent
particle present at the centre of each face.
c. End-Centred Unit Cells: In this, one constituent particle
is present at the centre of any two opposite faces.
- In all, there are seven types of primitive unit cells:

Seven Primitive Unit Cells and their Possible Variations as Centred Unit Cells
Crystal Axial distances or
Possible variations Axial angles Examples
system edge lengths
Primitive, Body-centred,
Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 90° NaCl, Zinc blende, Cu
Face-centred
Tetragonal Primitive, Body-centred a=b≠c α = β = γ = 90° White tin, SnO2, TiO2, CaSO4
Primitive, Body-centred,
Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90° Rhombic sulphur, KNO3, BaSO4
Face-centred, End-centred
Hexagonal Primitive a=b≠c α = β = 90° γ = 120° Graphite, ZnO, CdS,
Rhombohedral
Primitive a=b=c α = β = γ ≠ 90° Calcite (CaCO3), HgS (cinnabar)
or Trigonal
Monoclinic Primitive, End-centred a≠b≠c α = γ = 90° β ≠ 90° Monoclinic sulphur, a2SO4.10H2O
Triclinic Primitive a≠b≠c α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90° K2Cr2O7, CuSO4. 5H2O, H3BO3

Unit Cells of 14 Types of Bravais Lattices

NUMBER OF ATOMS IN A UNIT CELL

1. Primitive (Simple) Cubic Unit Cell - So, only 1/8th of an atom belongs to a unit cell.
corner. A primitive cubic unit cell can be depicted in 3 ways:
tween 8 adjacent unit cells, 4 unit cells in the same layer and 4 unit cells ofa.the
Open
upper structure:
(or lower)Each small sphere (particle) represents
layer.
only the centre of the particle occupying that position and
not its actual size.
b. Space-filling structure: It represents unit cell with actual
particle size.
c. Actual portions of atoms present in a cubic unit cell. (i) 8 corners x 1 per corner atom = 8 x 1 = 1atom

- Since each cubic unit cell has 8 atoms on its corners, the
total number of atoms in one unit cell is 8 x 1 = 1 atom.
8
2. Body- Centred Cubic (bcc) Unit Cell
- It has an atom at each corner and one atom at body centre.
- Thus, in a bcc unit cell:
CLOSE PACKED STRUCTURES
- In solids, the constituent particles (spheres) are close-
packed, leaving the minimum vacant space.
1. Close Packing in One Dimension
- In this, each sphere is in contact with two of its neighbours.
- The number of nearest neighbours of a particle is called its
coordination number.
- Coordination number in one dimensional close packing = 2
2. Close Packing in Two Dimensions
- Two dimensional close packed structure can be generated
by stacking (placing) the rows of close packed spheres.
- It is 2 types: Square & Hexagonal.
A. Two-dimensional square close packing
- In this, the spheres of the second row are placed exactly
above those of first row.
- Say first row is ‘A’ type.
Here, all other rows are
same as the first one. So,
this is called AAA type of
arrangement.
- Each sphere is in contact with 4 of its neighbours. So, two-
dimensional coordination number = 4.
- If the centres of these 4 neighbouring spheres are joined, a
square is formed. Hence it is called square close packing.
B. Two-dimensional hexagonal close packing
- The second row (‘B’ type) is placed above the first row
(‘A’ type) in a staggered manner such that its spheres fit in
the depressions of first row.
- This arrangement is repeated and is called ABAB type of
arrangement.
8 8
(ii) 1 body centre atom = 1 × 1 = 1 atom
∴ Total number of atoms per unit cell = 2 atoms.
3. Face- Centred Cubic (fcc) Unit Cell
- It has atoms at all corners and at the centre of all faces.
- Each atom at the face-centre is shared between two unit
1
cells. So only of each atom belongs to a unit cell.
2
- Thus, in a fcc unit cell:
(i) 8 corners x 1 atom per unit cell = 8 x 1 = 1atom
8 8
(ii) 6 face-centred atoms ×1 per unit cell = 6 ×1 = 3 atoms
2 2
∴ Total number of atoms per unit cell = 4 atoms.
- In this arrangement, there is less free space and so more
efficient than the square
close packing.
- Each sphere is in
contact with six of its
neighbours. Hence the
two-dimensional coordination number = 6.
- The centres of these 6 spheres are at the corners of a
regular hexagon. Hence it is called hexagonal close
packing.
- In this, there are triangular voids (empty spaces). They are
2 types: In one row, the apex of the triangles is pointing
upwards and in the next layer downwards.
3. Close Packing in Three Dimensions
- They are obtained by stacking two dimensional layers one
above the other. It is 2 types:
A. Three-dimensional close packing from two
dimensional square close-packed layers
- The second layer is placed over the first layer such that the
spheres of the upper layer are
exactly above those of first layer.
- Spheres of both the layers are
perfectly aligned horizontally as
well as vertically.
- If the arrangement of spheres in
the first layer is called ‘A’ type,
all the layers have the same
arrangement. Thus this lattice has AAA....type pattern.
- The lattice thus generated is the simple cubic lattice, and
its unit cell is the primitive cubic unit cell.
B. Three-dimensional close packing from
two dimensional hexagonal close packed
layers
(i) Placingsecond layer over the first layer:
- A two-dimensional hexagonal close packed layer ‘A’ is
covered by a similar layer (‘B’) such that spheres of the (b) Covering Octahedral Voids:
second layer are placed in the depressions of first layer.
- In this, octahedral voids of the second layer are covered by
- As a result, it forms 2 types of voids:
the spheres of the third layer. This pattern is repeated and is
o Tetrahedral voids: The voids surrounded by four
called ABCABC pattern.
spheres in tetrahedral position. - The structure packed in ABCABC pattern is called cubic
o Octahedral voids: The voids surrounded by six
close packed (ccp) or face-centred cubic (fcc) structure.
spheres in octahedral position. E.g. Metals like copper and silver.

Both hcp & ccp close packing are highly efficient and
74% space in the crystal is filled. In these, each sphere is
in contact with 12 spheres. So, the coordination number =
12.
Formula of a Compound and Number
of Voids Filled
- In ionic solids, bigger ions (usually anions) form the close
packed structure and smaller ions (usually cations) occupy
the voids. If cations are small, they occupy tetrahedral
voids. If they are big, they occupy octahedral voids.
- Not all octahedral or tetrahedral voids are occupied.
- Knowing the fraction of voids occupied, the chemical
- The number of these two types of voids depend upon the formula of the compound can be calculated.
number of close packed spheres.
Example 1: A compound is formed by two elements X and
Let the number of close packed spheres be N, then:
Y. Atoms of the element Y (as anions) make ccp and those
The number of octahedral voids generated = N
of the element X (as cations) occupy all the octahedral
The number of tetrahedral voids generated = 2N
voids. What is the formula of the compound?
(ii) Placingthird layer over the second layer:
Solution: The ccp lattice is formed by the element Y. The
There are two possibilities.
number of octahedral voids generated would be equal to the
(a) Covering Tetrahedral Voids:
number of atoms of Y present in it. Since all the octahedral
- In this, tetrahedral voids of the second layer are covered voids are occupied by the atoms of X, their number would
by the spheres of the third layer. This pattern is repeated also be equal to that of the element Y. Thus, the atoms of
and is called ABAB pattern. elements X and Y are present in equal numbers or 1:1 ratio.
- The structure packed in ABAB pattern is called hexagonal Therefore, the formula of the compound is XY.
close packed (hcp) structure. E.g. metals like Mg & Zn.
Example 2: Atoms of element B form hcp lattice and those
of the element A occupy 2/3 rd of tetrahedral voids. What is
the formula of the compound formed by elements A & B?
Solution: The number of tetrahedral voids formed is equal to
twice the number of atoms of element B and only 2/3 rd of
these are occupied by the atoms of element A. Hence the
ratio of the number of atoms of A and B is 2 × (2/3):1 or 4:3
and the formula of the compound is A4B3.
 PACKING EFFICIENCY
It is the percentage of total space filled by the particles. - The length of the body diagonal c is equal to 4r, where r is
1. Packing Efficiency in hcp & ccp Structures the radius of the sphere (atom), as all the three spheres
- hcp & ccp are equally efficient. along the diagonal touch each other.
Therefore, √3a = 4r
Packing efficiency in ccp structure:
4r or r =√3 a
- Let unit cell edge length a = √3 4

be ‘a’ and face diagonal - In this type of structure, totalnumber of atoms is 2 and their
4
AC = b. volume is 2 x ( )r3
3
In Δ ABC 4 4
Volume of the cube, a3 is equal to ( r)3 or a3= ( r)3
AC2 = b2 = BC2 = AB2 √3 √3

= a2 + a2 = 2a2 or b = Therefore, packing efficiency =

√2a If r is the radius of Volume occupied by 2 spheres in the unit cell x 100
%
the sphere, Total volume of the unit cell
b= 4r = √2a 2 x (4/3) 𝑟 3x 100
4𝑟 𝑎 = %
or a = = 2√2r or r = [(4/√3)r]3
√2 2√2
We know that each unit cell in ccp structure has (8/3) r3x 100
effectively 4 spheres. Total volume of four spheres is = % = 68%
64/(3√3)r3
equal to 4 (4/3)
r3 and volume of the cube is a3 or (2 √2r)3. 3. Packing Efficiency in Simple Cubic Lattice
Therefore, packing efficiency = - In this, atoms are located only on the corners of the cube.
Volume occupied by 4 spheres in the unit cell x 100 The particles touch each other along the edge.
%
Total volume of the unit cell
4 x (4/3) 𝑟 3x 100
= %
(2/√2r)3
(16/3) r3x 100
=
16√2r3 % = 74%
2. Packing Efficiency in bcc Structures
- The atom at the centre will be in touch with the other - Thus, the edge length or side of the cube ‘a’, and the
two atoms diagonally arranged. radius of each particle, r are related as
In Δ EFD, b2 = a2 + a2 = 2a2 a = 2r
b = 2a The volume of the cubic unit cell = a3 = (2r)3 = 8r3
Now in Δ AFD Since a simple cubic unit cell contains only 1
c2 = a2 + b2 = a2 + 2a2 = 3a2 atom
c = 3√a The volume of the occupied space = 4 r3
3
Volume of one atom
∴ Packing efficiency = x100%
4 3 Volume of cubic unit cell
r 
=3 x100 = x 100
r 3 6
= 52.36% = 52.4%
Thus, ccp & hcp structures have maximum packing
efficiency.
of
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING UNIT CELL DIMENSIONS
- Volume of the unit cell can be calculated from the unit cell
dimensions.
- Knowing the density of the metal, we can calculate the
mass
of the atoms in the unit cell.
- The determination of the mass of a single atom gives an
accurate method of determination of Avogadro constant.
- Suppose, a is the edge length of a unit cell, d the density
 Mass of an atom present in the unit cell:
M
m= (M is molar mass)
Mass of the unit cell = number of atoms in a unit cell (z) × �𝐴
mass of each atom (m) = z × m � mass of unit cell
Therefore, density of the unit cell=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
the solid substance and M the molar z.m z.M zM
= 3 = 3
mass. In case of cubic crystal: 𝑎 𝑎 . 𝑁𝐴 or d=
𝑎3 𝑁𝐴
Volume of a unit cell = a3 - Density of a unit cell is the same as density of the substance.
 IMPERFECTIONS OR DEFECTS IN CRYSTALS
- It is the deviation from regular ordered arrangement of cations and anions are equal.
atoms or ions in a crystal. This happens when - It decreases the density of the substance.
crystallization process occurs at fast or moderate rate.
- The defects are 2 types: Point defects & line defects.
o Point defects: These are the irregularities or deviations
from ideal arrangement around a point or an atom in a
crystalline substance.
o Line defects: These are the irregularities or deviations
from ideal arrangement in entire rows of lattice points.
- Point defects are 3 types: (i) stoichiometric defects (ii)
impurity defects (iii) non-stoichiometric defects.
(a) Stoichiometric Defects
- These are the point defects that do not disturb the
stoichiometry of the solid. They are also called intrinsic or
thermodynamic defects.
- These are 2 types: vacancy defects & interstitial defects.
(i) Vacancy Defect:
- In this, some of the lattice sites
are vacant.
- It results in decrease in density
of the substance.
- This defect can also develop
when a substance is heated.
(ii) Interstitial Defect:
- In this, some constituent
particles (atoms or molecules)
occupy an interstitial site.
- It results in increase in the
density of the substance.
Vacancy & interstitial defects can be shown by non-ionic
solids. Ionic solids must always maintain electrical
neutrality. They show these defects as Frenkel and
Schottky defects.
(i) Frenkel Defect (dislocation defect):
- In this, smaller ion (usually cation) is dislocated from its
normal site to an interstitial site. It creates a vacancy
defect at its original site and an interstitial defect at new
location.
- It does not change the density of the solid.
- Frenkel defect is shown by ionic substance in which there
is a large difference in the size of ions. E.g. ZnS, AgCl,
AgBr and AgI due to small size of Zn2+ and Ag+ ions.

(ii) Schottky Defect:

- It is basically a vacancy defect.
- To maintain electrical neutrality, the number of missing
- Number of such defects in ionic solids is quite significant.
E.g. NaCl has 106 Schottky pairs per cm3 at room
temperature. In 1 cm3 there are about 1022 ions. Thus,
there is one Schottky defect per 1016 ions.
- Schottky defect is shown by ionic substances in which
the cation and anion are of almost similar sizes.
- E.g. NaCl, KCl, CsCl and AgBr.
- AgBr shows both Frenkel and Schottky defects.
(b) Impurity Defects
- These defects arise when foreign atoms are present at the
lattice site or at the vacant interstitial sites.
- E.g. If molten NaCl
containing a little
amount of SrCl2 is
crystallised, some of
the sites of Na+ ions
are occupied by Sr2+.
- Each Sr2+ replaces
two Na+ ions. It
occupies the site of
one ion and
the other site remains vacant. The cationic vacancies thus
produced are equal in number to that of Sr2+ ions.
- Another example is the solid solution of CdCl2 & AgCl.
(c) Non-Stoichiometric Defects
- It is the defect which produce non-stoichiometry in
crystals.
- These defects are 2 types: metal excess & metal deficiency.
(i) Metal Excess Defect
sites and the electrons to neighbouring interstitial sites.
(ii) Metal Deficiency Defect
- It is mainly due to cation vacancies.
- Many solids are difficult to prepare in the stoichiometric
composition and contain less amount of the metal.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
Solids have electrical conductivities extending over 27 orders
of magnitude ranging from 10–20 to 107 ohm–1m–1.
Based on conductivity, solids are 3 types:
a. Conductors: Their conductivities range from 104 to 107
ohm–1m–1. Metals are good conductors (107 ohm–1m–1).
b. Insulators: They have very low conductivities ranging
from 10–20 to 10–10 ohm–1m–1.
c. Semiconductors: Their conductivities range from 10–6 to
104 ohm–1m–1.
Conduction of Electricity in Metals
- Metals conduct electricity in solid as well as molten state.
- Their conductivity depends on number of valence electrons.
- Band theory states that the atomic orbitals of metal atoms
overlap to form molecular orbitals. They are very close in
energy forming energy levels called as energy band.
- The highest occupied energy band is called valence band.
The lowest unoccupied energy band is called conduction
band. The energy difference between the valence band and
 By anionic vacancies: This is due to the missing of some
anions from lattice sites leaving holes which are occupied
by electrons to maintain electrical balance.
E.g. When NaCl are heated in an atmosphere of sodium
vapour, the sodium atoms are deposited on the surface of
the crystal. Then, Cl– ions diffuse
to the surface and combine with
Na atoms. As a result, sodium
atoms become Na+ ions by losing
electrons. These electrons
diffuse into the crystal and
occupy vacant sites created by
Cl– ions.
Thus, the crystal now has excess
sodium. The anionic sites occupied by these unpaired
electrons are called F-centres (German word
Farbenzenter
= colour centre). They impart yellow colour to the crystals
of NaCl. The colour results by excitation of these electrons
when they absorb energy from the visible light falling on
the crystals. Similarly, excess of Li in LiCl makes it pink
and excess of K in KCl makes it violet (or lilac).
 By the presence of extra cations at interstitial sites: E.g.
On heating white zinc oxide, it loses oxygen and turns
yellow.
Now there is excess of zinc in the crystal and its formula
becomes Zn1+xO. The excess Zn2+ ions move to
interstitial
- E.g. FeO. It is mostly found with a composition of Fe 0.95O.
It may range from Fe0.93O to Fe0.96O. In FeO crystals, some
Fe2+ cations are missing and the loss of positive charge is
made up by the presence of required number of Fe3+ ions.
conduction band is called energy gap (band gap).
- In metals, the conduction band is close to the valence band
and so electrons can easily flow into conduction band. So
metals are good conductors.
- In insulators, energy gap is very large. So, electrons of filled
valence band cannot jump to conduction band.
Conduction of Electricity in Semiconductors
- In semiconductors, the gap between the valence band and
conduction band is small. Therefore, some electrons may
jump to conduction band and show some conductivity.
- When temperature rises, conductivity of semiconductors
increases, since more electrons can jump to conduction band.
- Substances like silicon & germanium which show semi-
conductivity in pure state are called intrinsic semiconductors.

- Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors can be increased
by adding a suitable impurity. This process is called
doping.
- Doping can be done with an impurity which is electron
rich
or electron deficient. Such impurities introduce electronic
defects in them.
Examples of groups 13-15 compounds: InSb, AlP &
GaAs. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) semiconductors have very
fast response and have revolutionised the design of
semiconductor devices.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
(a) Electron-rich impurities
- Si & Ge (group 14 elements) have four valence electrons.
In their crystals, each atom forms four covalent bonds with
its neighbours.
- When doped with a group 15 element like P or As, which
contains five valence electrons, they occupy some of the
lattice sites in Si or Ge crystal.
- Out of 5 electrons, four electrons are used in the formation
of four covalent bonds with neighbouring Si or Ge atoms.
The fifth electron becomes delocalised. These delocalised
electrons increase the conductivity of doped Si or Ge.
- Here the increase in conductivity is due to the negatively
charged electron. Thus, Si or Ge doped with electron-rich
impurity is called n-type semiconductor.
(b) Electron-deficit impurities
- Si or Ge can also be doped with a group 13 element like B,
Al or Ga which contains only 3 valence electrons.
- The place where the fourth valence electron is missing is
called electron hole or electron vacancy.
- An electron from a neighbouring atom comes and fill the
electron hole, but it leaves an electron hole at its original
position. Thus, the hole can move across the crystal giving
rise to positive hole conduction.
- Si or Ge doped with electron-deficit impurity is called p-
type semiconductors.
Creation of n-type and p-type semiconductors by doping
groups 13 and 15 elements.
Applications of n-type & p-type semiconductors
They are used for making many electronic components. E.g.
o Diode: It is a combination of n-type & p-type
semiconductors and is used as a rectifier.
o Transistors: They are made by sandwiching a layer of
one type of semiconductor between two layers of the
other type of semiconductor. npn & pnp type of
transistors are used to detect or amplify radio or audio
signals.
o The solar cell is a photo-diode used for conversion of light
energy into electrical energy.
o Many solid-state materials have been prepared by
combination of groups 13 & 15 or 12 & 16 to simulate
average valence of four as in Ge or Si.
Examples of groups 12–16 compounds: ZnS, CdS, CdSe
& HgTe.
- Magnetic properties of all substances are due to electrons.
- Each electron in an atom behaves like a tiny magnet. Its
magnetic moment originates from two types of motions:
(i) Its orbital motion around the nucleus.
(ii) Its spin around its own axis.
- Magnitude of this magnetic moment is very small and is
measured in the unit called Bohr magneton, μB. It is equal
to 9.27 × 10–24A m2.
- Based on magnetic properties, substances are 5 categories:
(i) paramagnetic (ii) diamagnetic (iii) ferromagnetic
(iv) antiferromagnetic (v) ferrimagnetic.
(i) Paramagnetism:
- Paramagnetic substances are weakly attracted by a
magnetic field. E.g. O2, Cu2+, Fe3+, Cr3+.
- They are magnetised in a magnetic field in same direction.
- They lose their magnetism in absence of magnetic field.
- Paramagnetism is due to presence of one or more
unpaired electrons which are attracted by the magnetic
field.
(ii) Diamagnetism:
- Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by a
magnetic field. E.g. H2O, NaCl & C6H6.
- They are weakly magnetised in a magnetic field in
opposite direction.
- Diamagnetism is shown by those substances in which all
the electrons are paired and there are no unpaired
electrons.
- Pairing of electrons cancels their magnetic moments and
they lose their magnetic character.
(iii) Ferromagnetism:
- Ferromagnetic substances are attracted very strongly by a
magnetic field. E.g. Fe, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium &
CrO2.
- They can be permanently magnetised.
- In solid state, the metal ions of ferromagnetic substances
are grouped together into small regions called domains.
Each domain acts as a tiny magnet.
- In an unmagnetised ferromagnetic substance, domains are
randomly oriented. So, their magnetic moments get
cancelled.
- When the substance is placed in a magnetic field, all the
domains get oriented in the direction of magnetic field and
a strong magnetic effect is produced. This ordering
persists even when the magnetic field is removed. Thus,
ferromagnetic substance becomes a permanent magnet.
(iv) Antiferromagnetism:
- Antiferromagnetic substances have domain structure
similar to ferromagnetic substance, but their domains are
oppositely oriented and cancel out each other's magnetic
moment. E.g. MnO.
(v) Ferrimagnetism:
- In this, the magnetic moments of the domains are aligned
in parallel and anti-parallel directions in unequal numbers.
- They are weakly attracted by magnetic field. E.g. Fe3O4
(magnetite) and ferrites like MgFe2O4 & ZnFe2O4.
- These substances also lose ferrimagnetism on heating and
become paramagnetic.