MANUAL

ON

GRAIN MANAGEMENT & EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

IN

SILOS

Prepared by

M. Avung`ana Mushira
(FAO Consultant)

FAO PROJECT UTF/NIR/O47/NIR: SPFS – OUTPUT 5 “SHORT TERM

TRAINING TO PRODUCE IMMEDIATE STORAGE MANAGEMENT
AND OPERATIONAL SUPPORT TO THE STRATEGIC GRAIN
RESERVE (SGR) DEPARTMENT OF THE FEDERAL MINISTRY OF
AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT, GOVERNMENT OF
NIGERIA”.
 CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 5
1.0 GENERAL 6
1.1 Purpose of Grain Storage 6
1.2 Safe Storage 6
2.0 GRAIN RECEPTION 9
2.1 Preparation for Grain Reception 9
2.2 Grain Sampling and Grading 11
2.3 Weighing
3.0 GRAIN STORAGE 11
3.1 Off-loading 10
3.2 Cleaning 12
3.3 Temperature Monitoring 12
3.4 Aeration 13
3.5 Grain Turning 13
3.6 Pest Control 14
3.7 Routine Bin Inspection 14
4.0 GRAIN DISPOSAL 14
4.1 Preparation for Grain Despatch 15
4.2 Produce Inspection 15
4.3 Bagging 15
4.4 Loading 15
5.0 STOCK RECORDS 16
5.1 Stock Verification 16
5.2 Stock Reconciliation 16
5.3 Storage Loss Estimation 16
6.0 MECHNICAL EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE 18
6.1 Weighbridge 20
6.2 Reception Pit 21
6.3 Chain Conveyor 23
6.4 Screw Conveyor 25
6.5 Bucket Elevator 27
6.6 Chutes and Spouts 29
6.7 Grain Cleaner 30
6.8 Sweep Auger 35
6.9 Steel Silo Bin 33
6.10 Hopper & Buffer Bins 36
6.11 Dust Collection System 36
6.12 Belt Conveyor 38
6.13 Bagging Plant 39

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7.0 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE 40
7.1 Electrical Control Panel 41
7.2 Electrical Motors 43
7.3 Contactors and Relays 45
7.4 Indicating Lamps 47
7.5 Push Buttons 48
7.6 Safety Switches 48
7.7 Level Sensor Indicators 49
7.8 Limit Switches 49
7.9 Low Speed relays 50
7.10 Electrical Cables 50
7.11 Earthing system 51

8.0 SILO COMPLEX OPERATIONAL SAFETY 52

8.1 Safety 52
8.2 Safety Policy 53
8.3 Silo Operational Hazards 54

9.0 APPENDIX 65

REFERENCE 78

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4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Consultant would like to express his gratitude to Mr. O. A. Adenola, the

Director, Strategic Grains Reserve Department and his entire staff

particularly Dr. M.I. Lawal, Deputy Director (Operations), Engr. M.O.

Odiegwu (Engineering Unit) and Mr. J.O. Oke (Head Commodity marketing

Unit) for all the cooperation and support granted in preparing this manual.

Special recognition is due to the FAO Senior Field Project Officer Mr

Frank Berding, the FAO Representative to Nigeria Mr Helder Muteia; Mr.

Francois Mazaud, Senior Officer, AGST, FAO, Rome.

Mr. A. Achimi and Mrs. O.M. Nwaugbe were of invaluable assistance in

the typing and production of this manual.

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1.0 GENERAL

1.1 Purpose of Grain Storage

Grain storage is a component in the grain marketing supply chain that evens out

fluctuations in the supply of grain from one season, usually the harvest season to other

seasons, and from one year of abundant supply and releasing to lean years.

Grain storage may be at farm, trader, and commercial or at government levels.

At the farm level, storage is normally inter-seasonal and helps household to

ensure food supplies for the farmer and the family, cash or barter exchange and for seed.

At trader level, grain storage is for very limited time – over a period of few days

or weeks. The traders buy and sell quickly to make a profit. Grain storage at this level is

not inter-seasonal.

Commercial storage is used by millers and co-operatives to hold stock for limited

periods of time to meet demands for their needs or for their urban clients.

Government involvement in grain storage, through its own special departments,

agencies or government grain marketing boards focuses on the intervention in the staple

grain market to balance national supply and demand over a time. The purposes being to

create a national food reserve especially for the urban population, national food security

reserves, stimulation of productivity, price stabilisation and for political consideration

such as placation of sectional interests.

1.2 Safe Storage

The focus of safe grain storage is to minimise losses during storage. Grain must

be stored safely to meet the quality and quantity requirements for the various end uses for

which it is intended. Grain is a very important staple for many households. The primary

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end uses include milling and baking for human food. Grains are also used in the

production of oil, confectionary and breakfast cereals. Grains find applications in

malting and beer production, production of industrial products such as alcohol, starch and

in pharmaceuticals. Large quantities of grain are used in the manufacturer of animal,

aquatic and pet feeds. Grains are used for production of seed for propagation.

Grain storage can be a risky and difficult venture unless the grain itself and the

store in which it is stored meet certain prescribed criteria all the time.

• The grain to be stored must be uniformly dry to or below the safe moisture
content. This will prevent deterioration caused by micro-organisms and
insects. The grain must be clean, and free from dust, chaff, straw, foreign
matter and broken kernels.

• The store must be designed and constructed to keep the grain free from
water ingress, insects, rodents and birds. The store must have facilities to
enable regular inspections, monitoring and control to ensure the
continuous maintenance of these conditions.

When the right conditions favourable for the safe storage of grain are not

maintained the stored grain starts to deteriorate leading to loss in its quality and quantity.

Loss in quality and quantity has commercial and financial ramifications. Some of the

quality changes include heat damage, discolouration, off-odour, rancidity, caking, mould

growth, pest and insect infestation, loss in nutritive value and contamination. These

quality changes can render the grain unfit for many end use applications. The grain

exhibiting such quality loss can only be downgraded, rejected or destroyed. Loss in

quantity results in stock shortages. The loss can be due to grain shrinkage or the eating of

the kernel, endosperm and germ by pests.

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 Grain Storage facility at Minna, Niger State

2.0 GRAIN RECEPTION

The harvest of grains in the main grain producing areas is seasonal but normally

only once a year. The delivery of surplus grains purchased by the SGR silos following

harvest is usually over a period of one to three months. Silo management must plan and

prepare for grain reception in order to receive the projected quantities of good grains,

clean, treat and store. Good planning ensures grain reception within the shortest possible

time before grain gets infested and starts to deteriorate, quick turn around of delivery

trucks and eliminates the problem of long queues and queuing time at the receiving silos.

8
2.1 Preparation for Grain Reception

• To a large extent the success of a grain storage operation depends on the calibre
of staff. The right personnel for the various roles and tasks such as inspection and
grading, weighing and clerical, maintenance, plant operation and security must be
identified, adequately briefed and assigned specific roles to perform.

• The laboratory equipment for quality assessment of grain must be checked,

serviced and calibrated. Properly functioning equipment will ensure that only
grain of the required standard is accepted for storage. Equipment that is not
calibrated can compromise quality standards.

• The weighbridge should be checked, serviced and calibrated by the

manufacturer’s representative. Again the weighbridge should be certified for
trading by the responsible government agency.

• All the silo equipment including the reception pits, conveying equipment,
cleaning, dust collections, storage bins, temperature monitoring systems, bagging
plant should be checked, cleaned, repaired and serviced to ensure trouble free
operation.

• All areas surrounding the silo must be cleared, grasses and bushes cut and drains
opened and cleaned.

• All empty bins, tunnels pits, areas surrounding the silo bins must be sprayed with
the appropriate insecticide/pesticide sprays.

• Other inputs such as stationery and documents, insecticides and pesticides, spare
parts, fuel, oil and lubricants must be sourced and system for their replenishment
establishment.

2.2 Grain Sampling and Grading

Before the arrival of the first consignment of grain for the season, silo management
must be informed in order to ensure that all preparations are in place.

There should be a system for the registration and queuing of trucks on arrival. All
concerned including the gate keepers, drives and farmers must be made aware.

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Sampling

Set of Screens, Weighing scale and Grain Moisture Analyzer

• A trained certified produce inspector should perform sampling and grading of

grains.

• The correct and proper equipment for quality assessment must be available. For
sampling the proper simple bag sampling spear (bag trier) or bulk sampling spear
for bulk grain should be used

• Primary samples are drawn from all parts of the consignment at random, with all
parts of the consignment having equal opportunity of being sampled. Ensure
samples are drawn from as many bags/parts as possible – from lateral sides and
top. The sample must be representative of the consignment.

• The sample must be received in a plastic bag properly labelled with identification
including date, agent/farmers/supplier name, product, vehicle/truck number.

• The size of primary sample drawn depends on the size of consignment.

Size of consignment No of bag for sampled

Upto 10 bags Drawn from every bag

10 – 100 bags Drawn from at least 10 bags
over 100 bags Square root (approx) of total number of bags

• The primary samples are mixed to from a bulk samples from which working and
sub-working sample are obtained to carry out the various quality assessment tests.

Grading

• The purpose of assessing quality of the grain is to properly identify the grain and
its homogeneity with respect to its intrinsic and acquired characteristics. The

10
 result of the assessment presented as a Quality Analysis Report can be used to
grade the grain, determine the price, and evaluate the suitability for storage,
conservation or for other planning purposes.

• Quality assessment of grain is based on some of the following physical, chemical

or biological parameters which can be used to define grain – size, shape, colour,
density, moisture content, hardness, structure, bio-chemical composition (protein,
fat, carbohydrates content, mineral anyhow) and nutritive value. Some of these
parameters are used for assessment of quality of grain for specific end use
application – e.g. in bread baking, seed, beer produce, vegetable and production.
However for the general commercial transaction and storage, the parameters
commonly used are those that influence price, storeability and healthy/safety.
These include: moisture content, density, broken grain, infestation, foreign matter,
heat damage, mould damage and discoloration.

• The Produce Inspector analysis the sample for all the stipulated parameters and
presents the result on the grading sheet called Grain Analysis Result Sheet. He
also maintains the result in a black book register as permanent record.

2.3 Weighing

• Trucks with consignments of acceptable quality grains are directed to the

weighbridge for weighing. It is important that the correct quantity of grain
delivered is established since weight is the basis for payment of the grain. This is
accomplished by the weighing clerk carefully weighing the gross weight and the
tare weight of the truck and computing the difference.

• The weighbridge clerk raises a weighbridge ticket. He also maintains a register

where he keeps a record of the salient information of the transaction such as date,
truck number, crop, gross weight, tare weight, net weight, Grain Analysis sheet
number.

3.0 GRAIN STORAGE

3.1 Offloading

• Grain is received bagged in trucks. The grain may also arrive in bulk on tippers
and in trucks with bottom discharge outlets.

• At the reception pit, the plant operator peruses the delivery document to ascertain
the nature of the consignment and prepares the appropriate silo route to a
designated bin to receive and store the grain.

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 • The plant operator ensures that the grain is emptied from the trucks into the
reception pit gently in order for the Produce Inspector to make visual inspection
and to verify that quality of the grain conforms to acceptable standards.

• Any bag with grain of unacceptable quality is rejected and put aside for the farmer
to take away.

3.2 Cleaning

• As the grain is offloaded into the reception pit, it is conveyed to the cleaner.
Cleaning grain makes storage and handling easier. Insects attack broken kernels
and grain dust quickly than grains. Again, heat and moisture caused by the
respiratory activity of grain cannot escape quickly from piles of unclean grain
thus creating condition favourable for mould and fungal growth.

• All chaff, dust and other foreign materials recovered at the cleaner and reception
pit, any reject grain, empty bags due to the consignment are loaded back to the
truck. The truck proceeds to the weighbridge for weighing tare weight and
documentation for the delivery completed.

• As the cleaned grain is conveyed, a suitable approved insecticide or fumigant is

added into the grain stream at the recommended rate.

• The grain is moved into a designated bin for storage. The plant operator updates
the respective bin card and the grain fumigation forms.

3.2 Temperature Monitoring

• Grain is a living matter. It respires, producing heat and moisture. However, when
grain is clean, sound and at moisture content of 12.5%, all the metabolic processes
such as respiration are extremely low and in this way the grain is dormant and
stores very well.

• Any deterioration in grain quality and development of “hot spots” due to

condensation, rain leaks, or insect activity result in increased metabolic activity
which produces heat that manifests itself in a temperature rise.

• The temperature monitoring system is a remote monitoring system that detects

temperatures at various levels within the bin.

• The plant operator must daily read and record the temperatures on the prescribed
forms and forward to management for interpretation so that corrective action if
required is taken.

• If it is found that any silo shows increase in the temperature of ½oC, then aeration
is indicated. However, should the temperature increase rapidly by more than 10C

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 say20C, emergency procedures must be initiated? These include intense aeration
and grain turning.

3.3 Aeration

• Aeration is the stored grain management technique of forcing cool air at low
airflow rates through the grain mass in order to equalize the grain temperature and
in the process effect cooling.

• Before aeration is commenced, the properties of air in respect to temperature and

relative humidity must be conducive so that no wetting of grain occurs. In this
respect there are automatic aeration devices if desired.

• The top silo vents, hatches and manhole covers should be opened to discharge the
air out of the bins.

• During aeration exhaust air and grain surface are monitored to determine when
cooling is complete.

• Aeration must be carefully controlled to prevent wetting of the grain and

introduction of insect pests.

• Plant operator maintains record of the activity on the prescribed format.

3.4 Grain Turning

• Grain turning or recirculation is the movement of grain from one bin to another
bin - preferably empty. This may be an emergency measure necessitated by
rapid increase in temperature of say 20C indicated by the temperature monitoring
system or programmed operational procedure during which grain is moved from
one bin to another once say every six months.
• The essence of grain turning is to discover the cause of temperature rise if any as
well as to monitor and visually monitor and ascertain the quality of the grain.
• During turning the grain is inspected, samples are drawn for quality assessment,
the grain is cleaned, cooled, blended and fumigated as it moves to the receiving
bin.
• Grain turning must be undertaken carefully to minimise expenses resulting from
damage due to grain breakages and other indirect costs.
• The silo operator completes the grain turning forms and updates the bin/stock
cards accordingly.

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3.6 Pest Control

• Application of insecticide and fumigant is done at the time the grain is being
loaded into the storage bins either at reception of new crop or during inter-bin
transfer. The recommended dosage must be used all the time and the safety
regulation adhered to always. Trained personnel should carry out application of
fumigants and pesticides.
• Fumigation is the disinfestation using a fumigant i.e. a pesticide that kills in
gaseous form.
• Before fumigation is carried out all silo base, sidewall and roof openings must be
sealed tightly otherwise the process will fail. Application of the fumigant is
normally done by automatic pellet dispensers or manually dropped into the bin or
conveyor.
• After loading the silo bin with grain the grain surface may be top-dressed with a
dust pesticide for insect control.
• In bulk storage like silos, the problem of rodents is limited to damaging
equipment – especially electrical cables. To reduce the incidence of rodents,
ensure good hygiene and a clean environment. Sweep clean all surrounding areas
such as reception hopper, pits and tunnels and burn sweepings. Keep drains
clean and surrounding grasses and bushes cut, chemical and biological control
should also be considered.

3.5 Bin Inspection

• Once grain has been stored in the bins, regular but frequent inspections at
intervals of say once every week or two weeks must be contacted to monitor the
grain quality, signs of deterioration or infestation.

• Inspect top of grain mass if accessible, around aeration ducts and vents, at
manholes, unload conveyors for signs of live insects or webbing.

• Signs of crawling and flying insects on the top of the grain pits may be an
indication of damage already done within the grain pile.

• During the inspection check for signs of rain or water leakage and the integrity of
the structure in general.

4.0 GRAIN DISPOSAL

Despatch of grain from the silos can be executed anytime of the year depending

on the orders and exigency. Silo Management must be prepared for the exercise on short

notice.

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4.1 Preparation before disposal

• Like in the case of grain reception, all the necessary preparation must be done to
make available the necessary personnel and equipment.

• Additional inputs specific to dispatch such as the appropriate empty bags, sewing
thread must be organised.

4.2 Produce Inspection

• Grain samples are drawn from storage bins and analysed to ensure the product
matches the specific requirements of the order.

• Grain is moved from designated bins to the cleaner and to the bagging bins in the
warehouse. Samples of grain are taken and analysed for quality. Grading sheet is
prepared and details entered in the register.

• All chaff dust collected, bagged, weighed and disposed off in the approved
manner.

4.3 Bagging

• Grain at the SGR silo plants is bagged into 50kg bags prior to despatch. The bags
are immediately loaded to trucks or stacked to satisfy the quantity ordered and
later loaded on trucks.

• The plant operator and storekeeper update their bin/stack cards accordingly.

4.4 Loading

• The buyer presents documents authorising collection of grain to silo manager who
authorises loading.

• The truck is allowed to weigh. It is important that correct weight of goods is

established. Gross weight and tare weights must be carefully taken and the net
weight of product computed. The weighbridge clerk raises weighbridge ticket
and updates the register.
• At the warehouse, the truck is loaded with the authorised quantity of bags of the
commodity. The store clerk raises the Store Issue Voucher and lorry is allowed to
proceed to weighbridge for final weighing and documentation.

• After loading, all spillages is swept, reclaimed and bagged.

• The store clerk updates bin cards/stack cards accordingly.

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5.0 STOCK RECORDS

Grain intake and disposal represent the busiest time in the operations of a silo facility

due to the large number of transactions of incoming and outgoing goods. Simple but

effective record systems must be devised to capture the transactions, monitor and

manage the operations.

• Copies of documents for purchase and sale of grain prepared at the Quality
Control Office, weighbridge, silo and warehouse must on daily basis be
forwarded to the silo records office for compilation and processing of payments,
daily receipts and despatches, stock levels and other data or statistics required by
management for decision making.

• Documents for dust and chaff collected and weighed should be prepared and the
process for approval set in motion so that the chaff is disposed off and losses
adjusted from the stocks accordingly.

• All accounting documents must be safely and securely kept to avoid misuse.

5.1 Stock Verification

• Bulk storage system does not lend itself to easy verification of stocks especially in
the absence of in-line weighing equipment. Other methods available such as bin
dipping can be used to give indication of stock position in the silo bins but must
be used with caution as they are prone to error.

• The difference in stock position between the records and actual physical status
can be determined when the silo is emptied. The difference represents the storage
loss or shortage.

• The loss must be expected but it must be reasonable and within the norms in the
practice.

5.2 Storage Loss Estimation

There is no specific percentage for storage loss but the declared loss should be within

acceptable levels based on established local conditions. Factors which largely

contribute to storage loss are grain shrinkage and insect infestation. Shrinkage refers

16
 to loss in volume in weight of grain placed in the bin and the loss is basically due to

moisture reduction and respiration leading to dry matter loss.

(i) Reduction in moisture level

Normally, grain in store continues to undergo natural drying and this is exhibited
through difference in moisture content at intake and disposal. The loss in weight
as a result of the drying process is given by the formula:

% Reduction in weight = (Mi – Mf) 100

100 – Mf

Where Mi = Initial moisture content, wet basis

Mf = Final moisture content, wet basis

So, if for example 1,000 tonnes of grain was received at average moisture content
of say 12.5% and at the time the grain was sold, the average moisture content had
dropped down to 10.8%, then the percentage loss in weight due to the drying in
store is (12.5 – 10.8) 100 = 1.906%
(100 – 10.8)

So loss in weight = 1000 tonnes x 1.906 = 19.06 tonnes

100
(ii) Grain Respiration

Grain respiration in dry grain is extremely low and so loss in weight due to
metabolic activities is very low. For example, maize at 13% moisture content
stored at 230C temperature looses 0.0675% dry matter in 100 days. Applying this
to 1,000 tonnes for 2 years, for example, the loss in weight will be 4.94 tonnes.
However at SGR, since the grain is stored at maximum 12.5%, this loss will be
much less.

(iii) Insect infestation

Insect infestation will lead to loss in mass since insects eat away the germ and the
endosperm. The degree of loss depends on the duration of attack, insect type and
the kind of grain. With good quality and maintenance practice, this loss is not
expected. However, there are different methods to estimate the loss in weight due
to insect infestation should it occur. This includes:

• Figures of 0.5 to 1.5% per month

• Formula Li = 0.005 x 1d x Wi
Where Li = Losses caused by insect damage in kg

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 Id = % insect damaged kernels at the end of the storage
period
Wi = Weight of incoming stock in kg

So if 1,000 tones of good wholesome grain was stored for 2 years and at the time the
grain was sold, the average percentage insect damaged grain was 7.0%, then, the loss due
to insect damage
= (0.005 x 7 x 1,000,000) kg = 35.0 tonnes

Mass balance – from a sample, compare the weight of insect damaged grains with weight
of equal number of whole grains. The difference in weight is due to the insect
infestation. The percentage difference in weight can be used to establish loss in weight
for the consignment.

(iv) Other causes of storage loss include:

Caking

This is not significant but whenever caked material is recovered, it must be borne
in mind that the weight in kg of the caked material is less than the amount in kg
from which was derived.

Mixing

In silo plants handling and storing different types of grains, leakages of one type
of grain into another do occur if slides if gates are not functioning the way they
should and this can cause exaggerated shortage in one of the products.

6.0 MAINTENANCE OF SILO EQUIPMENT

Maintenance is the activity performed on a facility such as a building or machine

in order to keep that facility in an efficient and safe working condition for the

performance of its functions.

The importance of proper, adequate and timely maintenance cannot be over-

emphasised. Good maintenance of a grain handling and storage facility enhances its

performance through prolonged working life, reduced downtime, and works at rated

capacities thereby getting value for the capital investment. Proper maintenance helps

prevent damage to grain which can result from defects in the machine or building

18
structures. Further, a properly maintained facility ensures reduced risk of safety hazards

and accidents to life, grain and the facility itself.

With basic training, the working of the mechanical equipment in a silo plant is

easy to understand, operate and maintain. The maintenance activities include checking,

inspection, servicing (including adjustments and lubrication), repairs (including painting)

and replacement of worn out or broken down parts or complete machines.

The pre-requisites essential for proper maintenance of silo plant include

cleanliness, availability of owners/maintenance manuals for the various equipment,

continuous inspection of equipment especially during working, proper records systems

and facilities. Clean equipment within clean working surroundings makes easy detection

of improperly working machines that cause spillage or leakages of grain, dust or air.

Owners/maintenance manuals not only spell out procedures and safety aspects when

maintaining a piece of equipment but also outline specifications for replacement parts to

be ordered should the parts be required.

Continuous inspection of equipment during the operation by the maintenance technicians

by touching, observing, listening, measuring or checking measuring instruments must be

carried out always to identify problems.

A proper system for records for the history of each machine must be maintained as well

as records for workshops and stores supplies of parts.

The range of available maintenance facilities and equipment must be

commensurate with the type of equipment in the silo plants that require to be serviced.

Such facilities will include tool boxes, hand tools, power tools, welding and cutting,

bending equipment for lubrication, access, safely and electrical test equipment.

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 The equipment in a typical silo plant include weighing, receiving, conveying,

storage, bagging, dust collection and electrical. The maintenance of all the equipment is

critical to the successful operation of the plant.

6.1 WEIGHBRIDGE

Mass-meters are instruments for measuring the mass of objects expressed in terms

of permissible measuring units or their multiples or sub-multiples. In commercial

transactions involving grains, the mass-meters used include weighbridges and net

weighers. Since most grains are sold on the basis of mass, the importance of mass-meters

cannot be over emphasised as prices for the products are fixed per unit ton or kilogram.

The mass meters must therefore function accurately and is in-fact the agent’s and buyer’s

guarantee that they are actually receiving what they have paid for, while the producer is

paid for what he has in-fact delivered.

The most prominent feature of the weighbridge is the steel or concrete platforms

on which vehicles drive on and off. For electronic versions, the platform rests on a set of

load-cells which are wired to a “brain box”, computer or digital readout unit and a

printer. In the case of the mechanical version, the platform is suspended on systems of

pivots and levers in a pit which through linkages are connected to a calibrated beam with

counter balance weights with mechanisms to a printer and dial system. The installation,

calibration and certification of a weighbridge for trading must be effected in accordance

with the local regulations that may be in force.

It is the duty of the operator to see to it that the weighbridge under his control is in

good working order at all times by carrying out regular basic weighing accuracy tests and

maintenance.

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 Maintenance

The weighbridge must be serviced before commencement of the grain reception

season. Regular cleaning, checks and tests must be carried out during the course of the

season. The weighbridge should be serviced every three months by the manufacture’s

representative or a reputable and approved firm. The fundamentals of servicing the

weighbridge include:

• Ensuring that the weighbridge is always clean and tidy. Remove any grains, mud,
water, debris, rat and rat nests. Ensure all drains are opened and drain freely.

• Check and ensure free movement of the platform on the knife edges.

• Check and ensure that the weighbridge dial or readout is zero before using.

• Carry out regular tests to confirm accuracy and consistency of weighing. Simple
tests such as placing a mass of 50 to 100kg test weights on the four corners and at
the centre of the platform successively and noting if all the five readings tally.
Also determining the mass of about 10 bags of grain from the bagging plant on
the weighbridge and noting if they tally. A further simple test is to determine the
mass of two short trucks separately and then jointly and compare the masses. If
from the tests discrepancies in weights are observed, the manufacturer’s
representative or the approved service company must be called to check, calibrate
and service the weighbridge.

• Printers should be serviced as appropriate.

• Once every 2 years, the weighbridge should be checked and certified by the
relevant government agency.

Since weighbridge constitutes the main point of disputes and cause for dissatisfaction

between agents and buyers, as the main reason for short weights and difference

between weights envisaged and received, it is important that the weighbridge facility

is properly operated and maintained all the time.

6.2 RECEPTION PIT

The reception pit, otherwise referred to as the Intake pit is the

21
gate-way for the grains into the silo plant. The reception pit consists of hopper

constructed in concrete or steel with an overlaying steel grating designed as driver-over

or walk-over. The common arrangement is that the intake hopper, the receptacle for the

grains is connected using transition pieces to a chain conveyor, screw conveyor, belt

conveyor or directly into the bucket elevator.

The openings in the steel grating permit

grains to fall through but retain large

objects including cobs, straws, and

stones and prevent the empty bags from

falling through. The reception pit is

normally under roof and may be built

with sidewalls or panels to secure the

grain from spreading out to the sides as

well as prevent rainwater from entering

the pit. Good design and construction

ensure that water run off does not drain

Grain Intake Pit into the pit.

Maintenance

Before commencement of grain reception, inspect foundation and approaches and

repair cracks as necessary. Open out and clean all drains. Ensure the root and sidewalls

and panels are in good shape of repair. Thorough cleanliness at the reception pit and

adjacent areas is paramount and should be done before grains reception commences and

daily after the days work.

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 Finally, it is important to see to it that trucks exceeding the design wheel pressure

for the steel grating are not allowed to drive over the pit.

6.3 CHAIN CONVEYOR

The chain conveyor is probably the commonest equipment for the horizontal or

slightly inclined transport of grain for short and medium range distance. The chain

conveyor is an all steel construction usually completely enclosed but provided with

connection for grain inlet, outlet and dust extraction.

The drive terminal carries the drive station consisting of electric motor,

transmission, drive shaft mounted in bearings, sprocket and an end outlet. The tension

terminal is the tail section that is made up of a sprocket wheel mounted in roller bearings

and designed to slide in guides with 2 spindles for tightening the chain. The section of

chain conveyor connecting the drive and tension terminals are the intermediate section –

essentially a rectangular cross-section trough with a removal lid. The rectangular cross-

section is made up of shorter sections assembled by fish joints to ensure perfect

alignment. The chain conveyor is supported every 4-6 metres span to forestall deflection.

On the top cover or in the sides of the intermediate section are fitted inlet spouts for

grain. Under the drive terminal and along the bottom side of the intermediate section are

provided outlet spouts, with slides wherever required. The slides can be operated

manually, pneumatically or by motor. The outlets are equipped with brush scraper to

ensure efficient emptying.

Inside the chain conveyor is the endless chain called the drag chain or scraper

chain that runs over the sprockets of the drive and tension terminals. The top part of the

drag chain is supported at suitable internals of about one metre on either nylon or steel

23
 rollers while the lower part slides on the trough floor on a narrow steel guide rail on the

trough floor. The drag chain is an assembly of chain links with weld on flights and

hardened steel connection pins.

Grain is fed into the chain conveyor

through any of the inlet spouts and

falls to the conveyor trough floor. The

advancing flight of the moving chain

catches the grain and drags it en-mass

steadily moving forward, until it

encounters the first open outlet into

which the grain drops and is

effectively discharged from the chain Silo Plant with Chain conveyors and Bucket elevators

Features included on some chain conveyor designs to improve performance

include end-plate with end-stop switch on the drive terminal, nylon wear plate on floor of

conveyor trough, return buckets for self emptying, dual-sided inlets, drive with variation

for regulation of grain flow and intermediate bottom plate with heightened top cover i.e.

double bottom chain conveyor.

Maintenance

Chain conveyor must be serviced before commencement of grain intake to ensure

a smooth operation. Thoroughly clean the entire chain conveyor, inside and outside. The

following items must be checked, inspected, serviced, repaired or replaced:

Drive Terminal: Check/inspect the motor and the transmission system especially
lubricant levels, leakages, drive chain tension or couplings,
bearings and the mounting.
Check/inspect the drive sprocket especially wear or sprocket teeth,
bearings, mounting and noise.
Check/inspect the end-plate with the end-stop switch.

24
 Tension Terminal: Check/inspect the mounting, bearings and ensure free movement in
the guides.
Intermediate Section: Check/inspect the housing particularly look for wear, spillage and
leaks of grain and dust, missing bolts and nuts.
Check/inspect the drag chain particularly for wears deformed
flights, alignment and tension.
6.4 SCREW CONVEYOR

Screw conveyors and augers are used for the horizontal or slightly inclined transport of

grain and other free flowing materials through limited spans. Tubular augers are

occasionally used for vertical conveyance.

A screw conveyor or auger is an all steel construction made up of a hollow shaft with a

weld on flight ribbon suspended on support bearings at the end plates mounted in a U

trough or tubular housing.

The U-trough is provided with a

removable top cover. For long screw

conveyors, the hollow shaft is

suspended in hanger brackets at

suitable intervals along its length. The

flights on the hollow shaft can either

be left or right handed, and of

uniform, variable or tapering pitch.

Silo unloading with screw auger
Inlets and outlets can be at any point along the length of the screw conveyor with an outlet

at the discharge end. A short reversed flight is fitted between the outlet’s far edge and the

flights end plate. For trough screw conveyors, a hinged flap plate is fitted above the outlet

connected to limit switch to stop motor whenever outlet is blocked or full with grain.

25
 Screw conveyors are of modular design and construction with short pieces being joined

together to form the required length. Trough screw conveyors are available in trough

diameter of between 100 – 500mm while tubular screw conveyor and augers are available

in the diameter range of 100 – 500mm.

In operation, grain is fed into the conveyor and pushed by the rotating flight towards the

outlets, direction of flow being dependent on whether the flight is left or right handed.

Trough screw conveyors are rated to run at 40 – 50% full.

Maintenance

The maintenance of screw conveyors prior to grain reception or during normal plant

operation should focus on checking, inspection, servicing, repair or replacement of the

following components:

Trough or Tube: Check for any signs of wear or holes especially on the
underside of the tough or tube; grain or dust leakages
especially at joints. Repair as appropriate – consider welding
as a temporary measure. Tighten bolts and nuts.

Trough Cover: Check that the cover is dust-tight, weather proof and secure.
Check and replace missing bolts and nuts.
Check that the inspection safety hatch with micro-switch is
functioning.

Hollow Shaft Screw: Check and inspect if the shaft screw turns freely, check
whether the shaft screw is deflecting between support bearings.
Check condition of ribbon/blade and bearings. Check,
tighten/replace loose/missing shaft interconnecting pins.

Drive Station: Clean and check motor, drive mechanism i.e. v-belts tension or
couplings, gear box for lubricants levels and grease, guards and
meters.

Feed device: Check that adjustment for feed device is functioning properly.

General: Check and ensure that all supports are firm and properly
secured.

26
6.5 BUCKET ELEVATOR

The bucket elevator, the most conspicuous equipment in a silo plant is used for

the vertical lift of grain. It is a totally enclosed all steel construction made up of three

distinct parts: The boot, the legs and the head.

The boot constitutes the lower part, usually sitting on the ground, or floor or on a

firm base. It comprises of a pulley with a shaft mounted in bearings, inlet hopper, belt

tension device, capacity slides and cleaner slides.

The legs, sometimes referred to as trunking are self-supporting tubular

construction standing vertically on the boot. The legs are usually of a rectangular cross-

section and parts of its section have inspection windows and access doors. Sections of

the legs also have provision for connection to aspiration system.

The head is the topmost part which sits on the legs. It comprises of the drive

station, drive pulley with shaft mounted in bearings, throat plate and discharge chute.

Inside the bucket elevator construction is an endless rubberised belt through the

legs. Fastened to the belt are buckets or cups made of pressed or welded steel or moulded

plastic.

In operation, as the belt moves around the top drive pulley and bottom

follower pulley, grain is gravity fed into the boot through the inlet hopper – usually from

the up-going side. The buckets scoop grain and carry it upwards. The grain is thrown

into trajectory by the centrifugal effect when the belt turns over the top pulley. The grain

is thus delivered into the discharge chute and finally to the required point. The carrying

capacity of the bucket elevator, rated in m3/hour depends on the belt speed, bucket shape

and spacing, type of grain and its moisture content and the position of inlet hopper.

27
 To enhance performance of the bucket elevator, some designs provide for the

following features:

• Backstop device, a non-reversing brake that prevents the belt from running
backwards if the power supply to the bucket is cut off when the buckets
are full of grain.

• Speed guard, an electronic device fitted to the boot pulley to detect and
prevent belt slippage.

• Explosion relief panel, a vent fitted to the upper part of the legs to
discharge excess pressure build up which can otherwise result in an
explosion.

• Misalignment switch, electric sensors fitted on the elevator casing to

detect belt misalignment.

• Aspiration vent, connections to the elevator housing, especially legs or

boots to facilitate connection to the dust collection system.

Maintenance

Bucket elevator must be prepared before grain intake session and such

care continued during the entire grain intake season. Inadequate maintenance will

result in low carrying capacity, damage to buckets, damage to belt, stretched belts,

blocked inlets, motor overloads and operation problem include breakdown.

The following must be thoroughly checked, inspected, serviced repaired before

grain intake commences:

Boot: Check cleanliness; remove grain residues in the boot. Check

condition of housing for corrosion and wear, grain and dust
leakages, functioning of the belt tension device, bearings,
condition of pulley capacity slides and inlet wear.

Legs: Check cleanliness, inspect and look for signs of dust and grain
leakages, wear of housing, missing bolts, noise.

Head: Check for wear of the discharge chute and all housing of the head.
Clean drive station and check and inspect condition of motor, gear
box, leakages, lubricant levels, bearings, couplings and
transmission system mounting.

28
 Belt: Check and thoroughly inspect belt. Establish state of wear and
tear, running off-centre, slippage and tension.

Buckets: Check and thoroughly inspect the buckets. Look at state of wear
and tear, loose or missing buckets, loose or missing bolts/nuts and
washers, deformed buckets.

Structure: Check and ensure that supports, access ladders, service platforms,
guard rails are secured.

6.6 CHUTES AND SPOUTS

Chutes and spouts constitute the ductwork linking one grain handling machine or

container to another. The complete ductwork system also includes bends, elbows,

junction boxes, valves and diverters, grain brakes. Grain flow in the chutes and spouts is

effected by gravity. The recommended minimum slope of the pipes is 35 – 450

depending on grain typed and moisture content. The chutes and spouts components are

normally flanged for assembly by clamps, clips or bolt work. To facilitate inspection of

grains, inspection windows with removal lids are provided at strategic locations of the

ductwork.

Maintenance

Chutes and spouts system must be checked, repaired before the onset of the grain

reception but their maintenance remain a continuous and on-going activity during plant

operation. Inspect, check for wear, grain leaks, dust leaks especially on the underside of

the pipe work, at bends and elbows and joints. If the wear is not serious and requires

repair welding as a temporary solution, remove the pipes to the workshop for mending.

Touch up with paint the welded surfaces. Grain pipes and other ductwork components

that are badly worn out to should be replaced.

29
 Programme to rotate the pipe section through ¼ turn once annually to even out the

wear. For pipes of rectangular cross-section, consider lining the bottom top surface of the

lower part with a non-wear nylon plate to reduce wear especially in plants handling

highly abrasive products such as maize.

Check/inspect all valves, diverter junction boxes, grain brakes for wear and dust

and grain leaks and mend or replace as the case may be. If the valves, diverters are

motorised, inspect, check that the micro-switches are functioning correctly.

6.7 GRAIN CLEANER

The grain cleaner is a very important piece of equipment in the silo plant, situated

immediately after the grain intake for the purpose of cleaning grains in order to enhance

subsequent handling and storability. Grain cleaning exploits the various different

properties of grain such as shape, size, and specific weight aerodynamic drug. There are

many types of cleaners available in the market and indeed their categorization can be

very subjective. However, broadly speaking grain cleaners fall into three categories:

Precleaners are for cleaning grain to allow for subsequent operation e.g. for drying,

storage.

Industrial cleaner are for cleaning grain for purposes of processing into finished

processed product e.g. for milling into flour.

Finecleaner are for cleaning of grain to achieve high level of purity e.g. for seed.

Precleaners are preferred for silo plants. They are high capacity machines with

capability to clean grain of high moisture and impurity content. Precleaners commonly

found in silo plants are either the rotary screen type or flat screen type.

30
Rotary Screen Air Cleaner is made up of a cylinder made of perforated steel sheets or

spirally wound wires. The cylinder is mounted on a shaft suspended in bearings about

which it slowly rotates when in operation. The perforations on the cylinder are of

different sizes along the cylinder length. The inclination and rotational speed of the

cylinder are adjustable. A fan to provide aspiration is mounted on the cleaner – with

facility for adjusting the air effect.

As grain is fed into the machine, an air

current from the fan sucks light

materials from the grain stream. The

grain enters the cylinder and tumbles

gently along the cylinder length. The

cylinder sieves out the various

fractions of different sizes which drop

through the cylinder perforations into

the outlets below the respective

section of the cylinder – first with the

Rotary Grain Cleaner
fine and last is the large particles. Adjustment of air volume, speed of rotation of

cylinder, feed, and moisture content all influence the performance of the cleaner.

Flat Screen Air Cleaner consists of a screen boat with two screens mounted in it. The
screen boat is connected to the drive mechanisms regulated by cams. The perforation on
the top screen is larger than the grain while the perforation on the bottom screen is
smaller than the grains. The screens are mounted inclined.

On top of the screen boat is a feed metering device below which is a scalperating screen

inclined and discharging onto the top screen. A fan is mounted on top of the cleaner.

The grain to be cleaned is fed into the cleaner from an inlet hopper into the feed roller

which regulates and spreads the grain evenly across the full working width of the

31
machine. First the grain is fed onto the scalperating screen which separates the large

objects such as piece of cobs, straw, stones, twine and channels it to the side. The grain,

then flows to the end of the scalprating screen and falls on to the top screen. The holes in

the top screen allow grain and small particles to fall through onto the bottom screen. The

large impurities are retained on the top screen and are channelled to the side and

discharged. The holes in the bottom screen let all fines and other materials fall through

onto a blank and discharge while the clean grain is retained on the bottom screen and

flows to the end edge into the clean grain chute. As grain falls through the cleaner right

from the feed miller and into the screens, the grain is aspirated and all light particles and

dust are removed by suction.

Rubber balls are provided in the screen boat to unblock the screen holes during operation.

During operation, ensure proper adjustment of the cleaner particularly the air flow

rate, angle of inclination of the screen if adjustable, speed of oscillation and removal of

the bags for the various cleaner outlets when full.

Maintenance

Cleaners in general require little maintenance. However, before grain intake and

during operation, the following should be checked, inspected, serviced, repaired or

replaced.

Clean, check the cleaner including inlets, outlets, screens.

Check for wear, leakages of dust and grain; remove twines, straw and blockage.

Check cleaner rubber balls for wear and total number in the case of flat screen air

cleaners.

Check aspiration pipes for wear and leakages of dust and air especially at joints and

bends.

32
 Clean and remove any deposits or blockages.

Check drives and transmissions especially v-belts, pulleys, condition and tension. Check

gear box for leakages and lubricate levels. Grease as appropriate check bearings.

Clean and check fan – check impeller for wear, noise and air adjustment flaps.

Clean and check motor(s).

Inspect the support stand for firmness.

6.8 STEEL SILO BIN

The steel silo bin is a cylindrical tank made up of specially galvanised curved

corrugated steel sheets with a conical roof. Steel silo bin is available in different

combination of diameter and height. The bin is an assembly of body sheets, stiffeners,

doors, windows, roof panels, ladders, rents and other components put together for the

safe storage of grain. The body sheets are sealed to each other by suitable mastic sealant

and bolted together with steel washers carrying a neoprene rubber piece. The bin is

anchored to a concrete foundation ensuring a waterproof joint between the bin base ring

and the concrete base.

The common commercial steel bin is flat-bottom equipped with a sweep auger

and on-load conveyor. Silo bins with self-emptying hopper bottom are available through

they tend to be in the smaller capacity regime. Another variation is steel silo bin

designed for erection on a V-concrete base and equipped with unload auger.

Maintenance

During their recommended useful life, steel silo bins require minimum

maintenance provided they are properly constructed and operated. Before loading the

bins with grain for storage, the bin must be checked, inspected and minor repairs carried

out to ensure good performance.

33
Ensure thorough cleaning of the floor, aeration and conveyor channels, lower part of the

silo walls, around stiffeners and ladders and eaves. Clean and unblock false floors.

Check and inspect water proof joints

between foundation and the silo bin

base ring for signs of water ingress or

breaking of the joint and repair or

replace as appropriate. Inspect all

access doors, windows, manholes,

roof vents and bolt areas for signs of

water ingress and take corrective

Leaking Silo bin walls
action.

Finally, ensure the unload auger, sweep auger and temperature detection cables

are checked, serviced and in good working order. Now after the bin is loaded, signs of

water leakage must be checked following rainfall.

Loading and unloading of steel silo bins must be at the centre of the bin to avoid

asymmetrical forces on the bin walls which can easily lead to collapse of the bin. With

time, as the silo bin ages, corrosion of the body sheets, roof panels and stiffeners becomes

evident. Corrosion not only diminishes the structural integrity of the bin but also leads to

damage of the stored grain primarily through water ingress, insect attack and fumigant

leakages. The extent of decay must be closely checked and corrective measures

including application of recommended paint material or replacement of the affected body

sheets and panels.

34
6.9 SWEEP AUGER

The sweep auger is a device for the removal of the last grain

from a flat bottom silo bin after discharge by gravity has stopped. The sweep auger

consists of an auger flight pivoted at the drive end about which it rotates and with a

support travelling wheel at the other end. Along the entire top length of the flight is a

metal hood. Sweep augers can either be portable – especially for small diameter bin or

permanent installation for large diameter steel silo bins. The sweep auger is mounted

with its drive end at centre of the bin into the unload conveyor through a special sump

arrangement or well, while the support/travel wheel rests next to the silo wall.

In operation, as the auger flight

rotates, it drags grain towards

the centre into the sump in

which it is pivoted. The grain

falls into the moving unload

conveyor and is transferred. The

rotational effect of the flight

causes the auger to move across

Sweep Auger
the bin sweeping all the grain in

its path towards the centre into the sump.

CAUTION: NEVER ENTER A SILO BIN WHEN THIS SWEEP AUGER IS RUNNING.

Maintenance:

Sweep augers must be checked, serviced and ready before loading silo bins.

Check auger flight and hood for wear, cracks and deformation.

Check/inspect the support wheel, the bearing and operation.

35
 Check/inspect the drive arrangement clean, motor, transmission, lubricant level,

grease, bearings, and couplings.

N.B. ENSURE BEFORE LOADING BIN THE SWEEP AUGER IS AT THE

RIGHT POSITION

6.10 HOPPER AND BUFFER BINS

Hopper and buffer bins are used as holding bins to regulate flow of grains in a

grain conveying and handling system. The bins are usually equipped with level sensors,

slide gates, air vent with cloth filter or directly connected to the central aspiration system.

Grain flow in and out of the bin is regulated by level sensor signals or by the handling

machine below it. Hopper and buffer bins are placed before equipment such as in-line

weighers, dryers, cleaners, bagging equipment to ensure smooth operation of the machine

or process.

Maintenance

Hopper and buffer bins provided they have been fabricated from the right gauge

of metal sheet, require minimum maintenance. The following should be checked,

inspected, serviced, repaired or replaced to ensure trouble free operation:

• Sidewalls, especially, wear on the slanting sides of the bin.

• Air escape vents – clears cloth filter or adjust butterfly valves

• The level control sensor’s performance

6.11 DUST CONTROL SYSTEM

In a silo plant grain is always being handled and moved around and whenever

grain is moved, dust is generated. Operations such as grain off-loading, cleaning,

conveying, loading bins and bagging generate a lot of dust. Since grain dust can be

nuisance, a health risk and a safety hazard, the generation of the dust must be controlled

36
and any dust generated or extracted must be collected and dispossessed off to eliminate

the undesirable consequences of dust within the environment.

Dust collection equipment essentially consists of fan, separator and piping. The

separator can be a cyclone or filters of varying sophistication. The purpose of a dust

collection system is to suck the dust-laden air from any given dust generating station,

separate the solid particles from the air and discharge the clean air into the atmosphere.

Dust collection system can be provided for each handling machine e.g. for a cleaner or

the entire plant can have a central dust extraction system. In plants with a central dust

extraction system otherwise referred to a Central Aspiration System, the system is

normally interlocked to the sequence interlocks of the plant.

Maintenance

The dust collection system must be in good working order all the time. The

following must be checked, inspected, adjusted or repaired or replaced.

Check/inspect all air pipelines for blockage, leakages at joints, wear at bends,

elbows and adjust the butterfly valves accordingly.

Check/inspect fan motor, check bearings, condition of impeller and fan housing,

couplings, belt drives.

Check/inspect rotary valve especially the condition of vanes, housing and

bearings of the drive, lubricant levels of the transmission.

Check/inspect cyclones and check wear, clean or replace filters, check pressure

gauges where applicable.

Check all possible sources of ignition and ensure that temperature and fire

detection system function properly.

37
6.12 BELT CONVEYOR

Belt conveyors are widely used for conveying bulk and bagged grain horizontally

or through gentle incline. There are special types, usually portable for loading trucks, flat

stores and stacking.

For movement of bulk grain, belt conveyors are very effective for long distance,

big capacity transfer, consume less power and gentle to the product and generate

minimum dust. Compared to chain conveyors, belt conveyors require lower initial capital

outlay and lower maintenance costs.

A belt conveyor is made up of a steel framework with a wide cylindrical head

pulley at one end and a tail pulley at the other, with an endless belt, supported by rollers,

running over the pulleys. The head pulley, normally lagged is coupled to a drive and the

tail pulley carries a belt tension device. For the transport of bagged grain, the belt is flat

and the bag is dropped on the moving belt at any point, transported and removed off at

the desired point.

For the transport of bulk grains, the belt is trough. The inlet for grain can be at

any point on the belt expect directly over the tail section and the grain can be discharged

at any point along its length if the belt is equipped with a discharge car, otherwise for

normal belt conveyors, the grain is discharged at the end over the drive pulley. Belt

conveyors can be open or covered for outdoor installations. Covered belt conveyors

cannot be equipped with discharge car.

Maintenance

The belt conveyor consists of very few moving parts and so minimal attention is

required. However, the following must be checked, serviced, repaired or replaced during

maintenance.

38
 Belt: The area under the belt must be cleaned daily. The conveyor belt itself must also
be kept clean. Check the tension of the rubber belt. Check that the belt is running in the
centre. Any damage to the edges would indicate that adjustment for alignment is
required.

Drive and Tail Sections: Check that the tension screws of the tail terminal are equally
adjusted. Check the temperature of the gear box (if any) by hand, if hot, lubrication is
indicated.

Check all bearings

Check pulleys and transmission

Steel rollers: Check the steel rollers regularly –at least once every week. They should
run smoothly and easily. Lubricate if necessary.
Adjust and fairly fasten the bolts holding the roller brackets.
The steel rollers must be mounted approximately 900 to the through-going frame.

6.13 BAGGING PLANT

The bagging plant facilitate the weighing and filling of grain into bags and closing

the filled bags ready for stacking or despatch. The equipment in a typical bagging plant

include: Holding bin, bagging scale, sewing head, sewing belt conveyor and bag belt

conveyor. Holding bins and belt conveyors have already been covered elsewhere in this

manual.

Bagging Scale: For the weighing and filling of open mouth bags. The bagging scale

should be serviced and repaired by the manufacturer’s representative or approved

technicians for the equipment. However, the following maintenance procedures must be

followed:

• Ensure the bagging scale is always clean and tidy.

• Carryout the built-in test weight regularly over the whole weighing range to

ensure accuracy and consistency in the weighing operation. Carry out tests to

compare with other weighing systems such as the weighbridge.

39
 • Ensure the scale is checked,

serviced and repaired by

approved technicians.

• Ensure the scale is checked,

approved and stamped by the

relevant government agency.

Bagging Plant

Sewing head: Used for stitching or closing the filled bags. The sewing head should be

serviced and repaired by a trained technician. However, the following maintenance

procedures should be followed:

• Ensure the sewing machine is always clean and tidy.

• Carryout the lubrication accordingly to instructions.

• Ensure the machine is serviced regularly by the manufacturer’s agent.

7.0 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

The Conveying, handling and other allied equipment in the silo plant run on

electrical power. The operations such as start/stop of the equipment and other processes

such as drying, aeration, grain temperature are electrically or electronically monitored

and controlled. Electrical motors, electrical control panels, contactors and relays, sensors

and limit switches, lamps and pushbuttons are extensively used in grain handling

facilities. In order to make the electrical installation work properly and provide the

necessary safety to personnel and operations, these items must be given service and

maintenance which will keep them in tip top condition. It is important that the operators

are attentive to all unsatisfactory state of equipment which can cause interruptions of the

40
 operations and any malfunction must be reported to the supervisor even if it seems trivial.

Faults that develop in the electrical devices such as motors and switches should be dealt

with by skilled electrician or by instructed personnel.

7.1 ELECTRICAL CONTROL PANEL

The operation of the whole machine plant is controlled, indicated and

monitored from the control panel which is located in the control room. The main

switchboard room and the control room may not be used as a general store room since in

there only the switchboards are allowed.

Also the control room must be kept clean and free from irrelevant things. In it are

only allowed such things the operator needs to plan, lead and supervise the operations. In

a narrow control room where many unauthorised persons stay, there can be in advertent

movement and starting or stopping machine, quite simply by touching a pushbutton. The

air conditioner is provided for the purpose of safeguarding the control panel from dust

as well as safeguarding the instrumentation.

The control of the motors in the mechanical

installation is centralised to the control panel.

This signifies that the contactors are remote

controlled and that the operating indication i.e.

the indication of the position of the contactors is

transmitted back to the control panel.

The control circuits are connected to a voltage

of 240 V in the control panel. The indicating

circuits are supplied with a voltage of 240 V

likewise located in control panel.

Electrical Control panel & Temperature
Monitoring System panel

41
 When a machine shall be started up a start impulse is made by pressing the

pushbutton positioned in the machine symbol or image on the mimic diagram. The

voltage then passes via a row terminal in the control panel to another row terminal in the

contactor board. From there, the voltage passes on/out to the control contact in the safety

switch and from there back to the contactor board and terminal. It then passes through

the control contact in the thermal relay and finally the contactor coil. The coil is

energised and the associated contacts close. The three operating contacts connect the

operating circuits to the motor which starts. The retaining contact receives its voltage by

way of the stop pushbutton in the control panel and connects the voltage further through

the safety switch, the thermal relay and to the coil.

When then the start impulse ceases, the coil receives the voltage by way of the

retaining contact and remains energised and the contacts are closed. Also, the indicating

contact on the contactor closes and connects the indicating voltage which comes from the

control panel via terminals back to the control panel to the indicating lamp which lights

up. At the same time, the coil of the so called interlocking relay which also is located in

the control panel is energised and the relay contacts which are connected into control

circuits for other machines or other kinds of circuits. Close the contactor coil is

connected to the neutral in the control panel via a terminal and in the contactor board.

When the motor shall be stopped the stop push button is depressed at which the

voltage to the maintenance contact is interrupted, the coil is de-energised and all contacts

open.

If the safety switch is switched off when the contactor is energised and the motor

running, the voltage to the contactor will be switched off, the contactor coil will be de-

energised and all contacts will open. The same way of functioning is obtained when the

42
 overload relay trips due to motor overload, the coil will be de-energised and the contacts

will open.

Switchboards and cabinets shall be checked once a year with regards to the layer

of dust on the devices inside. If the layer of dust is so thick that the text on name-plates

positioned horizontally cannot be read on the boards and cabinets, the devices have to be

cleaned.

The cleaning shall be so carried out that the dust is really removed from the

switchboard and not just brushed or blown onto contact and coils inside the devices.

First, the dust shall be carefully brushed off surfaces which are not located dangerously

close to contacts, coils or other sensitive details of the devices. The brushing shall be

done without the dust being stirred up. After that, the dust still left on the devices is

sucked off by using vacuum. Care shall be taken to ensure that the least possible dust is

blown into the devices. If vacuum cleaner is available, it shall be used then preferably,

using a soft brush.

When doors and lids are closed after a check care shall be taken in checking that

the gasket is in position and that the seal is proper.

7.2 ELECTRICAL MOTORS

A motor is an apparatus or a machine in which electrical energy is

converted to mechanical motive energy. It has two different kinds of coils which are

located around its iron cores. One of the coils, or windings, as is the most usual

expression concerning a motor, is located in fixed part of the motor, the so-called stator.

The electric cable is connected to this winding. The other winding is located on the

moving part of the motor, the so-called rotor. When the power supply is switched on and

43
flows through the stator winding, a magnetic field is created which activates the rotor

winding and makes the rotor start rotating. The more electric current that flows through

the stator winding, the more power can be taken out from the rotor shaft, or on the

contrary, the more the machine, which is driven by the motor, is loaded, the more current

will flow through the stator winding and consequently also the motor cable. We know

that when too high electric a current flows through the transformer, we will get problems

with the heat produced in the coils. The same applies to the motor – if we load the motor

so much that excessive current flows through the stator winding, the motor can become

so warm that painting, oil and wire insulation may catch fire, “the motor is on fire”. In

order to prevent such accidents, each motor is provided with two different safety devices,

the usual fuse and the thermal overload relay or overload relay as it is called. Both these

safety devices are located in contactor boards. The fuses are located in the contactor

boards, and the overload relay is located below the contactor.

On each motor, there is a nameplate with motor data printed on it. The highest

current rating that may flow through the stator winding is also stated on this nameplate

and it is very important the current rating on which the scale of the overload relay is set is

not higher than the rating stated on the motor. If, for instance, 10 A is printed on the

motor, the scale of the overload relay must also be set at 10 A or if the operation – the

load on the motor shaft – allows it, a few amperes lower, e.g. 8 or 9 A there will then be

better safety margin against overheating of the motor.

The nameplate of the motor is in addition to data about full load current provided

with data about effect in KW (kilowatt) or HP (horsepower) and voltage in V. A motor

is always so manufactured that it only by means of a simple reconnection can be

connected to two rent voltages and these are then stated on the nameplate. It reads e.g.

44
 415/240 V. Then we also have two different figures concerning the permissible load

current and care should be taken that the correct figure is read off. The rule is that the

first figure concerning volt refers to the first figure concerning current and thus the

second figure concerning volt refers to the second figure concerning current.

E.g. 415/240 V and 10/15 A means for our part, as we have a voltage of 415 V, a

current rating of 10 A. There is only one figure concerning power, e.g. 7.5 HP.

It is important to keep the motor clean and it must absolutely not be covered by

bags or any such things, as the cooling must be as efficient as possible in order to prevent

overheating. The motor is cooled by means of a built-in fan blowing air over cooling

flanges of the motor. If this air flow is blocked by e.g. a bag, it is of no matter how low

the overload relay is set. The motor will be overheated without the thermal relay

tripping.

Warning

Remember always to switch off the safety switches as soon as a motor or machine has to

be checked, no matter how small a check-up. If an electric operation is to be made in the

motor, say disconnecting the motor cable it is not enough to switch off the safety switch.

The operator in the control room must also be informed, and a padlock must be attached

to secure the safety switch. The key should then be kept by the electrician doing the

work.

7.3 CONTACTORS AND RELAYS

The contactor is a mechanical device actuated electro magnetically for

closing and opening electrical circuits. Contactors are integrated in circuits for

automation and their rating is determined by voltage and mains supply, load

characteristics and other duty requirements. The coil voltage of the contactors is 240 V

45
and of the relays, 24 V. If through fault-finding, it has been established that there is

power at the terminal screws of a contactor coil or at the socket terminals of a relay coil,

and yet the contactor or relay is not energised, there is something wrong with the coil. If

it is a relay, this is exchanged for a new one and if a contactor the coil is replaced with a

spare one.

Also if other faults develop in a relay it is exchanged for a new one and the faulty

discarded. Faulty contactors contacts are replaced by new ones which always shall be

kept in stock as spare parts.

It sometimes can happen that a fault develops in a coil which causes it to become

overheated and start to smoke. The coat caused by the smoke shall in such an event be

wiped of from other devices.

When the coil is energised, the armature which in turn actuates the contact

s is activated. The armature must be completely attracted by the iron core around

which the coil is mounted, there must not be any gap between the iron surfaces, and they

must be located close together. Should it happen that the iron surfaces are not clean or

that some object comes between them the contactor or relay starts to hum and the larger

the gap between the surfaces, the more it will hum. This phenomenon implies an

overload of the coil which can even be overheated and burn cause of the humming. A

humming contactor shall thus be immediately cleaned.

The motors are protected from overload by the motor overload relay. The

overload relay shall be set at the ampere rating which is indicated on the associate motor.

It is strictly prohibited to set the overload relay at a higher rating in order to avoid an

interruption of the operation.

46
 If everything works normally again the tripping of the overload relay could have

been caused by an occasional over-capacity and the operation can then continue to its

normal extent. Should the thermal relay however trip again a more close inspection has

to be made and the motor current be measured with an ampere-meter.

This has to be done by an electrician who has good knowledge of the construction

of a motor as well as how a motor works.

The same applies if a motor is too hot. If the current is equal in all 3 phases, there

is most likely nothing wrong with the machines but if the current is higher or lower in

one of the phases than in one of the others, there is probably a fault in the motor and it

has to be replaced.

If the current is normal, however, the fault lies in the overload relay, which then

has to be replaced with a new one. It is very important that the restarting of a machine

whose overload relay has tripped takes place during close watch and it is absolutely

wrong to make repeated trial starts since this will only aggravate an already existing fault.

This can thus lead to the motor getting so hot that it catches fire or cause it to break

down.

7.4 INDICATING LAMPS

The indicating lamps are supplied with a voltage of 24 V. If the indication

fails to appear in an indication lamp, the light bulb is first checked by replacing it with a

new working one. If this does not help there is a fault in the device which has to connect

the power to the lamp – a limit switch, a relay or contactor contact – or in the wiring

between these devices and the lamp holder.

The cut-outs in the contacts or the limit switches can sometimes depend on there

being dust on the contact surfaces, especially if the contacts have not been operated for a

47
 long time. This can, in such cases, be remedied by the operation activating the relay

being carried out with the assistance from the circuit diagram. With a 24 V test lamp, the

circuit is checked from its beginning at the 24 V phase via contacts and terminals to the

spot where there is no power and where thus the fault can be found.

7.5 PUSHBUTTONS

If a function which is to follow on an impulse made in a pushbutton does

not come about, the previous operations must be checked as to their correctness as well as

that of the indications which have been transmitted back. If the fault is not to be found

there, fault-finding has to be carried out with the aid of the circuit diagrams. With a 24

V or 240 V test lamp, depending on which circuits are to be checked, the voltage is tested

from the beginning of the circuit via contact and terminals, first on the part of the circuit

located before the make contact of the pushbutton, and then further on the part located

after the contact is being tested the pushbutton must be depressed. If a relay contact

which should have been closed, but is not, is found, the testing is moved on to the circuits

of the coil of this relay in order to establish why this relay is not activated. The fault

finding must be carried out in this manner step by step from one circuit to another until

the fault is located and remedied. The fault finding has to be carried out by an

experienced electrician.

7.6 SAFETY SWITCHES

Safety switches are located in the proximity of the electric motor drive. Safety

switches can be the cause of unmotivated and difficult to explain stops of the operating,

quite simply because they, involuntarily or as a joke, can be switched off a short moment

48
 and then be switched on again. It is, however, not permitted to block or lock them as it

always must be possible to switch them off should anything happen.

7.7 LEVEL SENSOR INDICATORS

Level indicators are installed in buffer bins, hopper bins, storage bins, and in

chain conveyors.

The level indicator stops the conveyor if the end outlet is so full of grain

that the indicator is actuated. The end outlet must then be cleared before the conveyor

can be started up again. At times it can happen that a conveyor begins to create unusually

much overflow and subsequent interruptions of the operating. The reason for this can

either be that a brush on the chain is out of order or that a gate is so incorrectly adjusted

that it does not open completely. The reason shall be established and the fault remedied.

7.8 LIMIT SWITCHES

The adjustment of the points of actuation of the limit switch shall be

carried out with good precision so that gates and valves really are in the right positions

when the indicating lamps on the control panel are lit. If the adjustment is incorrect,

some grain can fall down into another conveying chain or into another bin.

If the setting of the positions of gates and valves is done carelessly and with great

force, a previously correct adjustment can be altered or another fault can be caused on the

setting with incorrect conveying as the result. Since these faults can be difficult to

discover, it is important that the manual operation is done with care and that occasional

inspections also are made in the inspection hatches where there is not supposed to come

any material.

49
7.9 LOW SPEED RELAYS

The function of the low speed relay is to monitor that the elevator belt is

operating at the right speed. If the speed is too low, the low speed relay will

automatically switch off the motor power and the elevator stops altogether.

If the belt runs too slow, this may be due to slippage on the upper

driving shaft. This sometimes results in the belt becoming overheated, and a fire can be

caused. The belt must then be stretched.

If the elevator is started with grain in the buckets and the down pipe to the

elevator, the belt can be completely locked. The elevator boot must then be cleared from

grain before starting is tried again. It is very important that the start impulse is not made

longer than about 2 seconds. This is because the low speed relay is bridged during the

starting up sequence and thus cannot protect the belt.

7.10 LECTRICAL CABLES

Cables form the necessary connection between the machine and source

which generate electricity and the apparatus that uses it. They comprise a very wide

range of sizes and types.

The necessary requirement of a cable is that it should conduct electricity

efficiently, cheaply and safely. To this end, it should not be two small so as to have a

large internal voltage drop. It should not be too bin so as to cost too much originally.

The insulation should be such that it prevents leakage of current in unwanted directions

and thus to minimise risk of fire and shock. A cable has three main parts: the conductor,

the insulator and the mechanical protection.

50
 Cables may be for power conveying or for control purpose. Cables are rated

depending on the function they are to perform – according to their current and load

capacity. To ensure flexibility and ease of handling, conductors are standardised. A

number of small diameter wires are finished together spirally forming a core equivalent

to a single wire of the required size. The number of strands used are 1, 7, 19, 37, 61, 127

etc the sizes of conduction range from 1.0mm2 to 630mm2 .

Ferruling of cables, for easy identification and colour coding with the 3 phases

and neutral colour coded as Red, Yellow, Blue and Black are used.

Cause of burnt and damaged cables can be due to various reasons. If the cable

carries load above its rated capacity, its insulation material can melt and this can lead to

explosion. Eating of cables by rodents can cause short circuits and explosion. Failure of

protective device like fuses, contactors to actuate when there is a fault can cause cables to

burn out. Bridging of phases by foreign materials could also cause cables to burn out.

Finally, cables are very easily damaged mechanically and should be protected, especially

from long exposure to ultra voltet radiation.

7.11 EARTHING SYSTEM

Earthing systems are meant to protect personnel against electric shocks upon the

appearance of voltage on pieces of electrical equipment that are normally dead and to

ensure normal operation of these pieces of equipment. So effectively a good earthing

system in a silo complex prevents electrocution, sparking during operation of relays or

when fuses blow hot surfaces caused by shift circuits or weak insulation and lightening.

As a maintenance procedure, all connections of earth wire with the base metal in

the silo complex should be checked monthly to ensure no disconnection. Use megger to

51
 monitor leakage. Check that the lightening conductor is properly earthed and securely

supported.

Earth tester should be used to measure the earth resistance of the earthing system

bi-annually. If the measured earth resistance is less than 5 0hms it means the earthing

system is good. If the earthing resistance valve is above 5 0hms, the earthing should be

improved.

8.0 SILO COMPLEX OPERATIONAL SAFETY

8.1 Safety

• Safety as we all know is in fact a concept which implies being free from danger. It is
therefore apparent that the subject embraces the overall strategy of protecting and
securing both personnel and property from the so called dangers in the form of
operational hazards from machinery, processes, fire, explosions and all acts of hostility.

• It is furthermore obviously clear that when a potential threat of any form materialises, it
must inevitably result in some form of interruption to the activities of the silo complex.
Thus, interruption can vary in magnitude in terms of direct and hidden costs.

• Since a silo comprises industrial equipment and machinery, it falls under the local
Factories and Machinery Act, therefore, requiring the people who are employed here to
comply strictly with the requirements of the Act.

• Good house keeping must be observed. The cleanliness of the silo complex and its
environs should comply with the rules and regulations of the local Health Act. The silo
should also comply with the provision with respect to hygiene. Good house keeping and
hygiene are prerequisite for good safety and health.

• Safety in an attitude of mind and as such must not only be acquired, it must be cultivated,
developed and constantly practised to be of any value. To exercise safety consciousness.

- We must be aware of the potential hazards i.e. we must know exactly what the
dangers are;
- we must exercise the necessary degree of caution and follow all possible steps
to avoid the hazard;

N.B Safety consciousness involves not only acting safely in oneself but ensuring that
colleagues also do so.

52
8.2 SAFETY POLICY

• Developing a sense of safety in the minds of all employees on a site is singularly the most
important requirement in implementing a successful safety programme, and this
development must start with the top management. If the senior persons are not convinced
of the benefits and advantages which accrue from safety consciousness, then the lower
echelons can hardly be expected to do so. All supervisors and workers must be made
aware that the top management is behind the programme and that all each is responsible
for the success or failure in his area of responsibility. The policy must be set forth clearly
in writing and brought to the attention of everyone in the plant.

• The following safe and healthy working conditions must be provided including:
- Adequate lighting and ventilation
- Suitable and sufficient wash and toilet facilities
- Working areas must be free from dust and noise as much as possible
- Supply of personal protective equipment
- Properly guarded machinery
- Provision of adequate fire protection equipment
- Facilities for rendering First Aid
- Maintaining a policy of house keeping

• The following safety education and training must be provided including:

- Clearly identifying the hazards associated with each item of equipment or

process.

- Familiarizing the employees with the type and use of personal protective
equipment e.g. goggles, ear-mutts, gloves, etc.

- Explaining the purpose and use of machine guards e.g. belt guards and
pulleys.

- Training in the use of general safety equipment such as fire hoses,

extinguishers, etc.

- Demonstrating the correct and safe way to do a particular job

- Training in procedures to follow in the event of an accident.

It is absolutely essential that the emphasis in training of this nature be based on

having the trainee actually carryout a task for which he has just been trained.

53
 • Safety activities of a permanent nature must be instituted. Repose the ultimate

responsibility in a senior member of staff with assistance of a safety committee if

possible to:

- Investigate all accidents

- Report accident to the proper authorities
- Devise ways and means of eliminating hazards
- Supervise safety training programme
- Implement disciplinary procedures
- Monitor performance of persons in different schemes with regard to
maintaining safety standards
- Regularly inspect the safety equipment and facilities on the premises
- Promote the concept of safety
- Encourage and develop the safety awareness of employees

8.3 SILO OPERATIONAL HAZARDS

• General hazards in silo

Safety conduct requires knowledge of the potential hazards and then exercising the

necessary degrees of caution to avoid hazards

Preventive measures aimed at avoiding hazards must be directed towards the elimination

of unsafe acts and unsafe conditions.

Elimination of unsafe acts calls upon supervisors to take remedial action when someone

does not heed laid down safety regulations because these unsafe acts set a bad example.

It only takes a minor incident to frustrate the safety diligence of all the other workers in

the team, apart from the fact that their safety might also be placed in jeopardy as well.

Unsafe conditions include poor house keeping, safeguarding machinery and lack of

personal protective equipment.

54
 Plant housekeeping can be described as a discipline which ensures that there is a place for

everything and everything is in its place all the time. Good housekeeping enhances

working environment by ensuring that there are for example receptables for waste, aisles

and passages are clearly marked, materials and equipment are properly arranged or piled

up, proper storage facilities are provided, notices for guidance of staff are put up and

colour coding (RED, GREEN, YELLOW) are adopted and used appropriately.

Accidents typical of poor housekeeping include articles dropping from above, workers

tripping over loose and poorly arranged or piled materials or parts or loose objects,

workers falling on slippery, greasy or oily floors, fires and explosions.

• Hazards associated with material handling equipment

The operators starting the equipment must ensure that nobody is in the proximity of the

machine when it is started. Sometimes machines are linked on start up, so that when one

machine is started up other machine(s) may start automatically as well. This is straight

forward enough when the machines can be seen from the starter but when the two are

remote from each other, the person starting must physically check that no-one is nearby.

Sometimes, sirens are installed and linked up in the start sequence of machines to warn

people working in the plant anytime on the impending start-up of any machine so that

they stay clear of all machines upon hearing the sound of the siren.

55
 Warning signs must be mounted on machines such as rotary valve that have working

parts completely concealed and operate silently which to the uninitiated may look like

ordinary spout fitting!

• Suffocation hazards in Grain silo bins

The possibility of suffocating inside the silo bin containing bulk grain must be regarded

as extremely serious safety hazard.

(1) Grain being discharged from a bin

When grain runs out of a bin, it flows from the top surface down a centre

core to the outlet, not unlike that of a funnel (known as enveloping flow or core

discharge). The grain across the bottom and around the sides of the bin does not

move. The phenomenon is completely contrary to that which one would

intuitively expect, namely that grain nearer the bottom would discharge first. The

result of this phenomenon is that any object, such as someone on the surface of

the grain, will follow the flow of grain and be swept downwards into the core.

What makes this situation so dangerous is the speed at which the event takes

place. Consider a nominal discharge rate of 50 TPH. This is equivalent to

approx. 66.7 m3 per hour or 18.5 litres per second. A man, 1.8m tall of average

build displaces approx. 200 litres which means that the entire body could be

submerged in an envelope of grain in some 11 seconds. Even more significant,

the person could be up to his knees in grain and completely helpless to free

56
 himself in less than two second. When discharging grain at a rate of 50 TPH the

person could be completely covered within 4 seconds.

Flowing grain, like water, exerts a pressure over the entire area of any

object submerged in it but the force required to pull someone up through grain is

much greater than in water since grain exerts no buoyant force and has much

greater internal friction.

(2) Arching or Bridged Grain

Any bulk material in a silo bin is inclined to “arch” or “bridge” across the

walls of the bin and grain is no exception given the right conditions.

Depending on the grain’s resistance to flow as a result of excessive

moisture perhaps, to in combination with a high proportion of irregular shaped

impurities or abnormal weather conditions or bad bin design, the grain “sets” in

layer across the silo, literally forming a bridge. Grain further down the bin which

would not have been subject to the same environment will flow normally upon

discharge thus creating a void below the “bridge” or “arch”.

From the above, the grain surface would suggest that the contents of the

bin were solid up to the surface so anyone walking on the grain runs the grave risk

of the arch collapsing. Once the arch collapses, the person will fall with the grain

into the void below to either be buried completely or suffocate immediately or

57
 succumb to a lack of oxygen as a result of natural respiration of the grain and

microbial action even though the person’s head is not covered. A similar situation

could arise where grain holds fast to one side of a bin or wall of a bulk store.

Someone attempting to dislodge the pile runs the risk of being knocked over and

covered by the grain if it suddenly breaks free. A man lying flat and covered by

only 300mm of grain will be subject to a force exceeding 150kg.

(3) A Silo being filled with grain

When grain enters the silo it forms a pile in the shape of a cone.

Gradually the slope of the cone increases until the natural angle of repose of the

grain is exceeded whereupon the sides of the cone “collapse” and slide towards

the walls of the silo. The slope of the cone becomes comparatively flat and the

whole process repeats itself.

Anyone standing in a bin at the same time would have to continually

“tread” grain and walk towards the centre to attempt to remain on the surface.

Although the rate of filling in relation to the size of bin will determine the

duration and how rapidly the walking must proceed, it is an extremely hazardous

practice because the person has only to falter once and be trapped long enough to

retard escape and eventually be buried in grain. Not withstanding the above, the

possibility of being able to survive in the heavily dust laden atmosphere is also

highly suspect.

58
 Measures to minimise the above risk

Silos have to be entered from time to time for cleaning, sampling or

testing, levelling for stock-taking or moving grain to an outlet to clear the bin.

Whenever a silo is entered for any reason, the following measures should be

adhered to:

o Nobody must enter a silo being filled or from which grain is being discharged for

any reason. If a colleague is trapped, a rescuer stands to be similarly drawn into

the grain unless the grain flow is stopped. The same comments apply to

attempting to retrieve a dropped shovel or any working implement.

o Nobody must enter a silo without the responsible person or supervisor being

aware of this so that all possible precautions can be taken to ensure that the bin is

neither filled nor emptied during this time.

o Nobody must enter a silo without at least another person in attendance situated

outside the silo and in communication with the person inside the bin. It is

preferable to have two people in attendance so that one can summon additional

aid if necessary.

o Anybody entering a bin should do so attached to a safety harness or rope which is

fixed to the structure. If a boatswains chair is used then relevant regulations in the

operation must be strictly compiled with.

59
 o Nobody must enter a silo without allowing sufficient time for it to be well

ventilated. A silo should be entered with caution in any event because of the

danger from reduced oxygen content and foreign gases and matter in the air

within the bin.

o Similar comments apply in the case of a rescue attempt of someone overcome by

these toxic agents to avoid the situation of the rescuer being similarly

incapacitated.

o If there is any evidence of possible bridging, on no account should the person

stand on the surface even if secured to a safety to a harness.

• Dust Explosion in Silos

The word explosion has significance to everyone. Few of us, however, have been in the

immediate vicinity of an explosion and it is probably just as well because the

consequences can be devastating.

The scope of the problem is well illustrated in the USA, generally considered as a leader

in industrial technology and safety which has suffered in particular from dust explosions

in grain silo establishments. The magnitude of this phenomenon can be gauged from the

following quotation from a report issued through the offices of the USA Department of

Agriculture dated January 1980.

60
“In the last 21 years there have been at least 250 dust explosions in grain silos and feed

mills in the United States. The losses have been great with at least 164 deaths, 605

injured, and hundreds of millions of dollars worth of property destroyed. In the recent

past, a series of explosions vividly reiterated the need to reduce the hazards in grain

elevators and feed mills.

In early 1976, two explosions killed 14, injured 20 and began a catastrophic sequence of

incidents which culminated in seven grain elevator and feed mill explosions in the short

span of 2 months: December, 1977 and January 1978. These seven explosions accounted

for the loss of 62 lives, 55 injuries, and a direct property loss of millions of dollars. In

two of those explosions, 13 USDA employees were killed and 4 were injured. For the

remainder of 1978, there were 11 additional grain dust explosions.

While the scale of grain handling operations in the USA is immense by comparison to

that in many countries there may be features of their operations which increase the

likelihood of explosions, the basic ingredients for an explosion, and the basic ingredients

for an explosion nevertheless remain the same regardless of locality. Explosions, like fire

must have a cause and it is in the direction of preventing possible causes that every effort

must be made and which will ultimately determine whether a grain silo establishment

becomes another statistic or not.

Basic Principles and Characteristics of Explosions

What is a dust explosion? In the very simplest of terms, it is in fact the

exceedingly rapid, virtually instantaneous burning or combustion of a given quantity of

61
material. The rapid combustion is accompanied by an equally rapid rise in pressure as a

result of the large amount of heat liberated and the volumes of gases released and the

total effect produces what we know as an explosion. The basic elements required for a

dust explosion to occur are: Combustible material i.e. the dust, air and a source of

ignition. For an explosion to occur the combustible material must be present in very

small particle sizes and the particles must be dispersed in the air at a suitable

concentration. If then a source of ignition of sufficient strength is applied to the mixture,

an explosion occur.

The fact that the explosion may be triggered in a confined space, high pressures

are generated causing devastating effects. Secondary explosions may also be generated

with potentially divasting consequences.

Measures to prevent an Explosion

It is evident from the section which dealt with principles and characteristics of

explosions that by eliminating any one of the three main ingredients, i.e. air, or the dust

cloud or the source of ignition, explosions cannot occur.

All persons concerned must be fully aware of he potential hazards, fully informed

of what the preventative measures are and fully motivated in implementing them.

In striving to ensure that explosive conditions do not develop, it is obvious that

removal of air is impossible under practical conditions as is the entire elimination of dust

because dust will be generated whenever grain displaces air. But the control of dust is

very definitely possible as is the virtual elimination of any chance of ignition, providing

certain precautions, most of them relatively simple, are taken.

1. Segregation of combustible materials from sources of ignition.

2. Elimination or control of all sources of ignition.
3. Elimination or control of sources of dust emission.

62
Housekeeping

The importance of controlling dust in a silo complex cannot be over-emphasised.

Accumulations of dust within the buildings, and on machinery and plant, must be

removed by continuous cleaning, with particular attention to ledges, and awkward places

and of course, to surfaces likely to generate heat. Covers on conveyors, spouts and

machines, when removed for inspection purposes, should be replaced as soon as possible

to prevent the escape of dust.

Exhaust systems play a vital role in containing and capturing dust, but they can

only do so if given daily attention. All trunkings, dust filter bag systems and cyclones

must at all times be internally clean from dust deposits.

Therefore, strict attention must be paid to the removal of full dust collecting sacks

etc. from the rotary valve.

Smoking

Smoking in hazardous areas is strictly forbidden. Attention should be given to

conditions in and the location of change rooms and toilets where smoking is usually

permitted but which may well be in close proximity to dusty confines.

Plant and building maintenance

Shoddy maintenance not only increases the risk of fire but also inhibits dust

control – a fan which is not driven by the correctly tensioned number of V belts will not

move the required volume of air through the exhaust system and dust leaks and

settlement in trunking will result.

Spouts, elevator legs, conveyor belts and reclaim tunnels, cleaning machines and

weighbridges which leak grain and dust must be repaired immediately.

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 Any damp entering the bins, through leaking walls or roofs should be reported

without delay. Dampness can cause swelling and over-heating of grain, and is dangerous

when it comes into contact with electrical equipment.

All sump seepage pumps must at all times be functional.

Lamps must not be lowered into bins in any circumstances. When battery

operated beam type handlamps are used for inspecting bins, they should be secured to

ensure that they cannot fall into the bin.

Metal objects, including metal reinforced types and chain measures, should not be

lowered into bins. These types of measuring devices should be replaced with types that

will not produce sparks.

64
 ANNEX 1

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE & RURAL DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGIC GRAINS RESERVE DEPARTMENT (SGRD)
P.M.B. 135, ABUJA.

Date:………………..

SILO COMPLEX:……………… NO:…………………

Supplier/Agent:……………….
Truck No:……………………..
Grain Type:……………………

GRAINS ANALYSIS RESULT SHEET

GRADE FACTOR RESULT REMARKS

Moisture Content
Hectoliter Weight
Insect Damaged Kernel
Broken Kernels
Foreign Matter
Mould-Rotten & Diseased kernels
Colouration (visual Test)

General Remarks: ACCEPTED/REJECTED

Analyzed by:

(1) Produce Inspector

Name:……………………..
Sign:……………………….
Remark: ……………………
Date:………………………..

Checked by: Approved by:

(2) Asst Silo Manager (3) Silo Manager

Name:…………… Name:…………..
Sign:…………….. Sign:…………….
Remark:…………. Remark:…………
Date:…………….. Date:…………….

65
 ANNEX 2

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE & RURAL DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGIC GRAINS RESERVE DEPARTMENT (SGRD)
P.M.B. 135, ABUJA

STORE RECEIPT VOUCHER

NO:……………

Silo Complex:……………….. Date:…………/20…

Supplier’s Name & Address:……………………………………………...

………………………………………………

Product Variety Code Vehicle No. Weighbridge

Ticket No.

Receiving Unit of Net Quantity Unit Price TOTAL PRICE

Store No. Delivery Delivered N K

I hereby certify that the above goods have been received in Store.

--------------------
Signature of Store Keeper

66
 ANNEX 3

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE & RURAL DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGIC GRAINS RESERVE DEPARTMENT
P. M. B. 135, ABUJA
NO:……………

SILO COMPLEX:…………………………….

GRAINS DELIVERY CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ………………………………………… has

Delivered the under listed consignments of ………….crop in accordance
with grains reception specifications
S/N Date Weighbridge Grain Stores Qty
Delivered Ticket No. Analysis Receipt Supplied
Result Sheet Voucher
No No.

Prepared By Recommended By Recommended By

Store Officer Silo Manager Head of Unit, FPMU
Name:……………. Name:…………….. Name:……………...
Sign:……………… Sign:……………… Sign:……………….
Rank:…………….. Rank:……………… Rank:………………
Date:……………… Date:………………. Date:……………….

Official Stamp Official Stamp Official Stamp

Approve By:

SGRD Head of Unit

Name:………………
Sign:………………..
Rank:……………….
Date:………………..
Official Stamp
Distribution: Original - H/Office - for payment processing Duplicate - Silo Records
Triplicate -Book Copy

67
 ANNEX 4

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGIC GRAINS RESERVE DEPARTMENT
OFFICE OF THE HONOURABLE MINISTER
P.M.B. 135, ABUJA

STORE ISSUE VOUCHER No………

Silo Complex ………………………………… Date:……….
Issued To:………………………………………………………….
Address: …………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………….
Product Variety Code Vehicle No.

Dispatching Unit of Total Quantity Total Net Weighbridge

Store No. Dispatch Dispatched Weight Ticket No.
Dispatch

Remarks: …………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………
Goods Received by (Name)……………………………………………….
Organization………………………………Signature…………………….
Storekeeper’s Signature:………………………… Date:…………………

68
 ANNEX 5
FEDERAL MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE & RURAL DEVELOPMENT
STRATEGIC GRAINS RESERVE DEPARTMENT
OFFICE OF THE HONOURABLE MINISTER
P.M.B/ 135, ABUJA

NO:……………

STOCK ADJUSTMENT FORM

Silo Complex:……………………. Date:……………

ITEM DESCRIPTION QUANTITY

(Attach Supporting Documents)
ADJUST ADJUST
OUT IN

Prepared By: …… Request By Recommended By Approved By

…………… …………………. ……………..
…………… …………………. …………….
…………… …………………. …………….
Distribution (After approval):
Original - Silo Records
Duplicate - H/Office (Attach to Monthly Stock Report)

69
70
71
72
73
74
 ANNEX 10

GRAIN TEMPERATURE REGISTER

Month……………..

Date BIN NO.

Cable No. 1 Cable No.2 Cable No.3 Cable No.4 Cable No.5
Sensor No Sensor No Sensor No Sensor No Sensor No
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

75
 ANNEX 14

FEDERAL MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

STRATEGIC GRAINS RESERVE DEPARTMENT

MACHINE HISTORY CARD

SGR SILO COMPLEX AT ………………………… DATE:……..

MACHINE:……………………………………. Pos. No…….

TYPE/MODEL:………………………………..
CAPACITY:……………………………………
YEAR INSTALLED:………………………….

Details of Labour Cost Cost of Total Cost Supervisors

Date Service/Repairs Parts Name/Sign
carried out and Hrs Cost N k N k
parts fitted N k

76
 ANNEX 15

RECORDS FOR ENERGY CONSUMPTION (NEPA)

Past Present Energy
Date Time Reading Reading Consumed Amount
A B B - A

77
 REFERENCES:

FAO (1994) Grain Storage Techniques. Evolution and trends

in developing countries. FAO Agricultural Services
Bulletin 109

Dr. K. Krishramurthy et al Manual on storage of Food Grains. Published

by FAO Project on “Improvement of Storage and Pest
Management Procedures for Food Security”,
GCP/SUD/035/AUL, WAD MEDANI, SUDAN

UNDP/FAO Project MLN/85/018 Manual on Storage Management and Quality

Control prepared by Epitacio R. Roblodo

FAO (1994) Maintenance and operation of bulk grain stores.

FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 113.

GTZ (1981) Paddy deterioration in the humid Tropics. Documentation

of the GASGA Seminar in Baguio/ Philippines 11th – 18th
October 1981

NALEP II Report No. 6 Guidelines on Post Harvest and Grain Storage

Management (with emphasis on Aflatoxins) Published by
Plant Protection Services Branch
Ministry of Agriculture, Republic of Kenya in collaboration
with NALEP.

USDA Circular Number E-912

Management of Grain, Bulk Commodities and Bagged
Products

FAO (August 2005) Training of Trainers (TOT) of

Silo Managers, A Training Manuel for Strategic Grain
Reserve Department, Nigeria

Cimbria Unigrain Book 3 of 17: Nairobi Silo, 1990

of Denmark Silo Complex Operation and
Maintenance Manual

Cimbria Unigrain Book 3 of 17: Nairobi Silo, 1990

of Denmark Silo Complex Operation and
Maintenance Man

78