World Development, Vol. 15, Supplement, pp. 95-102.1987. 0305-750x037 $3.00 + o.

OO
Printed in Great Britain. Pergamon Journals Ltd.

Funding for NGOs: Issues and Options

PEGGY ANTROBUS
Women and Development Unit, Barbados

Summary. - This paper explores the options available to indigenous NGOs (users and
intermediaries) in securing funds for their programs. The problems with donor funding are
enumerated: preference for project over program aid, the recent decreases in total amounts
available, the tendency to shift funds arbitrarily, the influence and accountability often de-
manded by donors, and the dependency such funding creates for recipient NGOs. Options
available to indigenous NGOs for generating their own funds locally include: consultancies,
training, and the sale of educational materials and other publications. The author stresses the
need for donors to make a serious, long-term commitment to working with the poor; funds
should be allotted to NGOs for institution-building and core staff; donors should become a
“market” for indigenous NGO services; less aid should be tied; and endowments should be
established for indigenous NGOs which have a proven track record.

1. INTRODUCTION Other papers commissioned for this volume

will explore some of the broader issues. This
The matter of funding is clearly of critical paper will focus on issues related specifically to
importance to non-governmental Organizations funding. It will examine the options available to
(NGOs), and even more so at this time of indigenous NGOs in securing funds for their
continuing global economic crisis and the programs and draw tentative conclusions, based
accompanying search for alternative approaches on the author’s experience of fund-raising for
to development. The issues are not simply those programs within the context of the UN Decade
related to the availability and securing of funds. for Women.
The process of obtaining financing for NGOs,
and for development, is a complex one and
related issues include the question of sources 2. CONTEXT AND PROFILE OF NGOs
(against the background of the political realities
and ideological conflicts of the day); institutional Interest in the work of NGOs has increased
procedures, priorities and practices of donor markedly over the past 10 years, and with
agencies; the constraints of the short-term nature growing recognition of the inadequacy, con-
of most funding; and problems of vulnerability straints, limitations and, sometimes, inappro-
and dependency for NGOs whose main sources priateness of governmental efforts in a variety of
of finance are from external sources. fields. In part, this interest focuses on the search
In addition, it must be recognized that aid, or for alternative models and approaches to devel-
the transfer of financial resources, is only part, opment in the context of frustration at the failure
and not necessarily the most important, of a of conventional approaches to achieve the goals
series of measures which can help or hinder set by development planners and policy-makers.
development efforts. Others include the terms of After two-and-a-half UN Development Decades,
trade, tariffs, interest rates and militarization: the international community is still characterized
the benefits gained from the provision of substan- by gross inequalities in wealth, both within as
tial amounts of aid can be completely nullified by well as between countries. Against this back-
adverse trading practices, or by policies which ground, and in recognition of the important roles
promote or support the build-up of arms in a which NGOs have to play in various fields, the
country. In addition, the basis on which funds are number and diversity of NGOs have expanded
transferred to Third World countries can serve enormously in recent years, in “developed” as
either to undermine, or promote, the building of well as in Third World countries.
self-reliance. In discussing NGOs it is important to distingu-

95
 96 WORLD DEVELOPMENT

ish between international and indigenous agen- on the other hand, are “those whose programs
cies and groups. Their roles are - or should be are basically for other than their own mem-
- different; and while they have in common bership.” Some groups might perform both
many of the issues and problems related to functions. However, in terms of indigenous
funding, the differences are sufficiently signifi- groups, users tend to be local, while inter-
cant to warrant separate treatment. mediaries are more likely to operate at national,
International NGOs have a long history. Many regional or even international levels. The charac-
were involved in the process of colonization, and teristics of intermediaries are that they are set up
their branches, membership and projects still to meet the needs of a number of organizations,
exist in many parts of the world. They have high not necessarily affiliated to them. Their functions
visibility and are likely to be better endowed than are also more varied: including funding, training,
their Third World counterparts; their funds come technical assistance, providing communications
from their own governments as well as from support, research and evaluation. They often
private and corporate philanthropy. Some are serve as a buffer, or umbrella, for smaller
funded exclusively by their governments and organizations. In the context of funding, they can
are a permanent part of the structure of their be a useful mechanism for the identification,
governments, established for the purpose of funding and monitoring of smaller projects or
working in the private voluntary sector. Many organizations.
have consultative status with the UN and its NGOs also have as many different foci as
policy-making bodies such as the Economic and there are areas of concern or issues - political,
Social Council. For the purpose of this paper, the social, economic. cultural, religious, etc. This
churches and trade unions are included within Symposium addresses “development alterna-
the framework of international NGOs, to the tives,” my comments will be restricted to those
extent that they are actively involved in develop- NGOs with a focus on development. However, it
ment activities, including funding, in Third is clear that this can include all the above. My
World countries. restriction therefore refers to those organizations
Indigenous NGOs have a more recent history with a clearly defined and explicitly stated
and can be seen as an expression and outgrowth developmental goal. For example, in the Carib-
of the ending of colonial rule, a symbol of a bean the program of the regional, ecumenical
people’s new-found confidence in defining their Caribbean Conference of Churches is clearly
own needs and priorities and in taking responsi- developmental in its approach in all aspects of its
bility for addressing these. Because of this the work, including its program of theological reflec-
growth of indigenous NGOs in Third World tion and communications. In this respect, it is
countries has introduced a new dimension into worth paying special attention to those NGOs
the discussion on the role of NGOs. Understood which adopt a holistic approach to development
in this context, the funding of these organizations in their work: these organizations reject the
becomes much more complex and compels us to compartmentalization of activities into discrete
consider the political ramifications of sources, categories of, for example, economic, edu-
funding procedures and priorities, the absorption cational, social, cultural, etc., and try to provide
capacity, vulnerability and dependency of these flexible and comprehensive services.
organizations on external sources of funds. The focus on women during the UN Decade
In this context, it can also be argued that if for Women helped highlight the need for this
self-reliant, sustained and equitable development approach to development, since the intertwining
is the ultimate goal of development activities, of women’s multiple roies made it imperative
then the most important role of the international that projects and programs intended for their
NGOs working in the field of development is to benefit take account of the link between, for
support and strengthen indigenous NGOs. This example, productive and reproductive roles in
paper will focus on indigenous NGOs, although relation to women’s activities in both spheres;
reference will be made from time to time to cultural and political factors in relation to
international NGOs/PVOs.’ women’s access to and control of resources; legal
In discussing funding for indigenous NGOs and economic realities in relation to women’s
two categories or types can be distinguished. The participation in programs directed to them; and
first broad distinction is between “user” organ- so on. Sometimes this multifaceted approach can
izations and “intermediaries.“2 User groups are lead to the “misbehavior” of projects intended to
those formed to meet the direct and specific focus on economic factors3
needs of their membership. They tend to be more Programs focused on the poor note similar
localized and more focused on meeting short- imperatives - precisely (though largely unac-
term and immediate needs. Intermediary groups, knowledged) because women are the majority
 FUNDING
of the poor, and in any event bear the major
responsibility for managing the meagre resources
available to impoverished families.
It would appear that multipurpose develop-
ment agencies, mostly of the intermediary type,
might be the most useful to small User organiza-
tions since they could provide services which
none of these smaller organizations could prov-
ide themselves. This is confirmed by Sally Yudel-
man in her study of five women’s development
agencies in Latin America and the Caribbean.4
One of these is the Women and Development
(WAND) Unit of the Extra Mural Department
of the University of the West Indies which will be
described in more detail later.
3. AVAILABILITY OF FUNDS
In dtscussing sources of funds, a distinction
should be made between government and NGO
private sources of funds, although it should be
remembered that many international NGOs get
their funds from their governments or from
international organizations funded by govern-
ments.’
The combination of the global economic crisis
(including the massive debts and concomitant
balance-of-payments problems in many Third
World countries) and the rise of conservatism
and monetarism in the major industrialized
countries, has meant a major depletion of re-
sources for NGOs, international as well as
indigenous. The situation has been further
exacerbated by the tendency of some donor
governments, most notably the United States, to
decrease their support for multinational pro-
grams and opt instead for bilateral aid directed
explicitly to “friendly” governments. To the
extent that indigenous NGOs are perceived by
their own governments as “friendly” they con-
tinue to benefit from these resources - depleted
though they may be. However, the climate of
authoritarianism that usually accompanies polit-
ical conservatism often engenders increasing
suspicion and hostility between these govern-
ments and the NGO sector, especially if NGOs
are consciously seeking “alternatives.” In either
case, the situation constitutes serious constraints
on the work of NGOs, in terms of both the type
and extent of the work they are able to do.
At the same time, the economic crisis has also
led to both increased demands on the NGO and
“voluntary” sectors and new opportunities for
their initiative and resourcefulness. The per-
ceived strengths of the NGO sector include their
flexibility and aptitude for innovation, In many
instances they can provide comparable services
FOR NGOs 97
more cost-effectively than governments. They
also claim the ability to “reach the grassroots” in
ways that large government bureaucracies can-
not. Finally, their traditional role is to fill gaps in
government services and programs. Whether
these claims are true or not, they have encour-
aged the new interest in the funding of NGOs for
development programs.6
The crisis certainly calls for innovative,
alternative approaches - approaches which only
NGOs are likely to undertake since most govern-
ments (under the terms of their arrangements
with bodies such as the IMF) are even more
constrained than usual in their options, and
specifically have to institute policies of cutting
back social services, areas in which NGOs have
traditionally operated. It is doubly ironic there-
fore that NGOs are likely to face depletions in
their resources at precisely those times when they
are most needed and most likely to have a
significant impact on the communities they serve.
Constraints on funding can by analyzed from
either the supply (donors) or demand (recipients)
side. Most donor agencies, government-
supported included (notably the UN) make funds
available to NGOs. However, some indigenous
NGOs require governmental endorsement or
support before applications can be entertained.
This means that, in terms of accessibility, many
NGO sources are no different from those avail-
able to governments. At the same time, the
amount of funding available to NGOs is a
fraction of what is available to governments.
Where governments have significant influence
over decisions related to the funding of NGO
projects and programs, political factors come
into play.
The current political environment of ideolog-
ical polarization between capitalist and socialist
models of development creates special limita-
tions for NGOs - especially for those working
with the poorest sectors. They have to be
selective about their sources of funds, since
questions can be raised and their credibility (with
user groups or beneficiaries) jeopardized. Some
sources of funds are dysfunctional, given the
goals and objectives of some organizations. For
example, it is questionable whether an NGO
working at organizing workers’ cooperatives can
accept funds from donor agencies whose funds
derive from the exploitation of the labor of those,
or other workers. (Although some would argue
that most of the aid from imperial or ex-colonial
powers is in fact derived from the exploitation of
the resources of Third World countries and
therefore Third World countries are entitled to
the aid!)
The fact is that development is essentially a
 98 WORLD DEVELOPMENT

political process, focused on the empowerment agenda - as in the case of the Caribbean Basin
of people. It is a process which often stands in Initiative, or the influence of domestic pressure
contradiction to international processes which groups - as in the case of US government funds
both foster and reinforce dependence. These for population programs.
issues seldom are discussed by NGOs - especi- In fact, the area of population is a good
ally not by international NGOs which depend on example of the power of government donors to
government funds for their work. exercise very strong and decisive influence on
On the demand side, a number of factors affect NGO programs and organizations. The generous
the ability of indigenous NGOs to attract funds. allocations for population programs a few years
These include: ago, following the World Population Conference
of 1974, encouraged many NGOs to slant their
- their track-record and credibility with
projects in this direction to take advantage of the
donors;
availability of funds. The current reduction and/
- their management systems and ability to
or withdrawal of funds for these programs, as
absorb funds;
well as the well-publicized restrictions on their
- the extent to which their priorities, activi-
use, as a result of US government policies, is
ties, and methodologies are compatible
having a major negative impact on programs
with those of donors;
throughout the world. What is particularly
- the level of support they receive from their
unfortunate is that the impact spreads beyond
governments;
programs which deal specifically with family
- their knowledge of and access to external
planning to a wide variety of programs in the
funds.
fields of education, vocational training, income-
Shortages of funds lead to competition between generation, health, legislation, Women in
NGOs - in all their permutations and at all Development and social welfare which were
levels. This can be detrimental to cooperation. strengthened by infusions of resources for
On the other hand, the situation exerts pressure population-related activities in the days when
for greater clarity of agency role and project many “traditional” family-planning programs
purpose, and for coordination of effort. were going “beyond family-planning.”
An issue of fundamental importance is the way Another related issue is the extent to which
in which the funding process can exercise an some donors claim the right to influence or direct
undue, and perhaps unintended, influence on the the programs or projects which they fund. This is
work of NGOs - on their priorities, their often difficult to discern, although there are
planning and the development of their institu- times when the arrogance of a major donor
tional capacity. overrides the boundaries of decency and appli-
All donor agencies, naturally, have procedures cants are reminded that “the one who pays the
and specific requirements, and these may be piper calls the tune.”
more or less rigorous, intimidating, frustrating or From a Third World/recipient perspective, the
unacceptable to indigenous NGOs. Many donors best donors are undoubtedly those which attempt
also have a special focus or interests which limit to respond to the changing needs of the countries
the areas or agencies/NGOs to which they will or or groups, trying to understand and interpret
can respond. Sometimes priority is set in terms of these in the light of their own resources and legal
geographical location, sometimes in terms of requirements. My own assessment of donors is
target group. In situations of shortage, NGOs are that they are divided into those that are in-
undoubtedly strongly tempted to “go where the terested in being supportive - even if they are
money is” to “dress” their projects to fit the unable to provide funds - and those that are,
priorities of donors. For example, in the wake of deliberately or unconsciously, destructive in their
the famines in Africa this area has become a impact on NGOs approaching them for asaist-
priority for many donors in recent years - a fact ante. (But perhaps this is as much a statement
which is now clearly reflected in the priorities of about the individual staff members who deal with
many international NGOs. applications as it is of the institution. Institutions
For NGOs, the problem with donors’ priorities do, however, acquire “images” that may be
is that they are likely to shift in a somewhat positive or negative - from the perspective of
arbitrary manner, unrelated to the needs and Third World grantees.)
priorities of the countries or organizations. Re- Apart from the impact which the tendency of
sources for women’s programs have suffered donors to switch funding priorities has on the
from this tendency of donors to change program content of NGO programs, the practice also has a
emphasis in a rather haphazard manner. Some- negative impact on the management of these
times donors’ priorities reflected a political organizations. making it difficult for NGOs to
 FUNDING FOR NGOs 99

adopt long-term planning strategies. The ensuing have a negative effect on staff morale and
short-term, often ad hoc approach to program- productivity and can create difficulties in the
ming and planning is hardly conducive to effec- recruitment of staff.
tive work or efficient management practices. Even worse, it can jeopardize the independ-
Related to this is the preference of many ence and integrity of the organization. This is a
donors for supporting “projects” over programs. major issue when one remembers the political
While from the donor’s perspective projects are ramifications of the relationship between donor
easier to monitor and assess than programs, agencies and indigenous NGOs which are
development agencies know the limitations of challenging dominant paradigms and mainstream
this approach.’ They know, for example, that it thinking in their search for alternatives and
takes time to assist groups in the formulation and their own governments and those of the donor
preparation of projects. Someone has to cover agencies.
the cost of that time. Indigenous NGOs are An important current in the analysis of “under-
seldom funded to carry out this basic and development” is the recognition of the function
essential “developmental” work. of structural dependency in the perpetuation of
Another major constraint experienced by poverty and inequality within and between
indigenous NGOs, which has negative implica- countries.’ Dependency theories of development
tions for institution-building and the achievement would in fact call into question the extent to
of sustained and self-reliant development, is the which NGOs seeking alternatives can pursue
frequent requirement by donor agencies that these approaches in an ultimately creative and
their own staff, consultants, equipment and other meaningful way if they are themselves dependent
material resources be used. Of course the fact on the very structures and institutions which
that aid has always been “tied” to the economic serve to perpetuate the “under-development” of
and foreign policies of donor countries has often Third World countries. Recent and current
been forgotten. In contrast, it is being increas- events in Latin America and the Caribbean
ingly recognized that this approach can hardly be highlight the plight and dilemma of countries
considered helpful to the recipients in their attempting to pursue alternative development
efforts to build their own capacity. It can strategies.
perpetuate a damaging dependency, which is
ultimately self-defeating if the purpose is to assist
the country/community/organization to develop a 5. OPTIONS
level of self-sufficiency. Ironically, the rhetoric of
international aid and the technical assistance What are the options available to indigenous
programs of the western industrialized countries NGOs in securing funds for projects and pro-
is replete with statements about self-reliant and grams aimed at seeking alternative development?
sustainable development. The reality reflected in I would like to explore the question by drawing
their practice is, however, often different. on my own experience in the establishment and
A related issue is the reluctance of many management of a regional program for promot-
donors to provide funds for salaries for the staff ing and supporting Women in Development
of NGOs. It is difficult to understand the activities in the countries of the English-speaking
rationale for this, especially in relation to NGOs Caribbean.’
which, unlike governments, do not have ready The Women and Development Unit of
sources of income (e.g., taxes) from which to the Extra Mural Department of the University of
finance programs. the West Indies was established in 1978, within
the context of the UN Decade for Women. The
Decade provided special and increased resources
4. DEPENDENCY for women’s programs, as well as for NGOs
working in this field. In this sense therefore there
The dependence of indigenous NGOs on was a climate which was favorable for fundrais-
external sources of funds creates major con- ing. However, experience highlighted many of
straints and problems, some of which have the issues raised in this paper and it cannot be
already been highlighted. Apart from the diffi- said that the simple availability of funds for
culties of making long- or medium-term plans, women’s programs was any guarantee of success-
the constraints to institution-building, and the ful or easy fundraising! In exploring options I
restrictions on procurement of material and want to distinguish between those which simply
resources, dependence on external resources help the NGO to secure funds from donor agen-
creates special pressures and feelings of inse- cies and those which help to build the organiza-
curity among the staff of NGOs. This can clearly tion’s self-reliance through the acquisition of its
 100 WORLD DEVELOPMENT

own independent resources. In the first category need for support services and resources such as
I will be identifying strategies which seemed to training, education, technical assistance, and
help the WAND Unit to secure funds for its other kinds of projects support. Moreover, since
programs and projects; in the second I will dis- many of these “traditional” women’s projects -
CUSS both the ideas and the actions taken by in handicrafts, preserves, etc. - serve to rein-
WAND to build its own resources. force women’s marginality, the Unit considers it
Initially, the Unit’s location within the Univer- even more important to pay special attention
sity of the West Indies was undoubtedly to assisting the women to analyze and understand
advantageous in its efforts to obtain funds from the social, economic and political context of
the major US foundations and the UN agencies; their work. It is unlikely that this kind of
so were the experience, qualifications, track- consciousness-raising would be considered a
record, recognized integrity, and “connections” valid input. lo
of the head of the Unit. The Unit’s continued The second example arises out of WAND’s
attention to the pursuit of good record-keeping, role in assisting groups to develop their project
financial accountability, and management prac- ideas. This activity is necessarily extremely time-
tices, along with its sustained record for innov- consuming. It can be given a number of different
ative and effective programs and projects, names - from leadership-training to needs
continuing to serve it well in its fundraising. assessment to project development. The point is
As a hedge against dependency on a single, or that it is an essential part of the work of building
too few sources, WAND deliberately sought the capacity of poor and powerless people to
funds from a variety of agencies. However, while define and manage their own projects. Many
this undoubtedly enabled the Unit to establish donors, in their preoccupation with cost-benefit
and sustain an expanded, varied, dynamic, and analyses and notions of cost-effectiveness and
innovative program to meet its objectives of their focus on “projects” rather than “programs,”
building capacity, consciousness and cohesion in have difficulty in understanding the importance
Women in Development programs in the Carib- of this often illusive activity. This time-con-
bean, it proved extremely time-consuming and suming but essential activity is one which often
stressful to staff who were constantly under goes unfunded and becomes one of the additional
pressure to “produce.” The Unit eventually burdens on already over-worked staff.
chose to reduce the number of sources and to In order to build its own resources, therefore,
obtain larger grants and for longer periods -. a the Unit has been examining its potential for
strategy, however, which could not have been generating its own income from the sale of its
adopted before the Unit had succeeded in services in three areas: consultancies, training,
establishing its own credibility. and the sale of material/publications. There are
Donor agencies, no doubt themselves mindful undoubtedly problems inherent in all of these
of the risks of dependency and wishing to be activities. In the case of consultancies, the Unit is
helpful, often and increasingly raise the issue often up against the donor’s requirement that its
of self-financing. The question presupposes a own nationals be hired. In addition, stimulated
simple answer. In reality it is the question itself by North American practice, a number of
which is too simple for addressing a complex set indigenous consultants and consultancy firms are
of issues arising from the context of inequalities now being established in the region. The Unit
within which many of these projects and pro- often ends up providing free time and resources
grams exist. Since the projects and programs to assist independent consultants - in the
themselves often attempt to redress gross in- interest of facilitating programs which would be
equalities between groups and institutions in the beneficial to women in the region.
society, they have to work against the tendencies The development of regional networks may
toward increasing inequalities which are imbed- help to some extent to overcome some of these
ded in the structure. difficulties, especially if they too have a commit-
In WAND’s case, two examples can serve to ment to the building of strong institutions in the
illustrate this point. The first involves “econo- region. Unfortunately, persistent colonial atti-
mic” projects, typically, support for women’s tudes, lack of confidence in the ability of local
income-generating projects. The question pre- people to solve problems or to achieve high
supposes that if properly managed these projects standards, and the prevalence of tied aid miti-
can be self-supporting within “x” years. Re- gate against these efforts to establish strong
sources made available are usually restricted to institutions.
costs and factors directly related to the product. With regard to training and consultancies, the
However, in our experience, the more disadvan- clientele’s inability to pay, or certainly to cover
taged the project beneficiaries, the greater the the cost, limits the viability of this “market.” The
 FUNDING
sale of publications, including training manuals,
audio-visual material, reports and newsletters,
holds great potential. However, in order to
realize this the Unit would have to employ
special staff to deal with the marketing - and it
is doubtful whether the level of sales would make
this viable.
Despite these problems, WAND has built a
modest “fund” which it is now investing, in the
hope of adding more substantial sums later. The
Unit’s hopes of launching a major fundraising
drive were stalemated by the University which
saw it as competing with its own efforts at
fundraising. However, this continues to be a
goal. As part of this the Unit is exploring the
possibility of seeking a capital grant to enable it
to purchase a building which would provide not
only needed additional space, but also space
which could be rented for income.
6. CONCLUSION
The current crisis in funding for NGOs can
place in jeopardy the important resources, both
in terms of institutions and skills, that have been
painstakingly built up over the years. But the
crisis also provides an opportunity for donor
agencies - governments, international organiza-
tions, private foundations, corporations, and
institutions such as the churches and trade unions
- which have provided funding for NGO ini-
tiatives - to think creatively of ways of con-
tinuing support for this important “partner in
development. ”
NOTES
1. In the United States NGOs are called private
voluntary organisations (PVOs). With few exceptions
they are well-organized, both as autonomous organiza-
tions as well as in consortia or networks, as for
example, Private Agencies Collaborating Together
(PACT). However, they are, in some cases, largely
dependent on US government funds, and therefore
sensitive to government policies.
2. Hoskins (1980).
3. Buvinic (1986).
4. Yudelman (1987).
5. Funds available to the UN. the World Bank and
FOR NGOs 101
What are some of the ways? Apart from the
examples given from the experience of the
WAND Unit, there are some general conclusions
to be drawn:
1. Donors in all categories need to make a
serious commitment to supporting this sector,
based on a positive assessment of its value
rather than on expediency and tokenism.
2. The commitment also needs to be long-
term and based on a realistic understanding of
the problems of financing work with the poor
and disadvantaged.
3. Funds must be provided for institution-
building and for the employment of local staff.
4. The detrimental effects of tied aid ought
to be appreciated.
5. Donors can assist by providing a market
for the services and materials produced by
indigenous NGOs. It would be one way of
correcting the imbalance created by the
inequitable distribution of resources, rein-
forced by the culture of dependency.
6. Bureaucratic procedures should be kept
at a minimum and should be reviewed
periodically with grantees.
7. There is need for endowment funds for
indigenous NGOs. There was a time when
foundations provided endowments to indigen-
ous institutions. One gathers that this is no
longer fashionable. It is unfortunate as it is an
important way to help indigenous NGOs to
secure their institutional base.
These and other possibilities must be explored.
Solutions must be found, for without viable
NGOs and indigenous institutions it is difficult to
see how alternative development itself can be
promoted or sustained.
the Inter-American Development Bank, for example,
are provided by member governments.
6. The new Administrator of the UNDP is reported
to have defined NGOs, women and the private sector
as the new areas for focus by the agency.
7. Korten (1984).
8. The number of books on the subject are too
numerous to mention. A basic test book will suffice and
will provide other references.
9. Yudelman (1987).
10. Buvinic (1986).
102 WORLD DEVELOPMENT

REFERENCES

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World: Explaining their misbehavior,” World Devel- development: A learning process approach,” Public
opment, Vol. 14, No. 5 (1986), pp. 653664. Adminisfration Review, Vol. 44, No. 4 (July/August
Hoskins, Marilyn W., “Various perspectives on using 1984), pp. 341-352.
women’s organisations in development program- Yudelman, Sally, Hopeful Openings: A Study of Five
ming,” Report prepared for the USAID Office of Women’s Development Organizations in Latin
Women in Development (Washington, DC: USAID, America and the Caribbean (West Hartfort, CT:
July 1980). Kumarian Press, 1987).