BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

 Oxidation of end product of digestion in the cell or at tissue level is called cell respiration.
 During this process energy is trapped in the form of ATP.
 Whenever there is a requirement of energy; ATP is broken down into ADP and inorganic phosphate, this
process is known as aerobic respiration.
 As this oxygen comes from external environment by inspiration.
 Carbon dioxide produced this way is expelled out by expiration.

RESPIRATORY ORGANS:
 Body surface of many classes of organism is a respiratory organ for them which by diffusion perform
exchange of gases.
 Major examples of this are as following: protozoans, poriferans and cnidarians, earthworms.
 Gills are respiratory organ of higher aquatic animals, fishes and terrestrial animals like amphibians,
reptiles and mammals.
 Cockroaches have tracheal system for respiration.

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 We can understand respiration at three levels:

External respiration involves exchange of gases between environment and lung.
Internal respiration involves exchange of gases between lungs and blood then between blood and tissue
fluid.
Cellular respiration involves oxidation of organic compounds in cell due to which energy is released.
 Human respiratory system has external opening which are nostrils.
 This is the point from where air enters into the respiratory tract.
 Nostrils are followed by a nasal cavity.
 Nasal cavity opens in the posterior part of buccopharyngeal cavity known as pharyngeal cavity.
 The terminal part of soft palate is called uvula.
 Uvula divides the pharyngeal cavity in two parts.
 Upper chamber is known as nasopharynx while lower chamber is oropharynx.
 Larynx is a modification of trachea which forms a connection between pharynx and trachea.
 Opening of the larynx is glottis which is guarded by epiglottis.
 Trachea is a tube like structure which is 12 cm in length and 2.5 cm in diameter.
 It starts from the neck and ends in the middle of thoracic cavity.
 Trachea divides in two branches in thoracic cavity.
 These branches are called bronchi and they enter into left and right lung respectively.
 Trachea is supported by C shaped cartilaginous rings which are incomplete at dorsal side.
 These rings avoid the collapsing of trachea.
 Primary bronchi divide again and again upto terminal bronchioles
 Route of division is as follows: primary to secondary; secondary to tertiary; tertiary to bronchiole and then
bronchiole to terminal bronchiole.
 These terminal bronchioles divide further and form many alveolar ducts.
 These ducts open into the alveoli or air sac.
 A pair of lung is situated in thoracic cavity.
 These lungs are double layered out of which outer one is parietal and inner one is visceral.
 Between these two layers , there is a fluid filled cavity which is known as pleural cavity
 This fluid is secreted by walls of lungs.

B-6, Qutub Institutional Area, New Delhi -110016 | www.neetprep.com | Phone: (011)41082172
  It helps in reduction of friction and makes the relaxation and contraction of lungs easy.

MECHANISM OF BREATHING

 Breathing is also known as pulmonary ventilation which simply means inspiration and expiration.
 Movement of diaphragm and ribs control the expansion and contraction of lungs.
 When air enters in the lung, diaphragm moves downward which increases the volume of chest cavity to
accommodate inhaled air. This is what we call inspiration.
 When lungs contract due to upward movement of diaphragm, this air is thrown out. This is known as
normal expiration.
 For exercise etc, body needs high level of oxygen which is fulfilled by elevation of ribs to increase the
volume of chest cavity to accommodate more air in lungs. For expiration of this high volume of air
depression in ribs occur.
 Elevation of the ribs is taken care by external intercostal muscles and depression is taken care by internal
intercostals, internal oblique and external oblique muscles.

.
RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
 Amount of air during normal breathing is called tidal volume (TV). It is about 500 mL of air.
 Extra amount of air which is inspired forcefully is inspiratory reserve volume (IRV). This is about
2500-3000 mL
 Extra amount of air which can be expired forcefully is called expiratory reserve volume (ERV). This is about
1000 mL of air.
 After forceful expiration some air is still left inside which is known as residual volume (RV). This is about
1200 mL of air.
 The combination of respiratory volumes is known as pulmonary capacity.
 Inspiratory capacity (IC) is total amount of air a person can take in ie TV + IRV. This is about 3000 to 3500
mL.
 After normal breathing whatever air is left makes the functional residual capacity (FRC) ie RV + ERV. This is
about 2500 mL of air.
 The maximum volume of air a person can breath in after a forceful expiration which is variable in different
sex and age. This volume is known as vital capacity (VC= IRV+TV+ERV). This is about 3400-4800 mL.

EXCHANGE OF GASES
 The inhaled air goes to alveoli and from their via blood to cells and carbon dioxide from cells to alveoli for
expiration.
 This is because of the partial pressure or individual pressure of each gas which is denoted as PO2, PCO2,
PN2.
 All gases get exchanged via diffusion from higher partial pressure to lower partial pressure.
 Alveolar air remains in close proximity of blood due to thin alveolar layers called respiratory membrane.

 Respiratory membrane is 0.2 mm thick and has following layers: alveolar epithelium, epithelial basement
membrane, interstitial space, capillary basement membrane and capillary endothelial membrane.
 The limit of gaseous exchange between alveoli and blood is called diffusing capacity.
 Diffusing capacity is the amount of gas that diffuse through the membrane per minute for 1 mm Hg
pressure difference.
 Diffusion of carbon dioxide is 20 times faster than of oxygen while diffusion of oxygen is 2 times faster
than of nitrogen.

B-6, Qutub Institutional Area, New Delhi -110016 | www.neetprep.com | Phone: (011)41082172
  This pressure difference allows insipiration of oxygen and expiration of carbon dioxide.

TRANSPORT OF GASES

TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN
 97 % of oxygen is transported in the form of oxyhemoglobin(Hb + O2→HbO2, oxyhaemoglobin).
 3 % is transported in dissolved form by the plasma.
 Pulmonary capillaries have higher level of oxygen so formation of oxyhemoglobin is easy there.
 Tissues have lesser amount of oxygen so oxygen is released out from oxyhaemoglobin in tissues.
 Blood at tissue level has 4.4 ml of oxygen/100 ml of blood.
 1 g of haemoglobin can combine with 1.34 mL of oxygen and healthy person has 15 g haemoglobin per
100 mL
 This way 100 mL of blood carries 19.4 mL of oxygen. In pulmonary capillaries while it is 14.4 mL in veins
 So, we can say that 5 mL of oxygen is transported by 100 mL of blood.
 Amount of oxygen transported = oxygen in arterial blood – oxygen in venous blood.
 Hemoglobin does not get saturated by 100 % in oxygen hemoglobin saturation curve.
 Maximum 95 % saturation is observed and at 30 mm Hg of oxygen 50 % saturation of haemoglobin is
observed.
 The relationship between hemoglobin saturation and oxygen level is known as oxygen dissociation curve
which is S shaped or sgmoid.
 It gets shift towards right or left depending on PO2, PCO2 temperature and pH.

TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE

 There are three ways of carbon dioxide transport.
 Around 5-7 percent of carbon dioxide is transported by plasma in dissolved state. Partial pressure in veins
is 45 mm Hg (2.7 mL per 100 mL of blood) and that in arteries is 40 mm Hg (2.4 mL per 100 mL of blood).
This way 0.3 mL is transported per 100 mL of blood.
 Around 70 % of CO2 is transported in the form of bicarbonate.
 Carbon dioxide produced by tissues reacts with water in RBCs where it reaches via blood stream.
 CO2 forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) where carbonic anhydrase act as a catalyst.
 All biochemical reactions are given at bottom.
 This way, in the last step bicarbonate ions combine with hemoglobin to form hemoglobinic acid.

B-6, Qutub Institutional Area, New Delhi -110016 | www.neetprep.com | Phone: (011)41082172
  In order to maintain electrochemical neutrality, chloride ions (Cl–) diffuse from plasma to erythrocyte. This
is known as chloride shift.
 These will combine to ion (K+) to form potassium chloride (KCl).
 Hydrogen carbonate with sodium ions form sodium hydrogen carbonate

 The third way is in the form of carbaminohaemoglobin(HbCO2), result of reaction of CO2 and haemoglobin
which contributes 23% of transport.

 In the pulmonary capillaries the * is in all the three form discussed above.
 Dissolved form diffuses into the alveoli from pulmonary capillary.
 Carbaminohaemoglobin also give carbon dioxide and haemoglobin.
 But bicarbonate form does not release carbon dioxide easily.
 Firstly H.Hb releases Hydrogen ions as Hb takes up O2 for the next cycle.
 Cl– and HCO3– are released from KCl and KHCO3.
 Finally this carbonic acid is formed by hydrogen and hydrogen carbonate ions.
 This carbonic acid will release carbon dioxide in lungs.

REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
 There are three respiratory centers in the nervous system which regulate the respiratory rhythm.
 These are as following:
 Dorsal respiratory group regulates the basic respiratory rhythm by signaling to diaphragm and this group
is presnt in the dorsal part of medulla oblangata
 Ventral respiratory group of neurons is present to anterolateral to the dorsal respiratory group and it
works when there is an increased respiratory drive and controls both inspiration as well as expiration.
 Pneumotaxic centre is situated dorsal to the pons and controls the filling of lungs by signaling to
inspiratory area.
 If strong pneumotaxic signals come then lungs are partially filled while for weak signals lungs will be
completely filled by adjusting the inspiration to 0.5 sec and 5 seconds respectively.
 Strong signals reduce the time of both the processes ie inspiration as well as expiration.
 If concentration of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions increase then it signals the inspiration and
expiration to become faster.
 Concentration of oxygen is not involved in such signaling.

Fig. Respiratory centres in brain

B-6, Qutub Institutional Area, New Delhi -110016 | www.neetprep.com | Phone: (011)41082172
DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
BRONCHITIS:
 Bronchitis is a disorder of inflammation of bronchi.
 Glands and cells of lining of the bronchi undergo hypertrophy and hyperplasia in this disorder.
 The symptom is regular coughing and thick sputum which underlies the infection that results into the
excessive secretion of mucous.
 It may be caused by cigarette smoking and exposure to air pollutants like carbon monoxide.

BRONCHIAL ASTHMA:
 It is caused by allergic reaction of bronchiole to the foreign substances present in the breathing air which
entered in the bronchiole.
 Symptoms of this disorder are spasm of smooth muscle of bronchiole, coughing, secretion of excess
mucous.
 Avoiding exposure to allergic substances is one of the best way of prevention.
 If the patient is sensitive to only a small number of allergens then person can be exposed to small doses of
allergen in order to make him or her habituated. This measure is known as hyposensitisation.
 Bronchodilator drugs, inhalers and other antibiotics are also are also used for relief.

EMPHYSEMA:
 It is the respiratory disorder in which elasticity of alveolar walls gets lost because of excessive cigarette
smoking and exposure to pollutants.
 Due to which alveoli have air even after expiration.
 Bronchodilators, antibiotics and oxygen therapy are used for relief.

PNEUMONIA:
 It is caused due to bacterial infection mainly by Streptococcus pneumonia.
 Infants are more susceptible to it.
 It may be due to other bacteria, fungi, protozoan, viruses and mycoplasma.
 Alveolar sacs get filled by fluid with dead WBC due to which oxygen supply falls.
 Antibiotics are used for removal of infection.
 Bronchodilator drugs are used for relief.
 This disorder in immunocompromised people can be prevented by vaccination

OCCUPATIONAL LUNG DISEASE:

 It is the disorder which is associated with the longer (10-15 years) and frequent exposure of gases,
fumes, dust, silica and asbestos.
 Silicosis and asbestosis are common examples of it.
 In this, fibrous connective tissue of upper part of lungs undergoes proliferation, a stage called fibrosis.
 This proliferation causes inflammation.
 Most of the occupational disorders are not curable. So prevention is the only option.
 Use of protective masks at work place is a preventive measure.
 Workers should have knowledge of such kind of disorders and they should be given frequent gaps of few
days to avoid continuous exposure.
 Bronchodilators and secondary antibiotics are used for removal of secondary infection.

B-6, Qutub Institutional Area, New Delhi -110016 | www.neetprep.com | Phone: (011)41082172