Student Book Jim Clarkabi ein cs ite gr ora Fil xen €MED Sapte company robe E0228 schremann cout Edel aed ade mark of dence Listed Tem ci 2009 Ths ian rot published 20 1211100 losaresaazi British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data -kcatakogue retard for tis Book is available From the Brsush bran. ISBN 978.0 435586 59 8 Copyright notice Allright reserved. No part ofthis publication may be reproduced in any feem oF hy any means (inclding photocopiang oF toning ion any medium by elecwonic means ard whether or not wansiently oF indderualy to some other use ofthis publicabon) vathout the ‘wrfien permission cf the copyright etuher, except in accordance with the prowisions of the Copynght, Gesigns and Patents Act 1988 fr uni the terms ofa cence sued by the Copyright Licarsing Agency, Saffron Hesse, 6-10 Kithy Steet, Landon ECIN ETS (ar, -claco.t. 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No endorsed matenal will be used verbatim in sting any Edescel ‘examination/assessmentand any resource sts produced by Edexcet shall include this and-other appropriate texts, Copies of fal specfieatinns for all Edexcel quaiieations may be found on the Edeacel website, wrwwesiexeeleomLe tac(a [14 Pilate LET eco Te) Chemisrty pe Ur ere Inorganic Coil Tuli About this book Chapter 1: Kinetic Theory and Diffusion Chapter 2: Atomic Structure Chapter 3: Bonding Chapter 4: Structure Chapter 5: Formulae and Equations Chapter 6: Rates of Reaction Chapter 7: Oxygen and Oxides Chapter 8: The Reactivity Series Chapter 9: Acids Chapter 10: Making Salts Chapter 11; Separating and Analysing Chapter 12; The Periodic Table Chapter 13; Electrolysis Chapter 14: Introducing Energy Changes in Reactions Chapter 15; Introducing Reversible Reactions Chapter 16; Manufacturing Chemicals Chapter 17; Metals 89 99 V2 120 125 133 139Ce Organic Chemistry Chemistry Calculations VV stilted Chapter 18: Introducing Organic Chemistry Chapter 19; Alkanes, Alkenes and Alcohols Chapter 20; Useful Products from Crude Oil Chapter 21; Polymers Chapter 22: RAMs and Moles Chapter 23: Calculations from Equations Chapter 24; Electrolysis Calculations Chapter 25: Energy Calculations Chapter 26: Titration Calculations Appendix A: A Guide to Practical Questions Appendix B: The Periodic Table index 187 196 202 209 218 226 227About this book “Ths book has several etre tr ely you with GCSE Cerne Introduction Fach chapters shortiniodction tobe ‘ou stat hinting bout the psc and ey row ht in chap nd af chapter checits These se ures he sail in the hepa Thy eo la hap you ts rk testo note beeaue they ore a et of isthe even toreven Des fed check your petition tind out ath ‘wha you nce ene End of Chapter Checklist Margin bows Fale or information They might erp tal! pi nce prs a he bok ‘Questions | “Thee mest queions ak ete each char: Tesh you your uncaareeg of he neal onthe shape Stee them nab be reseaichducsions fu wll ped Ue the Intent and other book estore ten ah eat ste and cover ope fol the hoger inthe con coer heeSection A: Particles Everything around you ts made of porticles so small that you cant see them, This chapter looks at the arrangentent of particles in solids, liquids and gases, and the ways lm which the particles can move around. The nature of the different sorts of particles will be explored i Chapters 24 Figure 1.1 Bything yok ara a sli, araas Solids, liquids and gases Figure 1.2 mals concrete, ty cas seytirg! ‘The arrangement of the particles ‘Think abour these fact: 4 You can’t wollk through a brick wall, but you «sin move (with some resistance} through water. Moving through alr bs easy. ts fry urs n that sd wats fc) fclese dense ‘Ran thelicuid, are 0 oats © When you melt most solids their volume increases slightly: Most lguids arefess Sq yan fay mart everything cee se dense than the solid they carne from, oli wal snk he ligue © If yon boil about 5 ern of watt, th 1 Will Hl an average bucket The arrangement of the particles in solid, iquids and gases explains these facts The particles are dean ae spheres but they might be any hope: The packing nthe solid me beeomplety-diferere- what ieimporane that the pattie ae clase 9 together andi rst cases, pul packed When yaudiawa gas keep the puticler wel separated types gre have porilee Figure 1.2 The avangenene of evn w ernest: of mate, about 10 melecular diameters anny lar ‘exch thet Inna Solid, (he particles are lose and often regulary, packed, The only movement tke parties es is vibration. You ain't walk through a brick wall bacstuse the particles have strony (oroes of attraction between them, amd they’ can't mene out of your Wa} Ina liguid, the parties are stll mainly tovebing, but some gaps have appear Liquids are uswally less dense thin the solid because of thie. The forves between the particles are less effective, and the porticles can move. You ean swim through water hevause jou can push the parties aside. Inna gas te particles are much forttrer apart and there are almost no forces of aalinuction between them. It iseusy to move thruuzt a gas because of all the spaces botwoci the particles, aeraea Changes of state Solids, liguids and gases are known as the throe-states.of matter. Changing state between sold snd liquid A you heat a solid. the emergy makes the partichasiny Ht ibrate faster and faster, Evottually. they vibrate fast enough thatthe forves of attraction batween AB Particles are no fonger strong enaugh to hold them tageter. The solkd melts 40 liquid.’ The temperature need to melt the solids obviously its melting point. Figure 1 sing to Boceme.s quid — ar rsaing to enrol If the liquid is cooled aya. the Biquid particles will move arautrd more: and more slowky, Eventually they acc moving stowky enough that the forces-af attraction bootinoct diem Will hokd them inte a solid, The liquid frecaes. The temperalate rnocded for this is obviously the frecsing point. Altzough rey are culled dilferent Chitegs dopenuling om wiley yon 2 melting potnt ad freveing, potnt are exactly the same temperature, Changing siaie between liquietand gas 2 going “Thene are two cifferent ways this can happet ~evaiporation ind bailing. Bolling happens when the liquid is heated so strongly that the purticlesare moving fast enough ta break all the forces of attraction in the liquid. The lagu bs, Bubbles of gaseous puriicles are formed throughaut the whole liquid sind rlse #0 the surface. forming at gas. If the gas scaoled, the particles eventually maveslorly ‘enongh that atiracdions between them hold them as a liquid, The gas condenses Figure 15 Bong become a gas ard cordon fo beam a att sss " Evaporation i diferent, In any liguid of gs, the anerage spec of the particles ‘fan Se steer cata agee varies with the Lemaperature. Bot at each terapersiure, some particles willbe moving faster, others more slowly fan the vera Soone very fast particles on the suri of tp liquid wil awe enough energy to boreal aut Rares gas— that's evaporation, Vourdon't soe aby bubbling: Hull Just slowly disappears i he liquid is opers tothe ay, IF ILAS in a cla enti, Particles in the gas will abso be sticking boil: tothe liquid surlave again. The articles breaking away and those rejoining the suriaee end upin balance. There will be a roughly constant mimberof particles of 25 over thetop of a liquid in a closed vomtainer,Changing state between solid and gues sublimation: A small number of substances have the ubiltiy to changp directly feam solid ta gies, vive vers. without involving amy liquid on the way. This's known as sublimation. ih. ‘Heating ammoniom chloride crystalsin atest tube is a simple example i ‘The white crystals gradually disuppear from the bottom of the test tube and reappear further up. where the tube is cooler. There few chemical neasan for thi which you will ind described on purge 125. Another examples carbon dicaie, At onary pressures, Thege i no such thing as ligula carbo diowide, It turns strakght fom w salle to ais at ~78°C, Soll carbo -lside ks mort asy he ‘nthe photograph, notice the white slid carbon dioxide in the beaker. The white cloud appears because the varbor: dioxide gas produced ts = cold that it causes water vapour in the ait to condense. Carbum diatide gas itself is invisible Figure 1 Heating arrmanen chine Diffusion Diffusion in gases “Suppose someone sxtdentally releases some smelly gas thelab — ammonia, ‘perhaps. Within a mainute oF 3, everybody tn the la wil Bebe o smal i, That tent surprising - particles inthe gas ure foe to move around. What does need explaining, thongh, is wry it takes so long. Atroom temperatirs.ammaonia particles travel at gxeaks of about 60m, Ln he tame that 8 takes for the small i reach allcurmersof the Lab, cach ammonia patie may have travelled 30 oF more kilometres! Eacs particle ts bouncingost erilles ir patiskes on wg: Wa Figure 1.94 amma partie bering of a parts ar ae Figure 1.8 Ory te sloning ‘The spreading out of particles in agas or quid is knowaatsdifleston, You vam sy" aa ammonia partickes diffuse through the alt. ‘You can show diffusior in gases very easily using tke apparatus in Figure 1.100, The eh Jonwer gis Jar contains bromine gas: the top one contains af. he lds are a ‘remored, the brown colour of de bromine diffases upwards until both gas jars re unifarmly brown. The bromine particles and ar particles bounce around at random to ginean evn mbxtute. brome “You can da the same thing with hydrogen anlar, except that you fate to puta lighted splint inal the enel to find oat where the gitses have gone. People often ‘expel that the wery light hyetrogen will all co wpyin the top zassbar: In fa’, your ‘ill got identical explosints from both fats Figur 7.10.d0moneaongcfsion gsrea ion wary i'you dant hme hans to wen sym equations is cluded hete-so dat can eel bk te titer ea ‘ao jar unter srl jr of rang round soko" Figure 1.12 Gamansrating sified Wythe inverted corns around patel? Potazsite. mangenat(MI ean ane ‘compoind and coneins more than ore seit of parce. Noy wl find out mate bout Joni compaursc in Chaps 3 and Showing that particles in diflerent gaeses travel at different speeds: This exporiment roles on tho reaction otccen ammonta und Hydrogen chlorite ‘Bases to give white slid ammonium chloride: Na) + Hike) NH,CKS) Bits of cotton woo! are souked in conventrated ammonia solution (as source of ammonia gas} and concentrated hydroctloric ack] (as. asource of kydragen clare gas). These are plac inthe ends of wfong sass ato with rubber bums tostop the poisonous gases escaping. or wool soaked carton woalsosbed in ‘coneenersed aremant slucion concentrated hyerochlorte aid bce ring forms loser ‘he ycirsldone el ered Figure 1.11 nares hat paris amneia and Ajegen che rene a afent ede “The white fing of ammonium chloride takes a little time to form depending ore the length and diameter of the tube), an appears closer to te hydrochloric anid end. I the time it takes for the rinyt0 form, the ammonia particles hae traveled further That's because their speed ishgher. ‘Ammonia particles are lighter than lyydrogen chloride partisles. Light particles une Jester thar healer ies. Diffusion in Fiquids Diffusion throagh a liquid very slow if the liquid is totally stl. For example. tf a small jar of strongly coloured solution (suck as potassium mangamatel VE) solution) tslefttostandin a gas jar of wer. Gan-take days for the colour ta sdifse throughout the whole of the water. This ix because there:ane only small gaps botwnen the liquid particles for othe partelesto difise Ent, Showing that the particles are very stall Suppose you disolwe 0.1 of potassiuen manganatelVIE) in [O.emPof water fo give aadeep purple aulution. Assume that the smallest dropyou can sewig L/10@0cm' ‘The whole solution will be made upol 14.000 drops, So each drop-will wont 1.00001 g of potassium manganater¥ I) Suppose you dilute this down 10) times by taking Lem? of the solution and making i upto [ern with more wafer. Now continue doing this until the valour is too. faint tosce. Perhaps you cam still soe some colaur after you have diluted the solution a total of Exc times, but not after the sixte dilution. By the Hime of the fikh dilution, each deop will only contain a billinth of segramca potassium mangimateVLl). IF you only needed one ‘particle’ of potassium mangaimatel VIO} per drop tn-order to see the colour, the ‘particle’ can’t weigh mote than a billionth of 3 gram (0,00000001 3). Js this a good answer? Nowhere near it! A potassiom manganatetVIl ‘particle’ actually weighs about €,09000000000000000000026 g ! in nealty. you mend huge numbers of particles in each drop in order wo ae the colour.You should now be able to: End of Chapter Checklist draw simple diagrams to show the arrangement of the particles in solids liquids and gases / understand that heating a substance makes the particles vibrate (solid) or move (liquid ar gas} faster explain what happens in terms of the particles when a solid is heated until it becomes a gas understand what is meant by melting, freezing, boiling, condensing and subliming, in terms of the: particles present / Understand the difference between evaporation and boiling understand what is meant by diffusion, and describe an experiment to show that light particles: diffuse faster than heavy ones. of explain why diffusion in liquids s slower than in gases, Y describe a simple dilution experiment to show that the particles are very small. Questions 1. What name fgiven to each of the following changes of state? a) solid to liquid: B) liquid ta solid: ¢) solid to gas:d) gas to solid 2 a) Draw simple diagrams to show the arrangement of toe particles ina solid, a quid and = gas. ) Describe the diference between the mavement af the patiles in Solid and afiquie, ¢} The change of sate from a liquid toa gxs-ean be either ‘evaporation or bailing. Explain the difference between ‘evaporation and boiling, <4) Soeme liquics are ores in sealed battles fora very long Ue — deeadles or mote. Explain wiyy they dont evaporate 3. The questions reler tothe substances in the table below. a) Write down the plhyscal states of encti substance at 20°C, by Which substance has the strongest attractions between Is parleles? Explain your ansuaer 6) Which substance hae the weakest atrartions benween its particles? Explain your answer. 4) Which subsiance has the greatest ditanee between its pticlasat 20°C? Explain your answen 2) Why is na boiling point piven for substance C? 2) Which tiquid substane# would evaporate most quickly In the open air at 20°C? Explain your anueres 4 ftefer to Figure 1.11, which shows the diffusion experiment. 1a), Explain why the ring takes a litle time to form. 1) you heat gas wrt effect wil ths have on the movernent of tre particles? ¢)_ In the light af your answer to (b), what difference would you find if you did this experiment autside ona day wien the temperature was 2°C instead of in a wanm lab at 25°C? Explain your answer, 4) Explain vy the ring was formed nearer the hyraclakaric acid ond of the tube ‘Suppose you replaced the cancentatad hydroehtone seid bby enneentratad lydrobromic acid, This releases the gas hhydrogen bromide. Hydrogen bromide alsa reacts with Aninania te Florin a vite cing, 4) Suggest 4 name for the white ring in this ease, Hydrogen bromide particles are about twice as heavy a5 hydrogen chloride particles What effects do you think this would hive On the experiment? Design simple experiment, vig ullproetieal deta, wuhies ‘would let you edmpare the fates at which ovo strongly ‘coloured solutions difused through water. At each stage, think about exetly what problems might arse in eazrying out te ‘experiment, end say leery how you would overcome them.Ce: Section A: Particles Chapter 2: Atomic Structure Thischapter exploresthe nature ef — | Coxier isan seit yout trial to chop it upto selena smaller bits atoms, and how they differ frm Be Ae tbt clement ta element. The 100 or so polit yoru would plc tt into Inu cop ation, Ya elements are the butldng blocks from | —willsmller pecs protons, neurons and electrons), bu You uk 0 longer Hae ‘which everything smade- fram the | i. “simples substace ke carbon tothe most complex, lie DNA Hl ra} Flew 27 Whether om mnie Fig 22 ftir macos rtsonive decay Cheesy just reabrampis nisin atoms Tor example thot propane Burs it yen, existing carbon, Hyromen snd caygen ios combine in new ways igure @Q Gao 5 + BS — a+ 3S ‘oul id the reas tat ger atcrns sx stourdn ls desc bein Chaper 3 bese 16The structure of the atom Atoms are made of protons, neutruns and electrons Tie ngetes of som contana rotons a! neon ic Nt epic in de agra, Inve sealed hem som ep 0 the se of pare Tal ue maces wei be no ere ‘hun ee arin se The elecerane we fund seus avenes ery Pande ns ese. ey 2efound mos oe ene ‘Scovewerein se shaded esate, (A ium ator Figue 26 The scene nate Viewwally all she mass ofthe atom is concentrated in the nucleus because the clevtrons wight hac ating The masses and charaes ane measured relative io each other bacaie the acta ‘alyos are mrediby snall.Tor example, woul ake shout {609,0, 00,000 000,0002,000,000 presons to weigh Ig Atomic number and mass number Theriumbet of protons in an atoms fala ts atomle number or pevton rnamber, Eich of the 100 orsodilferent elements has a diferent rember of Protons. For example (fan stom has eight pron t must be sn oxygen tom, ‘Atomic number = number of protons The mans number (sometimes knwt a the nticlean number) stints the total isralehiaensuiaiaeeet iat rence == one. st 59 sccieasies_ ot Cc —e-27 ‘This particular anon of cobalt contains 27 protons. To make she toa auimber af “protons an neutrons up: 59, there must alse be 32 newtrons. | salto even owmsyhave come scoss hagas of theatom nich the eles are dave) rvng om aries ther He pans roped te in Tete meen Te urgosaibie to know eat the sloctanvameraunginanatam, Ayewsan tes ar iy tae a partial ergy and tha: they are He to he ound in ceva regionof pace at some parcuks dane ‘ham the nuieus Elect wth itleren energesare funda dierre dase, fr the cc Chapter 2: ‘rth owe ees ee nt nepal youusice CO: youre king sbout bonCoes cso cocoeray abo tance Rerember that he rember af protons of iaec rae aeoct Isotopes ‘The number of neutrons iam atom can vary alighih For ample thee are tree kinds of carbon atom, called vatbon-1 2, carbon-13 and canbort-14, They all have ive same number of protons (because al carom atoms hue 6 protons — As tombs rombes), but the number of meatrons wanes. These different atoms of carbom ae salled Eeotopes, "ee Figure 2.7 The mc the the cope fcr Tsotopes ain atoms at ave ve ste atom nn The but dtfeemt amass names coaTesame noimber of ratons, but diffe muah’ of neutrons “The fact that they have varying numbers of neurons males no-dference \whutsoever ao their chemical reactions. The chemical properties ure powered by themurmber and arrangement of the electrons and. as you will se short that is ‘ential fr al three steps A radioactive isotope. reorgarissinto a more stable form. The radiation giver of hy carbon-14 ts vse in carbon dating, The nuclei of the sarton-12 and carbon-13 isotapes are perfectly stable; ane so these aren't rs bon-Lo isradometive. Is macleus is usta LF you are intersted you soul dean Entei seareh on "rin shroud to Hind ct how earhom dating wens soe! te deter its ape, sel why there isl costoersy shot The electrons Counting the number of electrons in an atom toms ae ctetricllyneutal and the postvenessof the promis bakcel by te negatveness of theebscttons. In a neutral atom, lens hak Number of electrons = number of protons: cw 8 rus ao Sif anrasyger tion tatomke numb has 8 protons ft must also lcteoes ff achloetne atom (atoms ruber = 17)Taas 17 peotons. have 17 electrons, hat he ey es Tbe You will se wren this is Enewing theatre number You can end that feo the PerkAtari amber andthe Perici Table Chee 12 (ge 98 dati dea th Atoms are arranged In the Perkodlc Table in order of increasing atomknumber. jane or Seat anpoons, ‘You wil ind «fll version of the Periodic Tuble on page 225, Ment Perillc Tables elas atcni mac expend in Chap have tio numbers against each symbol—be carsflto choose the right ome. The 22anpape 76 state mnonber wil abways be the ser nawaber. The oaher umber wil be either the mass: numbvr of the most common kotope ofthe element, oF Hw relate ator ‘mas ofthe eiient. The Table wil tll yea which, You uses Periodic Table to find ont the stoic sumber of am element ahd therefore how many protons and clastroms there aren omms, ‘The arrangement of the electrons The cletroms are found st considerable distances irom the nucleus a series of levels led energy levels or shells, Eich eneray'fev cats only hold cen number of elestrons. Low energy levels are always lle before higher anes, The dean shows the sueram eres B29GGOGS wisicn —sormtnessepers il wih Pimeime ees lw) of wectonsthat each ney level can ok phe The chev can engand hoi acl of intense ‘Belecoors, but sss problem beyond pepeiie: 29 9G0908 sconiint cnyromtarseeurms Gest o Frecieal ——onlyrasm er Deere (rot ee) RR) Fig 9 eto ney eof er Chapter 2: Hors to work out the arrangement of the Aectrons We will use chlorine sm example, © Took up the atomic mumble Perind Tle. (8 ya have a liotse- make ‘ure you dore? use the wrong number, The tonic number Wily tw tho smaller one.) The Povo Tale lls ou that corn’ ota monber ts 17. Theis tells ou the sumber of peotons. and here the murmber of letrons The snumbee of electrons aqua tote mumtber of protons Thene are 7 protons, and so 17 electrons bv nextel chlréve atom (9 Arrange the dectrons in eves aways illiag up an inner (lower eneray lew telore ye go to an outer one, Remember that the ist level can take 2 elotrons ‘he sevond one van take 8, andthe third one (for the simple vases you will meet) aso takes 8 Thave wil eormgel 2 inthe it fea, 8. the sem Tee a 7 nthe ie ee, ‘hfs wrttervas 2, 8, 7 Wen yo ne se whos check Zo ae sare tha the clethons add mp 19 the right number tis ose, 37Ce: ‘The frst.20 elements the Perioe Table ‘7 Op 00 soln op STOW” Ol Dontjustaecep gure 210! Use the ae ee oar eee ae ee Be ret on p22 ard wo tach tee eecrrc src a Yrs eto maaan oder H He _naike ic enore eficu) Check your anewers: s 3 ve you oo Li | Be B N|O|F |Ne a_| or a3 zs | a6 | a7 | 28 Na | Mg al P |S) |'et ar ai | 283 233 22s | 206 | aa | 3 K | ca 28 . 10 more elemenes Flew 210" iran rane fe st 2 ames ne Fe Tadke Vertical columns in the Fert Table ane calle groups. Groups contain elements ‘wih similar properties. Their simullarity depends om the fat tht (apart rom helium elements inthe same group have the same number of elestums in their ater loves, These are the elotrons which normally et krvolvidl when the ferment bond to other tangs. There are ro important generalisations you cam make The number of elotn sroupe 1-7 ys ithe ater Keel ‘he sameas the group rurnber for Thal pattera extends sll don the Periodic Table foe these groups Serf you know hat barium is group 2, you know ihe 2 electrons in it nite level laine (grap 7) tas 7 electrons init outer level, Leal grou} has cloctrons in its ovier level, Working out wea san the inet levels fe much more cull, The simple patterns we hae dosribed don't work beyond silken The elements inareup 0 Jue, oils has 2), iw Selectrons in thet outer levels (apart from ‘ies fl vel et jeu) Thiese are often thought of as being oll levels. ‘This i true for helium amd neon, caer tteaughioafighelevel ol chernty | but not forthe cements From argon downwards. For exsimple, the thinl energy your ve yourself el pobiers level will eventually contain 18 electrons ‘ae group (elements sre kewmen ste mabe gases becuse they realm ‘completly unreactive in Eat te te atthe tp ofthe group therm heli ta i done react with nething: This lack of reactivity es assuated wth thei sevtruniestructunss— often described ts noble ga structures, Draming dlagrams of electronic wrrangements The clectrns in the various energy levels ean Be shown by drawing cece with lotsor crosses on tem showing the electrons, It doesn't matter whether you drt dlotsor cross, Hoydrogen b some elaarn stealiue as tw dn ho ts levelomc Few 291 Eton angen ef degen Melom The helium ele-trons ace sometimes shun pat (here sal sometimes as ‘ono separate electrons on opposite sides ofthe circle ier form i acceptable “The next four atoms are draw ie ths rani ae des cmp at @) (@) @) VS Zid er rasaugs wotkoutexcely how andecson smavng in ace level Fig 282 Gaston ananaomens ef eh bapa, rm aden Tre clectrons in the second energy Tove are dra sgly up so a msiemun of 4 ‘AMler al par hem up as necessary It makes them mush sie to count, More lenportanty 1 gives a much Fetter peture of the availabilty ofthe oactrons in dhe stone for honing purposes. This explored in CBupicr 2 Chapter 2: ‘Te atom in the Periodic Table rom stun tos argon fil the hind level in ects the same wy nd potassium and calciura start to til the ours hve. Potassium snd cleo wl Look Me Pigune 2-18 ©€ s ) \ (es) SE) Se Figure 194 Cesc apangonents of polesn and cleYou should now be able to: End of Chapter Checklist ‘state the relative masses and charges of protons, neutrons and electrons understand what is meant by atomic (proton) number ane mass number explain the existence of iotopes / ‘eow that the nucleus contains protons and neutrons, and that the electrons are found inca series ‘of energy levels / worlcout the arrangement ofthe eleetrans inthe first 20 elements in the Periodic Table know that foretements in groups 1-7, the number of electrons n-the outer level isthe sare as the group number know that noble gases have full (or temporarily ful) outer levels. Questions You wil need to use the Periodic Tab dn page 226, 1 lucene stam: have & mass numb of 19. 4) Use the Periodic Table to fing the atomic number of Auorine, 1) xptain what mass number mans 6) ite down the number sf protons, nevironsand: electrons a Hucrne atom 4) Ors 3 diagraen to shou the arrangement of letrons in the fugnne stom, 2. Work out the numbers of protons, neutrons and electra in each ofthe flowing toms 56, 93 235, ne 8) hb oD 3 Chlorine has two topes, chlorine 35 and rine 37, a) Yat wre soropes? 1b) ne down ve rmbers of protons nevtrons anc electrons the fsa atopes 2) Wie down the artangerent ofthe alctonsin auch of the two topes 4 Draw diagrams to how the rangement of the electrons in ‘a sub) sis) sli, 5 Find cach of the ollousng elements in the Periodic Table and larite dein the number of electrons in their ter enegy level a) arene, sb) bromine Be) tin, Sn d) xenon Xe. at 16 The questions eter 1 the elecronie stares batow, Bot wong some of exe ate unfarilor ta you. All ofthese are ‘he dactonicstvetues of neta stom Aad 8288 © 28,1817 © 2818 158 £2882 F 28 1832,184 fa) Which ofthese atoms ar in group 4 ofthe Periodic Table? {) Which of these structures epresents carbon? ) Which of thera structures represen an element in group 7 the Periodic Table? sf) Which of these structures represent able gees? @) lame element E {How may protons does elamant F have? Name the slement. 9) Bement G has one more electron than element, Dewar slagram 19 show haw the electrons are aranged in an aka at GAT taal ema tial This chapter looks at what happens when atoms cambine togethor ~ “whether ita small groupe or into very fasge ones. xs eR Figure. Theale: and eRe Figure 3.2 (use he coral ifen ‘Seong tbe compos due CNone al) pope fo a element yee on oxen, cy ‘Sodium i dangerously reavtve metal, 1 store under oll to prevent i reacting with alt or water. Chlorine ia very Poisonous, reactive gos. ‘But sal, sodium chloride. s safe to cat in small quanitics. Combining the elements to make alt obviously changes ther significantly: Ammisture of trogen and oxygen gus would explxke viokenty if you Tl Highted mated 0 i, Dropping light mats inc ware (a compound of drogen aa oxygen} dosn't cause literally Earth-shat ering cposion, Reacting the somonts to makes compound has apain made a huge difrenset9 ‘hem. Covalent bonding ‘What is a covalent bond? In any bond, paritclos are eld togater by electrical attractions hetwwun someting ‘postive charg aed someting negstvely uarge. nat cowalenat bond, patra -loctrons is slur tien ipo atome, Fac of tke positively large ucla is aitfracted to the sxme negatively chargal pal of elevtrons. ‘Aca Ein Figure 2.3 are held together by his shared attraction, ruses Ate rule 82 sersees es Sesweieds ferro pale the decren pr 2 st of the spe arene ek retat GCSE each stam nae bard 3 & ‘pple ene cco he shad pt t ‘flecons Tat orem hee ia be the shared pu of electrons ‘ue Goh deeb may core fomn Me {ene tee ech ator) sarreame igre 24 in bd ChapterChapter 3: Figure 44 ot -sra fe agen H cl 3 i Figure 25 Cove banding in hep tend Warring? ALGCSE pepe requesy ak bottoms ning ttre ge ‘rutrer This nnerms! Avo! sng batt itis Covalent bonding in a hysirogen molecule Covalest bonds are fen shown using ‘dos-and-crusses dggrums. Although the electrons ane drawn as dats or as crosses there is absolutely ro liferenee betwen them i fealty. The sot and the ers spy show tut the elevtrons have some From two dierent azors. You could equally wal use awo different coloared cis. or ‘ovo diferent coloured roses Bont yore nucle in Eigure 3.4 are strongly attracted tothe shared par of lectroms The covalent bond beter fey hydrogen atoms wery strong: Hydrogen atoms ‘therefore go around in pairs calle hydzygen molecule, witli the symbol H, Molecules comtairia vertain tive number of atoms whict are joined tagether by cervaken bondls. Hytrogen molecules are sid to be dlatonaie because they contain tbroatloms, her sorts of molovale may have ws many as thoosanek of atonns ioined topetner Way docs hydengen for moles? Whenever a bond is formed (of whatever nd), energy is release. and that makes the things involved more stable than they wore before. The more bands am atom simon, the more energy ss elewsad and the more stable the system bowomes. Inthe case of Irdrogen. each Hyco stom hs ol ne elestron to Soar. si smanly fora eme covalent bond, The t, molecule i all muck morestable than hwo spurte hydrogen atoms, Covalent bonding in a hydrogen chloride molecule ‘ae chlorine ator as one untparod electron in ts outer ene, which it an share with the hyirogsn ator to praca coven bar Notcetn Figure 3.5 that only the electrons in he outer energy Te of the chlorine reused in boning. inthe examples you will meet at GESE the mer elstrons newer get ual In fact. the inner eloctoms are often left out of boraling dagrams But be careful! In an exam. only eave out the inner electrons ifthe question tll Theseniicance of mob pas siuctures in cowatent bonding, {you lnok atthe arrangement of electrons around the «iorineaiom the covalently bonded! moleule o€ HCL (Figure 3,5) you wil se zh te stracture is aw 2.88, That isthe sane sear argon atom. Sint bydrogen tow Tas 2 electrons ans outer level ~ the sae as Belin Does that moart that the hyeragen has tured into helhum. and the chlorine has furnad into argon? No —the umber of protons in each nucleus hast’t chum snd if isthe number of protons that defines wht am atom AC GCSE, formation of covalent bones producing noble ga structures quite ‘common. When atoms bond covsenily: they ten preuce over electric sHructures the same as noble gases in other words with four paso electrons ior fonmpair inthe case af Iyrogen). Thane are, homer ot of examples where fleet numbers of paisare formed. producing, structuresthat are quite unk rable pases,Covalent bonding in a chlorine molecule Each clirinelas one unpaired electron In ks outer energy level, These ure shared between the roto gta chlorine molecule, Ct, Covalent bonding in methane, ammonia and water “i Ae Se SES Figure 17 The alton sei afcaion, mage a ng tre ine, the carbon utorn hus four unpeired eleizons, Each of these forms Can how Shrine wilt Deco fom inception. Meany as (H) formula, terior oni asthe ie tonsa ca on fr - oc CG gS alge ate Cu (ec) ny Inwals. ther awivo upuralevimesoniheasensimvhincntond AR LE) REY ‘vith hydrogen atoms to give 10. (XY) we Chapter 3: Fige 28 buon \/ ee 39 Aeron Fite 310 ie Covalent bonding in a slightly more complicated molecule = ethane thar bas the formula CH, The bonding killa to methane (Figure 3) escent that there tu carbon-carbos oncalet home aswel as the carbort-draca bones, vo (w) G CKChapter 3: tthaneand ether are mga compounds ial yu il find ex ee att he Seceon Dots took You em ok ath fares yy ttl - eve one ‘fron eter in tenamecan mace Here. for asamp. ethane ad eee ae sone cree compounds Multiple covalent bonding Covalent bonding in an oxygen molecule - double bonding When atoms tond covalently they tnd todo 9 iv a-wy hat frame the masinarn umber of bonds That aks the tal oleae more sable Figure 2.124 shouts that fnming a single covalent tod between the two oxsgem. stom sill eacas un puted elvtrons. IF hese areshared as well as ns Figure 2.1.2), a more stable molecule fmt Fig 32 pgen eco with) sit cid ed 8) ha les Covalent double bonding in carbon dioxide, CO, ‘Twodouble bonds ate formed between the urban and the two onysens Figure: 3.13) This uses up all the unpaired dectrons The double bond in ethene, C,H, Exhone frre ethane om page 15, excep that I nly has two lsroget toons attached to cach sarbon atom, Fiewe 24 uthone The triple bond in a nitrogen molecule Taetriple bond fom theshaeingo thece pits of lavtrons Between therwonitogen toms is vor strong and mead aot of eneray to break. Nitrogen gas consis of nlsroent mele horde! Mets. "That is why ts rlttely uneeathe‘Ways of representing covalent bonds Apart from full dots and-crosses diagrams, covalent molecules cat ako be shows Inother ways, kn models ach link between the atoms resents covalent bond — ‘pair of shed elevtrons, * 8 * oo cHcAOH cH °, Fire 206 Macs of) ano ethene and) ye On pape, we often skp dotsand-roses diagrams hy lewving.ut the inne jdoctrons, You might lame out the etc as wll, ad nomi The oloetrons ‘ho outer energy loves, (yon enight draw’ each covalent bond! as straight Wine jotning tne atoms, Each line means a pair of shared electrons. In dlagrams of this sor, somotimss you drawe the non-boneling pats of electrons inthe outer level (culled ome pats) sometime ‘you leave them out Allahe diagrams in Eigure 7.17 show he cena honing in amenonis, Nil, showingshelenepsir. omit helene. gu 397 Carlo boning in armenia Ionic (electrovalent) bonding in coin ih hr shar i tb th i attacadrothe samectatron pu ‘tat emits it appenstht oneof the ators tet othe ton par tmush mere tong han the other on," ecron pai then ple ery lose to that stom, an aay rom tower ‘Ate lewtconesiofie elecron Ic Bhi tied anes elec ecomes pone charged becomes metal charged Sis porate electro i ‘ath lettre pulled conard Bs eof me bod Fig 89 Penta agai: ong In Faure 3.19 atom A hus. effet, ver its elocteom ti atomn Ir you ind eb conticing dons omy slbout 'a0much far nam The mparant "ung ate mcm ha you ean re ‘Seoroed- cts dager ora rahe ‘wr have been ohne. ore ha, a diagram any he aw tee na ators presto shuedekeoans +a coment hood You may ome seo the our vanaoone acm aes {hen dong yor catrse, bur sey el alas hv oxpsned sine A3B pirat elecrone ave hom ech) Fe 298 A onan ona In figare 118.0 has cone postely a ey postin chute protons bution one Birt charged beau hs ie anes rept een Chapter 3:Chapter 3: Thsisasingtisaon reality you dort Isic snd hoxine aka see hlorine wales, Bafa tre eeion taser can happen, eetgy hs tobe supplied nek the chine mates ot deltas Yu do fe, ae ‘a hess chore wo gett are Taveletrivally charged particle are called fom. An ir san tom Cor rou of atoms) which carries an elostrical veargs other poste ot negative © A posttw ion iscalled a cation. 6A newton cle an anion. Tonte bonding ishonting i which there has been a tamsr of ec trons on one tom fo seother to pode fons. The substace s eld together by som alectical arraetbnes batioun positive aid negative ions. onic bonding in sodium chloride ANY © y Tine single elearon inthe outer energy level ofthe sodium has been transfered to the chlorine. The sodium chloride ik! together by the strong. attraction between the sodium ion and the lore lon. (Notice that its clled a ehlorkde lon, not ‘ilorine ton.) Bye SS Figure 20 fr bc nar conde Overall. «lt of ener is giver out when this process happer— main due fo the ‘energy released when the strong banding betwoen the ions et up, You cam dau dots-smel crosses diagrams to shu tone Boning but rele ‘quicker, and tals up ane loss space, to write elactromie structures the fe 28.1 or 28,7 Na 28D Nav [zal dd 287 "ct past Figure 321 rote nay of erg nc ang sot hoe Ionic bonding in magnesium oxide Mg 262 Mgi al 0 26 <" "OF 28F Figure 222d: bering magne cide In this ease 0 elactrons ane aranstarred from The magraesuim 0 the oxygen ‘The two electrons in the outer enengy lewl af the magnesium are relatively easy 0 reno, andthe expen na enough spave in tsouter level to reveve them. More ‘energy given out thi tne, main due tote very. wry srongatirations betwose, the 2+ snl 2—lons—the higher the numberof charg. the stronger the attractions.“The significance of noble gas structures in ionic bonding Is you look atthe struchires ofthe ens formed in Figures 3.21 und 7.22, each of tem has. noble sas structure: 2.8 themeon structure. oF 2.8.8 (ke argon structure) You might therefore say tha omslase or gain elevtroms so that they Achieve « noble ga structure. Ths sue of the elements in Groups T and 2 of the Periods Table (orming 1+ and 2+ tons) ard fr those i Group ane 7 when they form 2-and 1—tons, asim all sheseexamples e's But there tre lot of commen for at don't awe noble gas iructures, Fe (, Z. Ag? and Ph areal ions thst you will some across rings GUSE ‘course although you won't Ie to write their elevirocstrvcttes, Not oneof ‘hem hast noble gus strusture, Other examples of fonic bonding, lorie hands are usualy ore yf small numbers of ele troms net be transferred typically 1 or 2. hr occasionally 5.1m cases where la fons produced would ae, sa. + change the situation israel as sine as tight appear at es sigh Urhiuin aoe u aD ow er Far pa Fig 324 eri in i “The liluen stom bias one electron i is outer nergy lve lat asl lot, ad ‘he uote bas ace to rece one, Lilatum Hucetde sek! togethor by the sons actions beta liam and Hyori tons Cleo chloride cd 2am. co pase 2882+" Eat" a 287" cr faaar gu 3.250 bog nao ne he eau bs ray level that are-eatively easy to sive cra, buat each clorine atom only has room in its outer level to take one of ‘hows You need two cherie for every one-caleum, Fhe formula for calcium -chlorideis hetefore CaC1, There will bewery strong atractions holding the ons together became of the 24 change on the calsiom ims vc elovtroms in ts Potasumoxtle K 288 K peasy © 26 oor pray kK aaah’ kK pase er 3.2 borden cate ie This time the oxyae has rom for two ectrons in its outer Level, but each potassium cam only supply one. Potassiuen exe's orrmala i therelore KO, Figure 4.23 Ao Fe = afin oe ale seamen! Chapter 3:Chapter 3: Figure 27 Nats ae nd hae nag eels ‘Warring Vinen they some ow ‘heey frame such stu Imequitons sadent whokmow about reac banding xrennes worry wher ‘hey shuld wate Ns Na Souyate Iearazame =a Thinking about the ‘truce or awoke number of lectene esc lanes the quire cf posive Change. Theta ara whole et mo ‘aan Metallic bonding Most metals ure hand and hiss hgh melting points, Ths supgests that the forces hang tk particles in the metal together are ery strong it Tara te Fighte 3.28 shows nha happens wchon sodlinen atoms ond 103 solid mata. The outer elewtron-on each sodiven soe becomes Trew me ‘inughout the whole structure, The electron sae sak oe elocallved. These sdovtrons ame no Tonge at fom oF yr of sos. Tnstead, you ‘sinthink of them as Bowing aroured throughout the whole rnetal, ud to pticubse 1. sodium tiom les it outer electron, that eaves bend a sadam ion. The ltration of eal postive ion to the deloalled elestrons hokds the structure together Metallic honing sometimes described st stray of pits ons ina ‘mea of lectrons Qasonn ag god oo Sgn POO9Q rps to shag Figure 28 Sun aca ei ag eacine eletrom In the case of sodium, only one clectton per storm is delovalised leaving tons wile ‘only one postixe chargeon them, The ions dan't pack very eile ester. The effect of the bonding in sodium is quite weak, as metals go. wich is why sodium i fan sof. with atow melting potnt fora meat By comtrast maignesium has tiso outer elocicoms hobo whi he ‘se’, leaving Behind ions that carey a charge of 24. 1 sleo pricks more efficiently Theresa much stromger tration betmen the more negative sea ad thw doubly charged tors, md sa the toneling is stranger an he melting poi sreater ‘Metals such as iron hare-even more outer eeviroms to delacalie, so the boning is stronger sil ‘You.can find out mace about metallic structures in Chapter 4