UNIT-II: Chemical Bonding 13 Hours 26 Marks

CHEMISTRY-II NOTES PREPARED BY Dr.
DHONDIBA VISHWANATH SURYAWANSHI, GFGC KR PURAM, BENGALURU-36
UNIT-II: Chemical bonding 13 Hours 26 Marks

Ionic bond: Lattice energy, Born-Haber cycle, Born-Lande equation (derivation not required,
problems on Born-Lande expression to be worked out). Calculation of lattice energies of NaCl
and MgO, effect of lattice energy on solubility of ionic compounds, Covalent bond: Valence
bond approach: hybridization and directional characteristics of sp, sp 2, sp3, sp2d, sp3d2. Shapes of
BeCl2, BF3, SiCl4, PCl5, SF6.VSEPR theory: shapes of CH4, NH3, NH4+, H2O, BrF3, ICl2-
.Molecular orbital theory: H2, He2+, Be2, N2, O2, O2-, O22-, O2+ and CO (bond order, stability and
magnetic properties to be discussed). Polarization concept, Fazan’s rule, bond length, bond angle
and bond energy, polar and non-polar molecules, dipole moment, Weak interactions: i).
Hydrogen bond: Intra molecular and Intermolecular types, anomalous properties of HF, H 2O,
NH3, alcohols, carboxylic acids, nitro phenols and bio molecules. ii) van der Waal’s forces:
Noble gases and molecular crystals (dry ice, Iodine and solid SO 2) Metallic bond: Band theory,
electrical properties of metals, semiconductors and insulators.
Chemical bonding: The force of attraction which holds the constituent atoms in a molecule
together is called chemical bond and the process is called chemical bonding.
Types of chemical bonds: Generally the following types of chemical bonds
1) Ionic or electrovalent bond

2) Covalent bond
3) Co-ordinate bond
4) Hydrogen bond
5) Van der Waal’s bond
6) Metallic bond
Ionic bond: The chemical bond formed between two atoms by the transfer of one or more
valence electrons from one atom to the other is called ionic bond or electrovalent bond. This
process of bonding is called ionic bonding or electrovalent bonding.
Examples:
a) Formation of ionic bond in NaCl molecule: Here Na (2,8,1) transfer its excess one
electron(valence electron) to Cl atom (2,8,7) and thus Na atom acquires the electronic
configuration of Ne(2,8) and Cl atom acquires the electronic configuration of Ar (2,8,8).
The electron lost by Na tom is accepted by Cl atom and consequently Na atom is
converted into a positive charged ion Na+(cation) and Cl atom is converted into a
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CHEMISTRY-II NOTES PREPARED BY Dr. DHONDIBA VISHWANATH SURYAWANSHI, GFGC KR PURAM, BENGALURU-36
negative ion Cl- (anion). The two ions thus formed attract each other by electrostatic
force of attraction which leads to the formation of an ionic or electrovalent bond between
Na and Cl atoms.
Na Na+ + e-
(2,8,1) (2,8)
-
Cl + e Cl-
(2,8,7) (2,8,8)
+ -
Na + Cl Na+ Cl-
(2,8) (2,8,8) Ionic bond
b) Formation of ionic bond in MgO molecule: Here Mg (2,8,2) transfer its excess two
electrons(valence electrons) to O atom (2,6) and thus both Mg and O atoms acquires the
electronic configuration of Ne (2,8). The electrons lost by Mg atom are accepted by O
atom and consequently Mg atom is converted into a positive charged ion Mg2+ (cation)
and O atom is converted into a negative ion O2- (anion). The two ions thus formed, attract
each other by electrostatic force of attraction which leads to the formation of an ionic or
electrovalent bond between Mg and O atoms.
Mg Mg2+ + 2e-
(2,8,2) (2,8)
-
O + 2e O2-
(2,6) (2,8)
2+ 2-
Mg + O Mg2+ O2-
(2,8) (2,8) Ionic bond
Lattice energy: Amount of energy released when one mole of ionic solid formed from its free
(isolated) gaseous ions brought from infinite distance to their respective equilibrium sites called
lattice energy of that solid. Lattice energy is represented by U and it is measured in terms of KJ
mol-1.
For example,
Na+ + Cl- Na+ Cl- U = -770 KJ mol-1
Mg2+ + O2- Mg2+ O2- U = -3745.8 KJ mol-1
Lattice energy cannot be calculated, theoretically. But it can be determined using Born –
Haber cycle practically.
For example,
1) Determination of lattice energy of sodium chloride by Born – Haber cycle-
Born –Haber cycle for formation of lattice energy can be given below.
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
f
Na
(s) + 1
2 Cl 2
(g) -399.5kj
NaCl
(s)
108kj  s
1

2 d
121.5kj -770kj
Na Cl
(g) (g) U
496kj E.A.
I.E.
-355kj
+ -
Na
(g)
+ Cl
(g)
Formation of NaCl solid in Born – Haber cycle involved following steps.
i) Formation of solid NaCl crystal:- One mole of sodium chloride is formed
from its elements, the amount of energy evolved called enthalpy of formation.
+ 
1
Na Cl2 NaCl
(s) 2
(g) (s) f = -399.5kj
ii) Sublimation of sodium: Amount of energy required to convert solid sodium
into gaseous sodium.
Na Na  108 kj
(s) (g) s =
iii) Ionization energy of sodium: Amount of energy required to convert Na to Na +
+ -
Na Na e I.E. = 496 kj
(g) (g)
iv) Dissociation energy of chlorine molecule: Amount of energy required to
dissociate chlorine molecule to chloride element
Cl2 2 Cl 1 d = 121.5 kj
(g) (g) 2
v) Electron affinity of chlorine: Amount of energy released to convert Cl to Cl-

- -
(g)+
Cl e Cl E.A. = -355 kj
(g)
vi) Combination of ions: Na+ (g) and Cl- (g) ions combine to form NaCl (s) crystal.
+ - + -
Na Cl Na Cl U =?
(g) (g) (s)
Lattice energy in above steps can be calculated as
ΔHf = ΔHs + I.E. + 1

2 Δds + E.A + U
 U = ΔHf - ΔHs - I.E. - 1

2 Δds - E.A
= -399.5 kj -108 kj – 496 kj – 121.5 kj – (-355 kj)
U = -770 kj / mol
2) Determination of lattice energy of magnesium oxide (MgO) by Born – Haber cycle-
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Born –Haber cycle for formation of lattice energy can be given below.
1 f
Mg
(s) + 2 O2
(g) -601.7kj
MgO
(s)
1
147.7 kj 2 d
s
249.4 kj
Mg O
(g) (g)
737 kj E.A1 -2341.8kj
I.E 1
-142 kj
+ -
Mg
(g)
+ O
(g)
U
E.A2
1450 kj I.E 2
-702 kj
2+ 2-
Mg
(g)
+ O
(g)
Formation of MgO solid in Born – Haber cycle involved following steps.
i) Formation of solid MgO crystal:- One mole of magnesium oxide is
formed from its elements, the amount of energy evolved called
enthalpy of formation.
+ 
1
Mg O2 MgO
(s) 2
(g) (s) f = - 601.7 kj
ii) Sublimation of magnesium: Amount of energy required to convert
solid magnesium into gaseous magnesium.
Mg Mg  = 147.7 kj
(s) (g) s
iii) First ionization energy of magnesium: Amount of energy required to
convert Mg to Mg+
+ -
Mg Mg
(g) (g) + e I.E 1 = 737 kj
iv) Second ionization energy of magnesium: Amount of energy required

to convert Mg+ to Mg2+
+ 2+ -
Mg
(g)
Mg
(g) + e I.E 2 = 1450 kj
v) Dissociation energy of oxygen molecule: Amount of energy required

to dissociate oxygen molecule to oxygen element
O2 2O 1 d = 249.4 kj
(g) (g) 2
vi) First electron affinity of oxygen: Amount of energy released to convert

O to O-
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- -
O
(g)
+e O
(g)
E.A1 = -142 kj
vii) Second electron affinity of oxygen: Amount of energy released to

convert O- to O2-
- - 2-
O
(g)
+ e O
(g)
E.A2 = -702 kj
viii) Combination of ions: Mg2+ (g) and O2- (g) ions combine to form
Mg2+O2- (s) crystal.
2+ 2- 2+ 2-
Mg
(g) + O
(g)
Mg O
(s)
U =?
Lattice energy in above steps can be calculated as
ΔHf = ΔHs + I.E1 +I.E2 + 1

2 Δds + E.A1 + E.A2 + U
 U = ΔHf - ΔHS - I.E1 -I.E2 - 1

2 Δds - E.A1 - E.A2
= -601.7 kj -147.7 kj-737 kj – 1450 kj – 249.4 kj – (-142 kj) – (-702) kj
U = -2341.8 kj / mol
Born – Lande equation: Theoretical value for lattice energy can be calculated by Born – Lande
equation by assuming that ions of the solid is perfectly spherical in shape and they having
definite geometry of the solid. Finally a equation is given by Born – Lande for lattice energy.
NA AZ + Z − e2 1
U= (1− )
4πε0 r0 n
Where, 𝑁𝐴 = Avogadro’s number = 6.023 x 1023
A = Madelung constant which depends on structure of crystal
Z+ = Charge on cation
Z- = Charge on anion
e = electronic charge = 1.602 x 10-19 C
ε0 = Permittivity of medium = 8.854 x 10-12 C2m-1 j-1
r0 = Inter-ionic distance at equilibrium
n = Born exponent which depends on type of ions
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Problems:
1) Calculate the lattice energy of NaCl using Born –Lande equation, given that
A=1.748, 𝐫𝟎 = 0.281 nm and n = 8
Solution: Given that, A=1.748, r0 = 0.281 nm and n = 8, U=?
We know that,
NA AZ + Z − e2 1
U= (1− )
4πε0 r0 n
For NaCl, Z+ = +1, Z- =-1, e = 1.602 x 10-19 C, ε0 = 8.854 x 10-12 C2m-1 j-1
2
6.023 x 1023 x 1.748x (+1)(−1) (1.602 x 10−19 C) 1
U = −9 (1−8)
4(3.142)(8.854 x 10−2 c2m−1 j−1 ) (0.281x10 m)
= - 0.7559 x 106 j
= -0.7559 x 1000x1000 j mol-1
U = - 755.9kjmol-1
2) Calculate the lattice energy of MgO using Born –Lande equation, given that
A=1.748, 𝐫𝟎 = 2.106 𝑨𝟎 and n = 7
Solution: Given that, A=1.748, r0 = 2.106 A0 and n = 7, U=?
We know that,
NA AZ + Z − e2 1
U= (1− )
4πε0 r0 n
For MgO, Z+ = +2, Z- =-2, e = 1.602 x 10-19 C, ε0 = 8.854 x 10-12 C2m-1 j-1
2
6.023 x 1023 x 1.748x (+2)(−2) (1.602 x 10−19 C) 1
U = −10 (1−8)
4(3.142)(8.854 x 10−2 c2m−1 j−1) (2.106x10 m)
= - 3.9524 x 106 j
= -3.9524 x 1000x1000 j mol-1
U = - 3952.4kjmol-1
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Properties of ionic compounds:
1) Ionic compounds are stable, have high melting and boiling points.
2) They are hard and brittle
3) They are good conductors of electricity in the molten state and in aqueous solution
4) They are soluble in polar solvents such as water, ammonia, and insoluble in non – polar
solvents like benzene, toluene, etc.
5) Ions of ionic compound is responsible for chemical reactions
6) Lattice points of ionic compound are occupied by their ions.
Effect of lattice energy on solubility of ionic compounds: When an ionic solid goes into
solution, its crystal lattice gets ruptured. The ions which occupied certain fixed positions in the
crystal now move farther apart in the solution. There is a strong interaction between the solvent
and the ions resulting in the solvation of the ions. If water is the solvent, the process is called
hydration of the ions. The ionic solvation or hydration is an exothermic process releasing a lot of
energy. It is this energy which is utilized in causing rupture of the crystal lattice. The liquids
which cause solvation of ions and are therefore, good solvents for ionic solids, have high
dielectric constants. Therefore higher the dielectric constant for solvent, lower the lattice energy
for the ionic compound, higher the solubility of the compounds.
Covalent bond: The chemical bond is formed between two atoms by sharing the pair of
electrons. Both bonding pair of electrons contributed by each atom is called covalent bond.
Examples, formation of covalent bond between hydrogen molecule:
H + H H H OR H H
Formation of covalent bond can be explained by using two theories
1) Valence bond theory(VBT)

2) Molecular orbital theory (MOT)
Valence bond theory: This theory was proposed by Heitler and London later exteneded by
Pauling and Slater. According to them
1) A covalent bond is formed when the orbital of one atom overlaps with the orbital of
another atom, each of them containing one unpaired electron.
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2) The two electrons involved in bond formation must have opposite spins. If these electrons
have parallel spins, repulsion takes place and no bond formation is possible.
3) The overlapping orbitals must have appropriate symmestry about the molecular axis for
forming a bond.
4) Stable molecule is formed when there is decrease in the potential energy of the
molecules
5) When atomic orbitals of the two atoms overlap the electrons density between the two
nuclei increases.
6) If the atoms more than one unpaired electron, multiple bond formation is possible.
7) The number of covalent bonds formed by an atom is equal to the number of unpaired
electrons it has.
8) The strength of the bond is proportional to the extent of the overlapping of the two atomic
orbitals
9) Only valence orbitals are participate in the bond formation
10) Strength of the bond formation in order of overlapping p – p > s-p > s –s
Overlap of orbitals: When two atoms approach each other, there is partial merging of the two
bonding atomic orbitals is known as overlapping of orbitals. Strength of the bond is depends on
extent of overlapping of atomic orbitals.
Types of covalent bonds: Depending upon the type of atomic orbitals overlap, the covalent
bonds are divided into two types.
a) Sigma bond: A bond is formed by end to end or face to face overlap of atomic orbitals
along the molecular axis takes place called sigma (𝜎) bond. This is also known as axial or
head to head overlapping.
Sigma bond formed by S-S, S-P, P-P overlap along the axis
S-S overlapping: Two half – field s orbitals overlap along the nuclear axis to form s-s
overlapping.
+
s-orbital s-orbital s-s overlapping
H H H H
S-P overlapping: One half field s-orbital and another half field p-orbital overlaps along the
nuclear axis to form s-p overlapping.
+
s-orbital p-orbital s-p overlapping
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P-P overlapping: One half field p-orbital and another half field p-orbital overlaps along the
nuclear axis to form p-p overlapping.
+
p-orbital p-orbital p-p overlapping
b) Pi (π) bond: A bond is formed by sideways or lateral overlapping of two half field atomic
orbitals is called pi (π) bond. The p orbitals lying perpendicular to the molecular axis
overlap.
p-orbital p-orbital p-p overlapping

Differences between sigma bond and pi bond:
Sigma bond Pi bond
i) It is formed by end to end or i) It is formed by sideways or
face to face overlapping of lateral overlapping of atomic
atomic orbitals orbitals
ii) Here overlap is large, hence the ii) Here overlap is small, hence the
bond is strong bond is weak
iii) It is symmetrical about the bond iii) It is not symmetrical about the bond
axis axis
iv) It is exist alone or with pi bond iv) It cannot exist alone, it is formed after
sigma bond
v) It is formed by participation of v) It is not formed by participation of s-
s-orbital orbital
vi) It is directional vi) It is non directional
Hybridization: A phenomenon in which mixing of two or more atomic orbitals nearly

same energy each other to form a new orbital with equivalent energy called hybrid
orbitals. The formation of hybrid orbitals called hybridization.
Rule for formation of hybridization:
1) it is used to formation of molecule
2) Mixing of atomic orbitals must have same energy
3) Number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to number of atomic orbitals mix
4) The shape of hybrid orbitals is different from shape of atomic orbitals
5) The shape of molecule is based on number of outer atomic orbitals are mixed. The
following table shows the type of hybridization and structure of molecule.
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No. of outer Shape of molecule Types of Bond angle in the

orbitals mixing hybridization molecule
2 Linear SP(Ex. -BeCl2) 1800
3 Plane triangular SP2(Ex. –BF3) 1200
4 Tetrahedral SP (Ex. –SiCl4)
3
109028’
5 Trigonal SP3d(Ex. –PCl5) 900, 1200
bipyramidal
6 Octahedral SP3 d2 (Ex. –SF6) 900
Types of hybridization: Based on the type of atomic orbitals mixed, hybridizations

are classified into following types
1) SP –Hybridization: A phenomenon in which mixing of one s-orbital and one p-
orbital mixed with each other to form new orbital havibg equivalent energy called
sp-hybrid orbitals and the process is called sp-hybridization
Explanation of sp-hybridization by taking BeCl2 as an example: Formation of
sp – hybrid orbitals and geometry (shape) of BeCl2 can be explained using
following points.
2S 2P
i) Electronic configaration of Be = 4 =[He]
in ground state
2S 2P
ii) Electronic configaration of Be = 4 =[He]
in excited state
2P
iii) Electronic configuration of sp =[He]
hybrid orbitals sp -hybrid Unhybrid orbitals
orbitals
iv) Shape of Be hybrid orbital

y y Small lobe
Large lobe
x
+ x
z 1800
z 2p x -orbital
2s - orbital
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v) Shape of BeCl molecule y y

2 y
y
x x
x + x + x
z z
z
z sp - hybrid orbitals
p -orbital Be atom
p -orbital 1800
of chlorine atom Cl Be Cl
of chlorine atom
Linear shape of
BeCl 2 molecule
In Beryllium chloride, the electronic configuration of Be in excited is 1s2 2s12p1. These half field 2s orbital
and half field 2p orbital mixed to each other to form sp hybridization. These sp hybrid orbitals directed
to two different directions to form linear shape with 1800 bond angle. These two half filled orbitals
overlaps with two half filled p orbitals of two chlorine atom to for two sigma bonds
2) SP2 –Hybridization: A phenomenon in which mixing of one s-orbital and two p-

orbital mixed with each other to form new orbital having equivalent energy called
sp2-hybrid orbitals and the process is called sp2-hybridization
Explanation of sp2-hybridization by taking BF3 as an example: Formation of
sp2 – hybrid orbitals and geometry (shape) of BF3 can be explained using
following points.
2S 2P
i) Electronic configaration of B = 5 =[He]
in ground state
2S 2P
ii) Electronic configaration of B = 5 =[He]
in excited state
2
2P
hybrid orbitals 2
sp -hybrid Unhybrid orbitals
orbitals
iv) Shape of B hybrid orbital y Small lobe

Large lobe
y y
+ x + x
x
z z
z 2p x -orbital 1200
2s - orbital
Hybrid orbitals of B
2p y -orbital
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v) Shape of BF 3 molecule
x
y y
y
z z
p -orbital y
of fluorine atom
+
y z
y
z
+ + x
F
x
2
sp hybrid 1200
z B
orbitals of B z F
p -orbital F
p -orbital
of fluorine atom of fluorine atom Plane triangular
In Boron trifluoride, the electronic configuration of B in excited is 1s2 2s12px12py1. These half field one 2s
orbital and two half field 2p orbitals mixed to each other to form sp3 hybridization. These sp3 hybrid
orbitals directed to three different directions to form plane triangular shape with 1200 bond angle.
These three half filled orbitals overlap with three half filled p orbitals of three fluorine atoms to form
three sigma bonds.
3) SP3 –Hybridization: A phenomenon in which mixing of one s-orbital and three

p-orbital mixed with each other to form new orbital having equivalent energy
called sp3-hybrid orbitals and the process is called sp3-hybridization
Explanation of sp3-hybridization by taking SiCl4 as an example: Formation of
sp3 – hybrid orbitals and geometry (shape) of SiCl4 can be explained using
following points.
2S 2P
i) Electronic configaration of Si = 14 =[Ne]
in ground state
2S 2P
ii) Electronic configaration of Si = 14 =[Ne]
in excited state
3
2P
iii) Electronic configuration of sp =[Ne]
hybrid orbitals 3
sp -hybrid
orbitals
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iv) Shape of Si hybrid orbital y

y Small lobe
y y Large lobe
1090 28'
+ x + x + x
x
z z z
z 2p x -orbital
2s - orbital
Hybrid orbitals of Si
2p z-orbital
2p y -orbital
v) Shape of SiCl 4 molecule

x
y y
y
z z
p -orbital y
of chlorine atom
+
y s
z
y
z y
+ + x z Cl
x
3
sp hybrid
z z Si
1090 28'
p -orbital orbitals of Si
of chlorine atom + p -orbital
of chlorine atom Cl
x Cl Cl
Tetrahedral
y
z
p -orbital
of chlorine atom
In Silicon tetrachloride, the electronic configuration of Si in excited is 3s13px13py13pz1 . These half field
one 3s orbital and three half field 3p orbitals mixed to each other to form sp3 hybridization. These sp3
hybrid orbitals directed to four different directions to form tetrahedral shape with 109028’ bond angle.
These four half filled orbitals overlap with four half filled p orbitals of four chlorine atoms to form four
sigma bonds.
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4) SP3d –Hybridization: A phenomenon in which mixing of one s-orbital three p-

orbital and one d-orbital mixed with each other to form new orbital having
equivalent energy called sp3d-hybrid orbitals and the process is called dsp3-
hybridization
Explanation of sp3d-hybridization by taking PCl5 as an example: Formation
of sp3d– hybrid orbitals and geometry (shape) of PCl5 can be explained using
following points.
3S 3P 3d
i) Electronic configaration of P = 15 =[Ne]
in ground state
3S 3P 3d
ii) Electronic configaration of P = 15 =[Ne]
in excited state
3
iii) Electronic configuration of sp d =[Ne]
hybrid orbitals 3
sp d -hybrid Unhybrid 3d -orbitals
orbitals
iv) Shape of P hybrid orbital y

y y
+ x + x Large lobe
x
z z
z 3p x -orbital
3s - orbital 3p y -orbital
y Small lobe
y
x
+ x + Hybrid orbitals of P
z
3p z-orbital 3dx2- y2
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v) Shape of PCl 5 molecule

x
z
p -orbital y
y
y of chlorine atom
+ x
y
y x
+ z y
x + z
p -orbital z
z of chlorine atom
p -orbital
of chlorine atom 3
s
sp d hybrid z
y
orbitals of P + z y
x
+
x z
y
z Cl
Cl
p -orbital
z of chlorine atom
p -orbital Cl P
of chlorine atom Cl
Cl
1200, 900
Triangular bipyramidal
In phosphorous pentachloride, the electronic configuration of P in excited is 3s13px13py13pz1 d1x2-y2. These

half field one 3s orbital, three half field 3p orbitals and one 3d orbitals mixed to each other to form sp3d1
hybridization. These sp3d1 hybrid orbitals directed to five different directions to form trigonal
bipyramidal shape with 1200 and 900 bond angle. These five half filled orbitals overlap with five half
filled p orbitals of four chlorine atoms to form five sigma bonds.
1) SP3d2 –Hybridization: A phenomenon in which mixing of one s-orbital, three

p-orbital and two d-orbital mixed with each other to form new orbital having
equivalent energy called sp3d2-hybrid orbitals and the process is called sp3d2-
hybridization
Explanation of sp3d2-hybridization by taking SF6 as an example: Formation of
sp3d2 – hybrid orbitals and geometry (shape) of PCl5 can be explained using
following points.
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3S 3P 3d
i) Electronic configaration of S = 16 =[Ne]
in ground state
3S 3P 3d
ii) Electronic configaration of S = 16 =[Ne]
in excited state
3 2
iii) Electronic configuration of sp d =[Ne]
hybrid orbitals 3 2
sp d -hybrid Unhybrid 3d -orbitals
orbitals
iv) Shape of S hybrid orbital y

y y
+ x + x
x
z z
z 3p x -orbital
3s - orbital 3p y -orbital
y y z
x
+ x + + y
z Hybrid orbitals of S
3p z-orbital 3dx2- y2 3dy2- z2
Page 16 of 51
v) Shape of SF 6 molecule
x
z y
p -orbital y
y
y of flourine atom
+ x
z y
+ x
y y
x + z
p -orbital
z z
z
z of flourine atom
p -orbital
of flourine atom
y s
3 2
sp d hybrid
x
orbitals of P + z z y
x
z
y + y + z
p -orbital
of flourine atom F
z
z F F
p -orbital
of flourine atom p -orbital S
of flourine atom
F F
900 , 720
Octahedral
In sulphur hexafluoride, the electronic configuration of P in excited is 3s13px13py13pz1 d1x2-y2, d1y2-z2 These
half field one 3s orbital, three half field 3p orbitals and two 3d orbitals mixed to each other to form sp3d2
hybridization. These sp3d2 hybrid orbitals directed to six different directions to form octahedral shape
with 720 and 900 bond angle. These six half filled orbitals overlap with six half filled p orbitals of three
fluorine atoms to form six sigma bonds.
Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory: This theory was proposed by sigwick
and Powell, and later developed by Gillespie and Nyholm. According to this theory, the shape of
the molecule or ion depends on the number and nature of electron pairs surrounding the central
atom in molecule or ion. Some molecules contain lone pair of electrons in addition to bond pair
of electrons.
The geometry of the molecule is distorted due to presence of lone pair of electrons (lp). If only
bond pair of electrons (bp) is present, the molecule has regular shape.
As the number of lone pair of electrons increases, electrostatic repulsion increases deviation from
the regular shape also increases.
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The order of repulsion is (lp – lp) > (lp – bp) > (bp – bp). Bond angle decreases due to repulsion.
Shape of the methane molecule (CH4): Shape of the methane molecule can be explained based
on the following points.
3S 3P
i) Electronic configaration of C = 6 =[He]
in ground state
3S 3P
ii) Electronic configaration of C = 6 =[He]
in excited state
3
hybrid orbitals 3
sp -hybrid
orbitals
0
C 109 28'
H H
H
Tetrahedral structure
As there is no lone pair of electrons, the shape is not distorted. In methane, carbon atom is sp3
hybridized. Hence the shape of methane is tetrahedral.
Shape of the ammonia molecule (NH3): Shape of the ammonia molecule can be explained
based on the following points.
3S 3P
i) Electronic configaration of N = 7 =[He]
in ground state
3S 3P
ii) Electronic configaration of N = 7 =[He]
in excited state
3
hybrid orbitals 3
sp -hybrid
orbitals
0
N 107 28'
H H
H
Distarted Tetrahedral structure ,
Page 18 of 51
It undergoes sp3 hybridization. Three sp3 hybrid orbitals contain one electron each and sp3 hybrid orbital
contains paired electrons. Three sp3 hybrid orbitals of nitrogen overlap with s- orbital of hydrogen atoms
to form 3 N-H sigma bonds. Fourth sp3 hybrid orbital contain lone pair of electrons. Since nitrogen
undergoes sp3 hybridization, the shape of NH3 molecule should be tetrahedral with bond angle 1090 28’.
Due to presence of one lone pair of electrons, the shape is distorted to pyramidal shape with bond angle
107028’.
Shape of the ammonium ion (NH4+): Shape of the ammonium ion can be explained based on
the following points.
3S 3P
i) Electronic configaration of N = 7 =[He]
in ground state
3S 3P
+
ii) Electronic configaration of N = 6 =[He]
in excited state
3
hybrid orbitals 3
sp -hybrid
orbitals
+ 0
N 109 28'
H H
H
Tetrahedral structure
In NH4+ ion, lone pair of electrons on nitrogen atom is absent. H + ion take that lone pair of electron to
form coordinate bond. The geometry is tetrahedral. The bond angle is 1090 28’. Due to absence of lone
pair of electrons, the shape is not distorted.
Shape of the water molecule (H2O): Shape of the water molecule can be explained based on the
following points.
Page 19 of 51
3S 3P
i) Electronic configaration of O = 8 =[He]
in ground state
3S 3P
ii) Electronic configaration of O = 8 =[He]
in excited state
3
hybrid orbitals 3
sp -hybrid
orbitals
3
iv) Shape of sp hybrid oxygen atom =
Lp -Lp repulsion
iv) Shape of water molecule =

Lp-Bp
O
H
H
O
H H
Oxygen (Z=8) has electronic configuration 1s2 2s2 2p4 oxygen undergoes sp3 hybridisation. Two
sp3 hybrid orbitals containing one electron overlap with s-orbital of H atoms to form two O-H sigma
binds. Other two sp3 hybrid orbitals contain lone pair of electrons. Due to presence of two lone pair of
electrons, the tetrahedral shape is distorted to V-shape and bond angle is changed from 1090 28’ to
1050 28’.
Shape of the bromium trifluoride molecule (BrF3): Shape of the BrF3 molecule can be
explained based on the following points.
Page 20 of 51
4S 4P 4d
10
i) Electronic configaration of Br = 35 =[Ar]3d
in ground state
4S 4P 4d
10
ii) Electronic configaration of Br = 35 =[Ar]3d
in excited state
3 10
iii) Electronic configuration of sp d =[Ar]3d
hybrid orbitals 3
sp d -hybrid
orbitals
3
iv) Shape of sp d hybrid Br atom =
Br
iv) Shape of BrF 3 molecule =
Br
Lp-Lp
Lp-Bp
Br F
In excited state, one of the paired electrons gets unpaired and one electron is shifted to empty d
orbital and there are three unpaired electrons. Bromine atom undergoes sp3d hybridization. The shape
of sp3d hybrid orbitals is trigonal bipyramidal. Due to presence of two lone pair of electrons, the shape is
distorted to T-shape.
Page 21 of 51
Shape of the iodine dichloride anion (ICl2-): Shape of the ICl2- ion can be explained based on
the following points
5S 5P 5d
-
i) Electronic configaration of I = 54 =[Kr]
in ground state
5S 5P 5d
-
ii) Electronic configaration of I = 54 =[Kr]
in excited state
3 10
iii) Electronic configuration of sp d =[Ar]3d
hybrid orbitals 3
sp d -hybrid
orbitals
3 -
iv) Shape of sp d hybrid I ion =
-
I
- Cl
iv) Shape of ICl 2 ion =
-
I
Lp-Lp
Lp-Bp
Cl
Cl
I-
Cl
Iodine takes one electron and becomes iodide ion which has 6 electrons in p orbitals.
I(5s25p5) + e I(5s25p6)
Page 22 of 51
In excited state, one of the paired electrons gets unpaired and one electron is shifted to empty d orbital
and there are two unpaired electrons. Iodide ion undergo sp3 d hybridization. Due to presence of three
lone pair of pair of electrons, the shape is distorted from trigonal bipyramidal to linear shape.
Molecular orbital theory (MOT): Molecular orbital theory can be explained by using following
points.
1. When nuclei of two atoms come close to each other, their atomic orbitals overlap leading
to the formation of molecular orbitals. The atomic orbitals of atoms in molecules lose
completely their identity after the formation of molecular orbitals.
2. Each molecular orbital is described by a wave function .
3. The molecular orbital wave function has no significance, but represents the probable
density or electron charge density.
4. Each molecular orbital wave function is associated with a set of quantum numbers which
determine the energy and shape of the molecular orbital.
5. Each wave function is associated with definite energy value and total energy of the
molecule is the sum of energies of occupied molecular orbitals.
6. Electrons are filled in various molecular orbitals according to Pauli’s exclusion principle,
Hund’s rule and Aufbau principle.
7. Electron in molecular orbital belongs to all the nuclei present in the molecule.
8. Each electron moving in a molecular orbital has a spin of +1/2 or -1/2
Linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) method:
A linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) is quantum superposition of atomic

orbitals and a technique for calculating molecular orbitals in quantum chemistry. In quantum
mechanics, electron configurations of atoms are described as wave functions. In mathematical
sense, these wave functions are the basic set of functions, the basic functions, which describe the
electrons of a given atom. In chemical reactions, orbital wave functions are modified, i.e., the
electron cloud shape is changed, according to the type of atoms participating on the chemical
bond.
It was introduced in 1929 by sir John Lennard with the description of bonding in the
diatomic molecules of the first main row of the periodic table, but had been used earlier by Linus
pauling for H2 .
Molecular orbitals in a molecule are obtained by the combination of atomic orbitals of

the bonded atoms. The linear combination of two atomic orbital wave functions is brought about
either by adding or by subtracting the two wave functions of two atomic orbitals. If Ψ is the
wave function of molecular orbital obtained from atomic orbitals with a wave functions 𝜓𝐴
and 𝜓𝐵 , then 𝜓 = 𝜓𝐴 ± 𝜓𝐵 − − − − − − − (1)
Page 23 of 51
Linear combination of 𝜓𝐴 and 𝜓𝐵 gives two molecular orbitals. One of them is represented as
∗
𝜓𝐴𝐵 or 𝜓𝑏 and other as 𝜓𝐴𝐵 or 𝜓 ∗
𝜓𝐴𝐵 or 𝜓𝑏 = 𝜓𝐴 + 𝜓𝐵 ----------------(2)
∗
𝜓𝐴𝐵 or 𝜓 ∗ = 𝜓𝐴 − 𝜓𝐵 ---------------(3)
𝜓𝐴𝐵 or 𝜓𝑏 has lower energy than two atomic orbitals from which it is formed. Electron in this
molecular orbital leads to the formation of stable molecule AB and is called bonding molecular
∗
orbitl(BMO). Th other molecular orbital 𝜓𝐴𝐵 or 𝜓 ∗ has higher energy than atomic orbitals and
called anti-bonding molecular orbital (ABMO). The number of molecular orbitals generated is
equal to the number of atomic orbitals involved.
ABMO
Energy
AO AO
BMO
Positive sign in equation -2 indicates that 𝜓𝑏 molecular orbital is obtained when the regions
of atomic orbitals marked with positive signs overlap with each other. On the other hand
negative sign in equation-3 indicates that 𝜓 ∗ is obtained when the regions of positive sign of one
atomic orbital 𝜓𝐴 overlaps with region of negative sign of other atomic orbital𝜓𝐵
In BMO, electron charge density is concentrated in the region between the two nuclei than in
individual atomic orbitals
In ABMO, electron charge density not concentrated in the region between the two nuclei and
is more in individual atomic orbitals. Thus electronic increases and bonding is not possible.
When electrons are present in BMO repulsion is minimum and bonding between atoms is
possible. The molecule is stable.
Formation of molecular orbitals from atomic orbitals:
1) s – s overlapping: Positive regions are overlapped to form BMO
Page 24 of 51
Additive of wave
+ + + +
function
1s 1s BMO
Positive and negative regions are overlapped to form ABMO
Subtractive of wave
++ -
+ + -
function
1s 1s ABMO
2) px – px overlapping: The axial overlap of p – orbitals leads to the formation of sigma

type molecular orbitals, when the lobes of same sign are overlapped , bonding molecular
orbital is formed, when the lobes of opposite signs overlap, anti-bonding molecular
orbital is formed.
Additive of wave
- - -
-+ + + +
function
px px BMO
Subtractive of wave
- + - +
- + -
++ +
function
ABMO
px px
3) Py - Py or Pz - Pz overlapping: P- orbitals can also overlap sidewise to form π type of

molecular orbitals. When the lobes of same sign are overlapped, bonding molecular
orbital is formed. When the lobes of opposite signs overlap, anti-bonding molecular
orbital is formed.
+ +
Additive wave +
+
function
- - -
Py or Pz Py or Pz BMO
Page 25 of 51
+ -
Subtractive wave + -
+
function
- + - +
Py or Pz Py or Pz ABMO
Difference between bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals
Bonding molecular orbital(BMO) Anti-bonding molecular orbital(ABMO)

1) It is formed by addition overlap of 1) It is formed by subtraction overlap of
atomic orbitals atomic orbitals
2) It has lower energy than atomic orbitals 2) It has higher energy than atomic
from which formed orbitals from which formed
3) Electron density between the nuclei is 3) Electron density between the nuclei is
high very low
4) It favours the formation of bond 4) It not favours the formation of bond
5) It is stable 5) It is not stable
General electronic configuration, energy level diagram, stability and magnetic properties of
molecule on the basis of MOT:
1) General electronic configuration

a) Molecules up to N2( Number of electrons ≤ 14)
2
σ1s2 σ∗ 1s2 σ2s 2 σ∗ 2s 2 π2py 2 = π2pz 2 σ2pz 2 π∗ 2py = π∗ 2pz 2 σ∗ pz 2
b) Molecules beyond N2( Number of electrons ≥ 14 i.e. O2 and onwards)
2
σ1s 2 σ∗ 1s2 σ2s 2 σ∗ 2s2 σ2pz 2 π2py 2 = π2pz 2 π∗ 2py = π∗ 2pz 2 σ∗ pz 2
2) General energy level diagram

a) Molecules up to N2( Number of electrons ≤ 14)
Page 26 of 51
*
2p z
* *
 2p x  2p y
2p 2p
 2p
z
 px 2p y
Energy
Energy
 *2s
2s 2s
 2s
 *1s
1s 1s
 1s
No. of electrons up to 14
b) Molecules beyond N2( Number of electrons ≥ 14 i.e. O2 and onwards)
Page 27 of 51
*
2p z
* *
 2p x  2p y
2p 2p
 px 2p y
 2p
z
Energy
 *2s
Energy
2s 2s
 2s
 *1s
1s 1s
 1s
No. of electrons beyond 14
3) Bond order: Half of the difference between number of electrons present in bonding
molecular orbital and number of electrons present in anti bonding molecular orbital is
called bond order.
Mathematically,
Nb - Na Where, N b = No. of electrons in bonding molecular orbital
B.O = N a = No. of electrons in antibonding molecular orbital
2
4) Stability: i) If B.O. is +ve then the molecule is stable. ii) If B.O. is -ve then the molecule
is unstable and iii) If B.O. is zero then the molecule is not exist.
5) Magnetic properties: If in electronic configuration of molecule contains one or more
unpaired electrons, they attract magnetic field when it placed in magnetic field called
paramagnetic in nature. Where as if in electronic configuration of molecule contains no
unpaired electrons, they do not attract magnetic field when it placed in magnetic field
called diamagnetic in nature.
Write the electronic configuration, energy level diagram, stability and magnetic
properties of hydrogen molecule (H2) on the basis of MOT:
i) General electronic configuration can be written as
Page 28 of 51
H2 = 2 = σ1s 2
ii) General energy level diagram
 *1s0
Energy
Energy
1 1
1s 1s
H=1 H=1
 1s2
H2
iii) Bond order:

Nb - N a Where, N b =2
B.O = Na=0
2
2-0
B.O =
2
=1
iv) Stability: Since B.O. of H2 molecule is +ve. Hence this molecule is stable.
v) Magnetic properties: Since electronic configuration of H2 molecule contains no
unpaired electrons, it do not attract magnetic field. Hence it is diamagnetic in nature.
Write the electronic configuration, energy level diagram, stability and magnetic properties
of helium molecule cation (He2+) on the basis of MOT:

He2+= 3 = 𝜎1𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 1𝑠1
 *1s1
Energy
Energy
2 1
1s 1s
+
He=2 He =1
 1s2
+
He 2
iii) Bond order:
Page 29 of 51
Nb - Na Where, N b=2
B.O = Na=1
2
2-1
B.O =
2
B.O =0.5
iv) Stability: Since B.O. of He2+ molecule is +ve. Hence this molecule is stable.
v) Magnetic properties: Since electronic configuration of He2+molecule contains
one unpaired electrons, it attract magnetic field. Hence it is paramagnetic in
nature.
of beryllium molecule (Be2) on the basis of MOT:

Be2= 8 = 𝜎1𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 1𝑠 2 𝜎2𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 2𝑠 2
 *2s 2
2
2 2s
2s
Energy
 2s 2
Energy
 *1s 2
2 2
1s 1s
Be=4 Be=4
 1s 2
Be2 =8
iii) Bond order:

Nb - N a Where, N =4
b
B.O = Na=4
2
4-4
B.O =
2
B.O = 0
iv) Stability: Since B.O. of Be2 molecule is zero. Hence this molecule is not exist.
Page 30 of 51
v) Magnetic properties: Since electronic configuration of Be2 molecule does not

contain unpaired electrons, it not attract magnetic field. Hence it is diamagnetic in
nature.
of nitrogen molecule (N2) on the basis of MOT:

N2= 14 = 𝜎1𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 1𝑠 2 𝜎2𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 2𝑠 2 𝜋2𝑝𝑥 2 = 𝜋2𝑝𝑦 2 𝜎2𝑝𝑧 2
*
2p z
* *
 2p x  2p y
3 3
2p 2p
2
 2p z
2 2
 px 2p y
Energy
Energy
 *2s2
2 2
2s 2s
 2s2
 *1s2
2 2
1s 1s
N=7
 1s2 N=7
N2 =14
iii) Bond order:

Nb - N a Where, N b = 10
B.O = N a= 4
2
10 - 4
B.O =
2
B.O = 3
iv) Stability: Since B.O. of N2 molecule is +ve. Hence this molecule is stable
Page 31 of 51
v) Magnetic properties: Since electronic configuration of N2 molecule does not

contain unpaired electrons, it not attract magnetic field. Hence it is diamagnetic in
nature.
of oxygen molecule (O2) on the basis of MOT:

1
O2= 16 = 𝜎1𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 1𝑠 2 𝜎2𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 2𝑠 2 𝜎2𝑝𝑧 2 𝜋2𝑝𝑥 2 = 𝜋2𝑝𝑦 2 𝜋 ∗ 2𝑝𝑥 = 𝜋 ∗ 2𝑝𝑦 1

*
2p z
* 1* 1
 2p x  2p y
4 4
2p 2p
2 2
 px 2p z
 2p z2
Energy
Energy
 *2s2
2 2
2s 2s
 2s2
 * 1s2
2 2
1s 1s
O=8  1s2 O=8

O2=16
iii) Bond order:
Page 32 of 51
Nb - Na Where, N b = 10
B.O = Na=4
2
10 - 4
B.O =
2
B.O = 2
iv) Stability: Since B.O. of O2 molecule is +ve. Hence this molecule is stable
v) Magnetic properties: Since electronic configuration of O2 molecule contains two
unpaired electrons, they attract magnetic field. Hence it is paramagnetic in nature.
of oxygen molecule anion (O2 -) on the basis of MOT:

2
O2 - = 17 = 𝜎1𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 1𝑠 2 𝜎2𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 2𝑠 2 𝜎2𝑝𝑧 2 𝜋2𝑝𝑥 2 = 𝜋2𝑝𝑦 2 𝜋 ∗ 2𝑝𝑥 = 𝜋 ∗ 2𝑝𝑦 1
Page 33 of 51
*
2p z
* 2* 1
 2p x  2p y
4 5
2p 2p
2 2
 px 2p y
 2p z2
Energy
Energy
 *2s2
2 2
2s 2s
 2s2
 * 1s2
2 2
1s 1s
-
O=8  1s2 O =9
-
O2 =17
iii) Bond order:

B.O = Na=7
2
10 - 7
B.O =
2
B.O = 1.5
iv) Stability: Since B.O. of O2- anion is +ve. Hence this molecule is stable
v) Magnetic properties: Since electronic configuration of O2 - anion contains one
unpaired electron, it attract magnetic field. Hence it is paramagnetic in nature.
of oxygen molecule bianion (O22-) on the basis of MOT:

2
O22- = 18 = 𝜎1𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 1𝑠 2 𝜎2𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 2𝑠 2 𝜎2𝑝𝑧 2 𝜋2𝑝𝑥 2 = 𝜋2𝑝𝑦 2 𝜋 ∗ 2𝑝𝑥 = 𝜋 ∗ 2𝑝𝑦 2
Page 34 of 51

2p z
* 2* 2
 2p x  2p y
5 5
2p 2p
2 2
 px 2p y
2
 2p z
Energy
Energy
 *2s2
2 2
2s 2s
 2s2
 * 1s2
2 2
1s 1s
- -
O =9  1s2 O =9
2-
O2 =18
iii) Bond order:

B.O = Na=8
2
10 - 8
B.O =
2
B.O = 1
iv) Stability: Since B.O. of O22- bi anion is +ve. Hence this molecule is stable
v) Magnetic properties: Since electronic configuration of O22- bianion does not
contain unpaired electron, it do not attract magnetic field. Hence it is diamagnetic
in nature.
of oxygen molecule cation (O2+) on the basis of MOT:
Page 35 of 51
1
O2+ = 15 = 𝜎1𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 1𝑠 2 𝜎2𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 2𝑠 2 𝜎2𝑝𝑧 2 𝜋2𝑝𝑥 2 = 𝜋2𝑝𝑦 2 𝜋 ∗ 2𝑝𝑥

2p z
* 1* 0
 2p x  2p y
4 3
2p 2p
2 2
 px 2p y
 2p z2
Energy
Energy
 *2s2
2 2
2s 2s
 2s2
 * 1s2
2 2
1s 1s
+
O=8  1s2 O =7
+
O2 =15
iii) Bond order:

B.O = Na=5
2
10 - 5
B.O =
2
B.O = 2.5
iv) Stability: Since B.O. of O2+ cation is +ve. Hence this molecule is stable
v) Magnetic properties: Since electronic configuration of O2+ cation contain one
unpaired electron, it attract magnetic field. Hence it is paramagnetic in nature.
of carbon monoxide molecule (CO) on the basis of MOT:
Page 36 of 51

CO = 14 = 𝜎1𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 1𝑠 2 𝜎2𝑠 2 𝜎 ∗ 2𝑝𝑧 2 𝜋2𝑝𝑥 2 = 𝜋2𝑝𝑦 2 𝜎 ∗ 2𝑠 2

2p z
* 0 * 0
 2p x  2p y
2
2p
4
* 2 2p
2s
2 2
Energy
 px 2p y
Energy
 *2p 2
z 2
2 2s
2s
 2s2
 * 1s2
2
1s 2
1s
C=6  1s2
O=8
CO =14
iii) Bond order:

B.O = Na=4
2
10 - 4
B.O =
2
B.O = 3
iv) Stability: Since B.O. of CO is +ve. Hence this molecule is stable
v) Magnetic properties: Since electronic configuration of CO contain no unpaired
electron, it not attract magnetic field. Hence it is diamagnetic in nature.
Polarization concept: When a cation(A+) of an ionic compound (AB) aproches close to
the anion(B-), it withdraws the electron cloud of anion towards itself and the electron
cloud of anion gets distorted from its symmetric shape. This is called polarization of
anion by the cation as shown below.
Page 37 of 51
A+ B- A+ B-
Ionic compound Polarisation
Polarization of cation by anion can be neglected as cation is very small in size. The
ability of cation to polarize a nearby anion is called polarizing power and the tendency of
anion to get polarized by the cation is called polarization.
Fajan’s rules: Factors affecting the magnitude of polarizing power of cation and
polarizibility of anion have been suggested by Fajan and hence are called Fajan’s rules of
polarizibility. They are
1) Smaller the size of cation, larger is its polarizing power: As the size of cation
increases, attraction power increases, polarizing power also increases and hence
covalent character increases. For example, the covalent character of the following is
BeCl2 >MgCl2 > CaCl2> SrCl2 > BaCl2 decreases with increase in size of cation.
2) Larger the size of anion, greater will be the polarizing power: For example, the
covalent character of the following is HI>HBr > HCl> HF decreases with decrease
in size of anion.
3) Larger the charge on cation and anion, greater will be the polarizing power: For
example, the covalent character of the following is CCl4 > BCl3 > BCl2 > LiCl
increases with increase on charge of cations and CH4 >NH3 > H2O> HF decreases
with decrease on charge of anions
4) Cation with 18 –electron shells have a greater polarizing power than the 8 –
electron shell ions with the same charge and same size: For example, the covalent
character of the following is AgI(Ag+ = [Kr]4s24p64d10)is more covalent than KI(K+=
[Ar]3s23p6) but CuCl(Cu+ = [Ar]3s23p63d10) is more covalent than AgCl(Ag+ =
[Kr]4s24p64d10). Due to same electronic configuration but differ in size and vice-versa
Bond length: The average distance between the centers of the two nuclei in a diatomic
molecule is called bond length. For homo nuclear diatomic molecule (A-A or A2), bond
length can be calculated using the formula, 𝑑𝐴−𝐴 = 2𝑟𝐴 Where 𝑟𝐴 is radius of atom A
For hetero nuclear diatomic molecule (A-B), bond length can be calculated using the
formula, 𝑑𝐴−𝐵 = 𝑟𝐴 + 𝑟𝐵 Where 𝑟𝐴 is radius of atom A and 𝑟𝐵 is radius of atom B
Bond length is measured in nm or A0
Factors affecting on bond length: Following factors are affect on the magnitude of
bond length-
1) Electronegativity of bonded atoms: Higher the difference in electronegativity lesser
will be the ionic character and greater will be the ionic character as a result bond
length decreses.
Page 38 of 51
2) Bond order or bond multiplicity: Bond order or bond multiplicity is defined as the
number of covalent bond present between the two bonded atoms. The bond length
between two atoms decreases with increase in bond order. Hence the single bond is
always longer than the double bond which is longer than the triple bond.
3) Hybridization: As the percentage of s –character in hybridization increases bond
length decreases. Therefore bond length decreases in the order of sp 3 > sp2 > sp
Bond angle: The internal angle between the orbitals containing electrons pairs in the
valency shell of the central atom in a molecule is called bond angle.
Or
The angle formed between two imaginary lines drawn from the nucleus of the central
atom to the nuclei of the other two atoms bonded to it is called bond angle.
Bond angle depends on two factors:
1) Presence of lone pairs and bonded pairs around the central atom: In this lone
pair(lp) –lone pair(lp) repulsion is more than bond pair(bp) –lone pair(lp) which is
more repulsion than bond pair(bp) –bond pair(bp). Hence bond angle increases in the
order of lp –lp < lp -bp< bp -bp
2) The electronegativity of the central atom: As the electronegativity of the central
atom increases the electronic repulsion between lone pair- lone par, bond pair- lone
pair and bond pair –bond pair decreases as a result bond angle increases. For
example, in H2O molecule bond angle will be 104.50 due to oxygen atom having the
electronegativity value 3.4 whereas in H2S molecule bond angle will be 92.50 due to
sulphur atom having the electronegativity value 2.6
Bond angle thus gives an idea of the distribution of the orbitals in the three
dimensional space around the central atom in the molecule and an idea of the shape of
the molecule.
Bond energy: The amount of energy required to break the one mole of substance into its
constituent atoms is called bond dissociation energy. Similarly the amount of energy released
when one mole of substance formed from its constituent atoms is called bond formation energy.
In any substance bond dissociation energy is equal to the bond formation energy. It is measured
in kilo joule per mole (KJ/mole).
Energy required to break the substance into its constituents atoms
i.e. Bond dissociation energy =
Number of bond present in the substance
OR
Energy releeased when the substance is formed from its constituent atoms
Bond formation energy =
Number of bond present in the substance
Bond energy is directly proportional to the bond order and inversely proportional to bond length
Page 39 of 51
Larger the bond energy, stronger will be the bond.
A – B(g) A*(g) +B*(g) ΔH = x KJ/mole
Polar and non –polar molecule: A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of pair of electrons
between the atoms. If the pair is shared equally when the atoms are alike as H2 molecule is called
non –polar molecule.
Therefore, A bond between two identical atoms is a non-polar bond and the molecule is
non polar. Example- H2, Cl2, O2, N2, etc
When the two bonding atoms are different, the sharing is unequal, as in molecules of HF, HCl,
H2O, etc. One of the atoms which have a greater electronegativity attracts the shared electron
pair more towards itself. For example, in HCl, the electron pair is closer to Cl atom and the
chlorine end of the molecule has a slight negative charge. The hydrogen end has a slight positive
charge. These are represented as 𝜕 + 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜕 − meaning small charges.
H Cl
i.e. the unsymmetrical distribution of electrons leads to charge separation. Such molecules
having two oppositely charged poles are called polar molecules and the bond is said to be
polar covalent bond. The bonding electrons spend more time near one of the atoms than the
other. The polar covalent bond has therefore partial ionic character. The molecules are also
called dipoles. A polar covalent bond is intermediate between a non-polar covalent bond and
ionic bond.
Dipole moment:
Greater the difference in the electronegativities of the atoms forming the bonds, greater is the
charge separation and greater will be the polarity.
The degree of polarity of a bond is usually expressed in terms of dipole moment which is
defined the product of the magnitude of the charges and the distance between them.
Mathematically,
Dipole moment (μ) = 𝛿𝑥𝑑 Where𝛿 is the magnitude of the charge and d is the distance
separating the two charges 𝛿 and 𝛿 − . Dipole moment is measured in Debye (D).
+
Dipole moment and diatomic molecules: A diatomic molecule is polar if the bond
formed between them is polar. The dipole moment of the molecule is the same as that of
the individual bond. Thus dipole moment of HCl molecule is 1.03.D.
Page 40 of 51
Dipole moment and polyatomic molecule: In triatomic and polyatomic molecules i.e.
molecules containing more than one polar bond, the molecular dipole moment is made up
of dipole moments of all individual polar bonds. Its magnitude depends not only on the
values of the individual dipole moment but also on the spatial arrangement of all the
atoms in the molecule.
For example, H2O is a bent molecule its dipole moment is 1.84D. Whereas CO2 is linear
molecule is net resultant dipole moment is zero.
Weak interaction: The attractive force which is weaker than the bond force is exist between the
two atoms in a molecule or between the molecules is called weak interaction. For example,
hydrogen bond, van der waal’s forces
Hydrogen bond: A weak attractive force exist between the hydrogen atom which is already
covalently bonded to highly electronegative atom and another electronegative atom of same or
different substances is called hydrogen bond and the phenomenon is called hydrogen bonding.
For example hydrogen bond in HF, H2O, NH3, alcohols, carboxylic acids, nitro phenols and bio
molecules
Types of hydrogen bonding: There are two types of hydrogen bonding-
1) Intermolecular hydrogen bonding: A weak attractive force exist between the hydrogen
atom which is already covalently bonded to highly electronegative atom and another
electronegative atom of different substances is called intermolecular hydrogen bond and
the phenomenon is called intermolecular hydrogen bonding. For example
a) Intermolecular hydrogen bond in HF:
-----H F-----H F-----H----- Where ----- indicates hydrogen bond
b) Intermolecular hydrogen bond in H2O:
-----H O-----H O-----H----- Where ----- indicates hydrogen bond
H H
c) Intermolecular hydrogen bond in NH3:
Page 41 of 51
H H
-----H N-----H N-----H----- Where ----- indicates hydrogen bond
H H
d) Intermolecular hydrogen bond in alcohols:
-----H O-----H O-----H----- Where ----- indicates hydrogen bond
R R
e) Intermolecular hydrogen bond in carboxylic acids:
O ----- H O
C R Where ----- indicates hydrogen bond
R C
O H------- O
----- O C
O H ------- O
C O H----- Where ----- indicates hydrogen bond

R
f) Intermolecular hydrogen bond in p-nitro phenols:
----- H O ----- H O -----

+ +
O N O N
- -
O O
Where ----- indicates hydrogen bond

g) Intermolecular hydrogen bond in bio-molecules:
Page 42 of 51
CH3
Thymine(T)
O
.......H
NH
Adenine (A)
N N H....... N N
.
site of attachment
of nucleic acid O N N
backbone
.
Site of attachment
of nucleic acid
backbone
Hydrogen bonding between T and A
H
Cytosine(C)
N H....... O
Guanine (G)
N N .......H N
N
.
site of attachment
of nucleic acid O ...... H N N
N
backbone
H
.
Site of attachment
of nucleic acid
backbone
Hydrogen bonding between C and G
2) Intra molecular hydrogen bonding: A weak attractive force exist between the hydrogen
atom which is already covalently bonded to highly electronegative atom and another
electronegative atom of same substance is called intra molecular hydrogen bond and the
phenomenon is called intra molecular hydrogen bonding. For example
a) Intermolecular hydrogen bond in o-nitro phenols:
-
O O-
+ ---
N
H
Where ----- indicates hydrogen bond
O
Anomalous properties of HF, H2O, NH3, alcohols, carboxylic acids, nitro phenols and bio
molecules: Due to presence of hydrogen bonding present in the molecules which bears different
properties compared to the absence of hydrogen bonding in the molecules called abnormal
properties of that molecules.
Usually no anomalous properties found in the molecules which contains intra molecular
hydrogen bonding but it found in molecules contains inter molecular hydrogen bonding.
Page 43 of 51
The following anomalous properties possesses by the molecules like HF, H2O, NH3, alcohols,
carboxylic acids, p-nitro phenols and bio molecule which contains intermolecular hydrogen
bonding
1) High melting and boiling points: Due to presence of extra hydrogen bonds in a
molecule, they required to more heat energy to break the bonds during the process of
melting and boiling point. Hence they having high melting and boiling points compared
to the normal molecules which doesn’t contains hydrogen bonding.
2) Physical state: Due to presence of hydrogen bonds in H2O molecule, it acquired liquid
state whereas due to absence of hydrogen bonds inH2S, H2Se molecules acquired gases
state at ordinary temperature.
Due to presence of hydrogen bonds in HF molecule, it acquired low freezing point
whereas due to absence of hydrogen bonds in HCl, HBr, HI molecules acquired high
freezing points
3) Dielectric constants: Due to presence of hydrogen bonding, the molecules abnormally
have high dielectric constant with high dipole moment
4) Viscosity: Due to presence of hydrogen bonding the molecular motion will be decreases
as a result viscosity increases abnormally
5) Water on cooling from 40C to 00C, molecules undergoes expanding instead of
compression and on heating 00C to 40C, they compressing instead of expansion. This is
the anomalous property of water due to presence of hydrogen bonding.
Van der waal’s forces: The weakest attractive forces exist between all kinds of the molecules
over longer distance where orbitals overlapping is not possible called van der waal’s forces.
There are several types of interactions that contribute to the van der waals forces, they are
1) Dipole –dipole interaction

2) Dipole-induced dipole interaction
3) Induced dipole -induced dipole interaction
4) Ion-dipole interaction
5) Ion induced dipole interaction
For examples: van der waals forces present in noble gases, molecular crystals like dry ice, iodine,
SO2
Explanation of van der waals forces in noble gases: The Induced dipole -induced dipole
interaction (London force) van der waals force exists in mono atomic non polar noble gases. This
type of interaction originates by the condensation of gases into liquids at sufficiently high
pressure and low temperature. The electrons of a neutral molecule keep on oscillating with
respect to the nucleus of the atoms. As a result of this, at a given instant, positive charge may
Page 44 of 51
concentrate in one region and negative charge in another region of the same molecule. Thus, a
non polar molecule may become momentarily self polarized. This polarized molecule may
induce a dipole moment in neighbouring molecules. The electrostatic forces of attraction
between induced dipoles and the original dipoles are known as London forces
 A ......  A  Where A is noble gas and

..... is van der waals force
Explanation of van der waals forces in molecular crystals of dry ice: The Induced dipole -
induced dipole interaction (London force) van der waals force exists in non polar CO2 molecule.
This type of interaction originates by the condensation of gases CO2 into solid CO2 at sufficiently
high pressure and very low temperature. The electrons of a neutral molecule keep on oscillating
with respect to the nucleus of the carbon. As a result of this, at a given instant, positive charge
may concentrate in one region and negative charge in another region of the CO2. Thus, CO2
molecule may become momentarily self polarized. The electrostatic forces of attraction between
more than one induced polarized CO2 molecules resulted the crystals of CO2 known as dry ice
+
..

 
....
O C O
Where ..... is van der waals
......
 +
  force
----- O C O
Dry ice is used primarily as cooling agent because it having lower freezing point than water. It is
non polar with zero dipole moment. It solidified at atmospheric pressure and -78.50C temperature
Explanation of van der waals forces in molecular crystals of iodine: The Induced dipole -
induced dipole interaction (London force) van der waals force exists in non polar iodine atom.
This type of interaction originates by the sublimates of gases iodine into solid iodine molecule at
sufficiently atmospheric pressure and low temperature. The electrons of a neutral iodine atom
keep on oscillating with respect to the nucleus of the iodine. As a result of this, at a given instant,
positive charge may concentrate in one region and negative charge in another region of the
iodine. Thus, iodine may become momentarily self polarized. The electrostatic forces of
attraction between more than one induced polarized iodine atoms resulted the crystals of iodine
......  I ......  I ...... Where ..... is van der waals

force
Page 45 of 51
Iodine is a dark grey crystalline solid with purple vapour. Melting point is 1140C and boiling
point is 1840C. It is slightly soluble in water but readily dissolved in organic solvents. It has face
centered cubic structure
Explanation of van der waals forces in molecular crystals of SO2: The dipole - dipole
interaction, van der waals force exists in polar SO2 molecule. This type of interaction originates
by the sublimates of gases SO2 into solid SO2 at sufficient pressure and room temperature. The
electrostatic force exists between positively charged pole of one SO2 molecule and negatively
charged pole of another SO2 molecule resulted the molecular crystals of SO2
-

++ 
O
 S Where ..... is van der waals
 O -
O  ....... ++S force
 O


SO2 can be liquefied under moderate pressures at room temperatures. SO 2 freezes at -730C
temperature and under atmospheric pressure. It is used as disinfectant, a refrigerant, bleach and a
food preservative in dry fruits.
Metallic bond: Band theory, electrical properties of metals, semiconductors and insulators.
6) Metallic bonding: The special type of attractive force exists between mobile electrons and
the positive ion present on metal in a metallic crystal is called metallic bonding.
There are different theories to explain metallic bonding namely electron sea model theory,
valence bond theory and band theory
Band theory of metallic bonding: This theory is based on molecular orbital theory proposed by
Helix Block. According to this theory, the metals are electron deficient crystals and the electrons
in a metal are considered to belong to the crystal as a whole and not to any individual atom.
When two atom atomic orbitals combine, two molecular orbitals are formed; one of the
molecular orbital has lower energy than the combining atomic orbitals while the other has higher
energy than the combining atomic orbitals.
On the same lines, if three orbitals combine three molecular orbitals are obtained. Thus for n
atomic orbitals combining belonging to n different atoms, n molecular orbitals can be expected.
Half of these (n/2) are of lower energy called bonding molecular orbitals and the other half are of
higher energy than the combining atomic orbitals called anti-bonding. The value of n is very
large for metallic crystal, of the order 1023 and thus a very large number of molecular orbitals are
obtained.
In Li2, molecule where two atoms of Li combine six electrons are accommodated as shown
Page 46 of 51
(σ1s)2(σ*1s)2(σ2s)2
σ2s bonding orbital is full while the corresponding anti-bonding orbital is empty. The outer shell
electrons occupy the bonding orbitals. In Li3 molecule involving three 2s atomic orbitals, three
molecular orbitals- one bonding, one non bonding and one anti-bonding are formed. The three
electrons occupy bonding and non bonding molecular orbitals as shown below.
Atomic orbitals Molecular orbitals
(a) Li2 Anti bonding

2s 2s
Atom 1 2 Bonding
(b) Li 3
Anti bonding
2s 2s 2s
Non bonding
Atom 1 2 3
Bonding
(c) Li n (metal)
Empty level
2s or
2s 2s Conduction band
--------- Forbidden zone
Occupied level
Atom 1 2 --------- n
or
Valence band
The non-bonding molecular orbital has an energy intermediate between bonding and anti
bonding molecular orbitals.
By extending this to n lithium atoms, n molecular orbitals result, half (n/2) of them are
bonding and the other half are anti-bonding. The spacing between the various energy orbitals
becomes very less and these molecular orbitals are very close to one another and form an energy
band. Each molecular orbital can accommodate a maximum of two electrons. The upper half is
empty. This, of course is true at absolute zero. As the temperature is increased a few of the
electrons acquire sufficient kinetic energy and get promoted to the upper half of the band and
may be only singly occupied because a few unpaired electrons are found to be present in any
metallic crystal above K. the molecular orbitals extend in three dimensions over all the atoms in
the crystal. The electrons have a high degree of mobility and account for the high electrical and
thermal conductivity of the metals.
Page 47 of 51
In a similar way, it might be possible to combine 2p, 2s, 3p, etc, orbitals to form energy bands
in a crystal. In the metallic crystal therefore, the nuclei are surrounded by a series of energy
bands. The electrons may be found in these bands which are called permitted energy bands or
Brilloium zones. Between these permitted energy bands are gaps or empty bands where electrons
are not found. Such gaps are therefore called forbidden bands. Large amount of energy is
required to cross these energy bands. Some energy bands in a solid may overlap and in such a
case there is a continuous distribution of allowable energies for its electrons.
Electrical properties of metal: The band in which the valence electrons are present is called the
valence band. This may be partly or completely filled. There may be an outer band which is
empty and is called the conduction band. The two are separated by a line called forbidden zone
and for an electro to jump from valence band to conduction band some energy is needed. Based
on the filling of these bands, the width of the forbidden zone determine whether a substance is a
conductor, insulator or a semiconductor
1) Conductors: Those substances in which either the valence band is partly filled or the
valence band and conduction band overlap and there is no energy gap (forbidden zone) so
that the movement of electrons from valence to conductance band takes place easily at
room temperature on passing electric current are called conductors.
All metals are good conductor of electrical energy.
Energy
Energy
Partially filled
Fartly filled valence band

Valence and conduction bands overlap
2) Insulators: Those substances in which the energy gap between the valence band and
conductance band is very high about 120 kcal mol-1 and valence band is completely filled
and conductance band is totally empty so that electrons cannot be promoted from valence
band to conductance band even at high temperature are called insulators.
For example: Boron, carbon, non metals, etc
Page 48 of 51
Conductance band
Large energy gap

Energy
Valence band
3) Semiconductors: Those substances in which the energy gap between the valence band
and conductance band is quite small (lies in between conductor and insulator) about 2.5
kcal mol-1 when by adding impurities or by heating it conduct the electricity on
application of electricity are called semiconductors. For example- metalloids like
germanium, silicon, etc
Conductance band
Small energy gap

Energy
Valence band
Types of semiconductors: There are two types of semiconductors

1) Intrinsic semiconductors: Those substances are poor conductors or insulators at low
temperatures. Their conductivity increases rapidly with increase in temperature are
called intrinsic semiconductor. The conduction increases in these cases by thermal
excitation of electrons enabling them to cross the forbidden zone (energy gap). The
number of electrons shifted from the valence band to conduction band is not very
high and hence the conductivity is not as high in a metal. Si, Ge, Se are all intrinsic
semiconductor
Page 49 of 51
A+ B- A+ B-
Ionic compound Polarisation
2) Extrinsic semiconductors: Those insulators whose conductivity increases in

presence of impurities like As, P, B, Ga with making the bridge between valence
band and conduction band are called extrinsic semiconductors. There are two types of
extrinsic semiconductors.
a) n- type extrinsic semiconductor: Those semiconductors in which conductance is
takes place due to movement of electrons from donor level(impurity band) to
conduction band is called n – type semiconductors.
Here Si or Ge is doped with an impurity like P, As (group 15) which has
more valence electrons than the parent insulator. Each of the impurity atoms
contributes one more electron. This extra electron occupies an energy state well
above the valence band. It is called donor level. At room temperature the energy
gap is quite close enough to excite the extra electron from the donor level to the
conduction band as a result conductance is take place.
Conductance band
E
Donor level
Energy gap
Energy
Valence band
b) p- type extrinsic semiconductor: Those semiconductors in which conductance is

takes place due movement of positive holes from acceptor level(impurity band) to
conduction band is called p – type semiconductors.
Here Si, Ge is doped with an impurity like Al, B, Ga (group 13) which has
less valence electron than the parent insulator. Each of the impurity atoms
contributes one less electron. This less electron create positive hole in an energy
state and which is very close to the valence band. It is called acceptor level. At
room temperature few electrons from top of the valence band are excited to the
acceptor level as a result conductance is takes place.
Page 50 of 51
Conductance band
Energy gap
E Acceptor level
Energy
Valence band
Differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors
n-type semiconductors p-type semiconductors

1) It involved conductance due to 1) It involved conductance due to positive
electrons holes
2) It has donor level impurity 2) It has acceptor level impurity
3) Conductance is takes place the 3) Conductance is takes place the
excitation electron from donor level to excitation electron from valence band
conductance band to acceptor level
4) Doped element having higher 4) Doped element having lower group(less
group(extra electron) compare to parent electron) compare to parent insulator in
insulator in the periodic table the periodic table
Page 51 of 51

UNIT-II: Chemical Bonding 13 Hours 26 Marks

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UNIT-II: Chemical Bonding 13 Hours 26 Marks

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CHEMISTRY-II NOTES PREPARED BY Dr.

DHONDIBA VISHWANATH SURYAWANSHI, GFGC KR PURAM, BENGALURU-36

UNIT-II: Chemical bonding 13 Hours 26 Marks

Types of chemical bonds: Generally the following types of chemical bonds

1) Ionic or electrovalent bond

Na+ + Cl- Na+ Cl- U = -770 KJ mol-1

Mg2+ + O2- Mg2+ O2- U = -3745.8 KJ mol-1

v) Electron affinity of chlorine: Amount of energy released to convert Cl to Cl-

Lattice energy in above steps can be calculated as

ΔHf = ΔHs + I.E. + 1

 U = ΔHf - ΔHs - I.E. - 1

= -399.5 kj -108 kj – 496 kj – 121.5 kj – (-355 kj)

2) Determination of lattice energy of magnesium oxide (MgO) by Born – Haber cycle-

iv) Second ionization energy of magnesium: Amount of energy required

v) Dissociation energy of oxygen molecule: Amount of energy required

vi) First electron affinity of oxygen: Amount of energy released to convert

vii) Second electron affinity of oxygen: Amount of energy released to

Lattice energy in above steps can be calculated as

ΔHf = ΔHs + I.E1 +I.E2 + 1

 U = ΔHf - ΔHS - I.E1 -I.E2 - 1

= -601.7 kj -147.7 kj-737 kj – 1450 kj – 249.4 kj – (-142 kj) – (-702) kj

Where, 𝑁𝐴 = Avogadro’s number = 6.023 x 1023

A = Madelung constant which depends on structure of crystal

e = electronic charge = 1.602 x 10-19 C

ε0 = Permittivity of medium = 8.854 x 10-12 C2m-1 j-1

r0 = Inter-ionic distance at equilibrium

n = Born exponent which depends on type of ions

= -0.7559 x 1000x1000 j mol-1

= -3.9524 x 1000x1000 j mol-1

Properties of ionic compounds:

Examples, formation of covalent bond between hydrogen molecule:

Formation of covalent bond can be explained by using two theories

1) Valence bond theory(VBT)

p-orbital p-orbital p-p overlapping

Hybridization: A phenomenon in which mixing of two or more atomic orbitals nearly

No. of outer Shape of molecule Types of Bond angle in the

Types of hybridization: Based on the type of atomic orbitals mixed, hybridizations

iv) Shape of Be hybrid orbital

v) Shape of BeCl molecule y y

2) SP2 –Hybridization: A phenomenon in which mixing of one s-orbital and two p-

iv) Shape of B hybrid orbital y Small lobe

3) SP3 –Hybridization: A phenomenon in which mixing of one s-orbital and three

iv) Shape of Si hybrid orbital y

v) Shape of SiCl 4 molecule

4) SP3d –Hybridization: A phenomenon in which mixing of one s-orbital three p-

iv) Shape of P hybrid orbital y

v) Shape of PCl 5 molecule

In phosphorous pentachloride, the electronic configuration of P in excited is 3s13px13py13pz1 d1x2-y2. These

1) SP3d2 –Hybridization: A phenomenon in which mixing of one s-orbital, three

iv) Shape of S hybrid orbital y

iv) Shape of water molecule =

iv) Shape of BrF 3 molecule =

Linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) method:

A linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) is quantum superposition of atomic

Molecular orbitals in a molecule are obtained by the combination of atomic orbitals of

Formation of molecular orbitals from atomic orbitals:

1) s – s overlapping: Positive regions are overlapped to form BMO

Positive and negative regions are overlapped to form ABMO

A – B(g) A(g) +B(g) ΔH = x KJ/mole