UNIT 1

WHAT IS CHEMISTRY?

Chemistry is that part of science which deals with the composition of matter and with
the changes taking place in it. As a science, i.e. ordered knowledge, chemistry began
only about the middle of the seventeenth century but men had been interested in
chemical experiments for at least two thousand years before then. Some chemical
processes such as the making of metals and glass are very old. The prehistoric man
who first made use of fire made one of the greatest chemical discoveries, although he
had no thought of chemistry.

PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

In chemistry we are interested in the properties of substances, which may be either

physical properties or chemical properties. Physical properties of a substance are
those which can be observed or measured without changing it into another substance.
For example, its colour, form, odour, hardness, and its melting and boiling points.
Chemical properties of a substance are those which describe its behavior when it
changes into other substance, e.g. when it burns or is destroyed by acids.

Table 1.1

Some properties of water, alcohol and benzene

Observation Water Alcohol Benzene

color colorless colorless colorless
taste tasteless characteristic acrid
burning taste
odor odorless sweet definite odor
state of room
temperature liquid liquid liquid
freezing point 0oC -117oC 5.5oC
boiling point 100oC 78oC 80.1oC
solubility soluble in alcohol soluble in water insoluble in water
soluble in alcohol
density 1.0g/ml 0.78g/ml 0.80g/ml
flammability nonflammable flammable flammable

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 PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL CHANGES

A physical change is defined as a change which does not alter the chemical
composition of a material. Changing ice to water, crushing salt into a powder and
condensing ethyl alcohol in a distillation process all involve physical changes. The
rusting of iron and the burning of gasoline are examples of chemical changes. When
iron rusts, it combines with oxygen to form an iron oxide. When gasoline burns, it
combines with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. Both of these chemical
changes are accompanied by physical changes. Rust has a different color and is
different from iron in hardness and other physical properties. Liquid gasoline is
converted to two new gaseous substances when it burns. In general, it is true that a
chemical change is accompanied by a physical change, whereas physical changes, as
we have noted, do not involve a change in composition of matter. Both physical and
chemical changes involve the absorption or release of energy.

Table 1.2
Physical change
No substance formed or destroyed
No change in weight
Reverse change easy
Energy changes often small
Chemical change
Substances changed. New substances formed
Change in weight
Reverse change difficult
Energy changes often large

I. Competing Sentences
properties composition
physical observation
chemical

1) Chemistry is the study of the _________of matter and of

___________ changes.
2) Chemists use the term _________ to describe the characteristics.
3) Some of these properties of a substance can be determined by simple
physical __________.
4) The melting and boiling point, the solubility and the density are
___________ properties.

2
II. True / False
1) A chemical change occurs when a substance is changed into one or more
other substances.
2) A physical change occurs when a substance is changed in properties but is
not changed into other substance.
3) The melting of wax and the formation of dew are chemical changes.
4) Both physical and chemical changes are accompanied by changes in
energy.
5) The conversion of ice into steam is a physical change.

III. Comprehension
1) What is the difference between chemical and physical properties of a
substance?
2) List separately the chemical and physical properties of silver nitrate as
described by the following, silver nitrate is a colorless, crystalline salt,
readily soluble in water, its density is 4.3 g/ml. On heating, a brown gas is
evolved and when exposed to light a black film of silver is formed.
3) What is the difference between physical change and chemical change?
4) Classify the following: frying an egg, melting fat, burning paper, nail
rusting, burning toast, beating cream into butter, defrosting refrigerator.

IV. Word forms

Verb Noun
change ________
______ discovery
Observe _________
_______ absorption
Destroy ________
_________ condensation
_________ distillation
Define ________

Complete the following sentences with the correct form of the appropriate word:
1) Physical properties are those which we can ___________
2) In the chemical change, substances are __________ into new substances
having different properties.
3) Dry sand _____________ water.
4) The process in which the vapour is converted back into water is called
_________
5) Columbus _________ America.
6) The forest was ___________by the fire.
7) Sea water can be made drinkable by _________out the salt.

3
 8) ___________ should not be more difficult to understand than the words
they define.

V. Grammar
- Simple past
- Past perfect

Example:
Chemistry began only about the middle of the seventeenth century but men had
been interested in chemical experiments for at least two thousand years before then.

(English Grammar in Use – Raymond Murphy)

4
 UNIT 2

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

The majority of substances are built up from simpler substances although the method
of separating them is not as easy as, for example, in a building where the bricks, tiles,
wood, cement and metal which have been used to make the building are easily
separated.

Rust, such as that formed by the iron nail, when heated forms water vapour and
brown iron oxide. The iron oxide can be separated, with some difficulty, into iron and
oxygen. Iron, oxygen and hydrogen, however, cannot be separated by chemical
means into anything else. They are called elements.

Elements include a number of gases such as oxygen and nitrogen which occur free in
air. Hydrogen is a gas which occurs combined chemically with oxygen as water. Two
elements are liquid at room temperature, mercury which is used in barometers and
thermometers, and bromine, a brown unpleasant-smelling liquid.

The solid elements can be separated into two main classes, non-metals and metals.
The non-metals include carbon (diamond, graphite or soot), sulphur (a yellow
powder) and phosphorus (either a red powder or a soft white putty-like material).
Most of the elements are metals. Common metals which are elements include iron,
copper, zinc, silver, nickel, chromium and tin.

We can recognise three distinct types of matter: elements, which cannot be divided
into simpler substances; compounds, which contain two or more elements combined
chemically; and mixtures, which may contain either elements or compounds in any
proportion.

Most natural materials are mixtures because pure substances by themselves are rare in
nature. The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mainly nitrogen and oxygen with other
gases, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide and argon, called an inert gas because it
does not form compounds. The sea is a mixture of water with common salt (sodium
chloride, a compound) and other substances.

An element cannot be changed into simpler substances by chemical means.

A compound consists of two or more elements combined chemically. It has
properties different from those of the elements which form it.

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 Table 2.1
Elements, mixtures and compounds

Element Mixture Compound

Same composition No fixed composition Same composition
throughout throughout
Cannot be decomposed by Can be separated by Can be decomposed by
chemical methods physical methods chemical methods
Properties distinct from all Ingredients retain their Properties unlike element
other elements individual properties present

I. Completing Sentences

- elements
- compounds
- mixtures
- substances
- chemically
- matter

1) Hydrogen and oxygen are __________; they cannot be reduced to anything

simpler without destroying their properties.
2) When elements are ___________ combined, they form compounds.
3) Elements may be recovered from ___________ only by chemical reactions.
4) We now know that air contains the elements oxygen and nitrogen, the
compounds water and carbon dioxide and many other __________.
5) Most of the things we know about and work with in our daily life are
__________ of pure substances.
6) We say that the universe is composed of __________ which we define as
anything that has mass and occupies space.

II. Short Answers

Write M (Mixture), E (Element), or C (Compound) after each of these sentences.

1) Limestone is a combination of calcium, carbon and oxygen. The original

elements can be restored only by chemical action.
2) Dry table salt combined with limestone flour can be separated by dissolving
out the salt.
3) A combination of sulfur and iron filings stirred together in a bowl can be
separated by pulling out the fillings with a magnet.
4) Air can be separated by physical means.
5) Tantalum cannot be reduced to any simpler from by any chemical method.

6
 6) Gunpowder contains the elements sulfur and carbon, in addition to potassium
nitrate. When water is allowed to filter through gunpowder, the nitrate is
dissolved out leaving the sulfur and carbon behind.

III. Comprehension

1) What is the difference between

a) An element and a compound?
b) A compound and a mixture?
2) What are the two main classes of elements? How do elements in one class
differ from those in the other?
3) The group which contains non-metal is
a) Carbon, sulphur, zinc.
b) Phosphorus, lead, sulphur.
c) Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous
d) Sodium, potassium, oxygen.

TYPICAL METALS

Element Properties and Uses

ALUMINIUM
Silvery metal of low density and good Resists corrosion, widely used in items
mechanical strength. from aeroplanes to kitchen saucepans.

COPPER Conducts heat and electricity well.

Dense, salmon-pink metal Used in electrical work, and for making
heating coppers.

IRON
Hard-dense, tough, grey metal. Most commonly used metal. Used in
Steels are iron modified by the addition making all types of articles, from nails to
of other elements. the frames of sky-scraper building.

LEAD
Dense, soft, grey metal. Silvery when Used in plumbing, for keels of boats and
freshly scratched. in solder.

MAGNESIUM
Silvery metal of low density, which dulls Burns readily in the form of powder or
in air. ribbon. Used for flares and for light
aeroplane alloys.

MERCURY
Dense, silvery, liquid metal. The only In thermometers, and for making
metal liquid at ordinary temperatures. amalgams with other metals, e.g. silver
7
 amalgam, used for dental fillings.

SILVER
Dense white metal, not easily dulled by Used for ornamental ware, and for
air. coinage for which it is hardened by the
addition of copper.

SODIUM
Light, silvery metal which dulls Decomposes water violently, forming a
immediately in air. Similar to Potassium. solution of sodium hydroxide (caustic
soda) and hydrogen.

ZINC
Dense, bluish-white metal Used in brass, iron is protected from
corrosion by galvanizing, i.e. dipping in
molten zinc.

TYPICAL NON-METALS

Element Properties and Uses

CARBON
A solid which occurs in two forms either Diamond is used for cutting other hard
diamond (hard, transparent, and glass- materials. Graphite is used in pencils.
like) or graphite (a black, soft material Coke and charcoal are used as fuels.
present in charcoal and coke).

CHLORINE
A yellowish gas with an unpleasant, acrid Used for making many chemicals,
smell. including insecticides and synthetic
rubber, for bleaching and for disinfecting
water.

HYDROGEN
A colourless, odourless gas, present in all The least dense gas. Hydrogen has been
acids used in balloons. It is highly
inflammable, and forms water when it
burns.

NITROGEN
A colourless, odourless gas which forms Does not burn, it is one of several
four-fifths of the atmosphere. elements always present in living matter.

OXYGEN
A colourless, odourless gas which makes Essential for ordinary burning and for
up almost 50% by weight of the earth’s
8
crust, and about one-fifth of the breathing.
atmosphere.

PHOSPHORUS
Exists in two forms-red phosphorus.
White phosphorus is poisonous, and
catches fire easily. Red phosphorus is not
reactive, poisonous, nor so easily ignited
as white phosphorus.
White phosphorus is used as a rat and
rabbit poison. Red phosphorus is used in
match manufacture. White phosphorus is
preserved under water to keep it from
contacting with air.

SULPHUR
A yellow crystalline material which, like Used for making sulphuric acid, which is
carbon and phosphorus, exists in several used in the manufacture of most other
forms called allotropes. chemicals. It is also used in match, for
toughening rubber by the process of
vulcanisation, and as a fungicide.

IV. True/ False

1) Oxygen is essential to respiration. Without oxygen we cannot live.

2) Nitrogen is not vital to living things. It supports combustion.
3) Diamond, a pure form of crystalline carbon, is the hardest substances known.
4) Small amounts of chlorine are added to the water to kill the bacteria.
5) Like aluminum, iron is very light and more resistant to corrosion.
6) Sodium and potassium react violently with water.
7) Hydrogen is the lightest element and is highly flammable.
8) Of all the metals, iron is the cheapest in terms of price but the most valuable in
terms of its importance to our civilization.
9) Magnesium burns vigorously in the air, producing a brilliant light. This
property has made it useful in the making of fireworks.
10) All metals, particularly copper, do not conduct heat and electricity

V. Grammar
1. Like_As
(English Grammar in Use-Raymond Murphy)

2. Relative clauses
 Clauses with who / that / which
 Clauses with or without who / that
 Clauses with whose / whom / where
 “extra information” clauses

(English Grammar in Use-Raymond Murphy)

9
 UNIT 3
ATOMS and MOLECULES

 Reading Passage 1

In 1803, John Dalton, an English school teacher, published a series of

statements, regarding the nature of atoms and molecules. These statements
which we call Dalton’s atomic theory were based on some of his own
experiments and on those of others who had gone before him. Dalton’s
theory, as it became known, was and is still being modified by experiments
but the principle points in it are:
1. An atom is the smallest part of an element which retains the properties
of the element and which can take part in a chemical change.
2. All atoms of the one element are the same in size and mass.
3. Atoms of different elements differ in mass and in size from each other.
4. Molecules of chemical compounds consist of atoms linked together in a
definite way. All the molecules of a particular compound are alike. A
molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound which can
exist separately.

 Reading Passage 2
At the center of each atom is the nucleus, in which are found mainly protons,
possessing a positive electric charge, and neutrons, possessing no charge.
Around the nucleus are electrons, which rotate very rapidly and carry a
negative electric charge. The number of protons is equal to that of electrons
and consequently the whole atom is electrically neutral.

The simplest atom of all is hydrogen, containing 1 proton at the center and 1
electron revolving around it. The next simplest is helium, with 2 protons and 2
neutrons in the nucleus and 2 electrons revolving around it (Fig. 3.1).
Electron 2 protons
2 neutrons

p
2p
2n

Proton

(a) Hygrogen atom (b) Helium atom

I. Completing Sentences
- atom(s) - proton(s)
- molecule(s) - nucleus
- electron(s) - positive

1. Two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen can be combined to form one
___________ of water.

10
 2. A gas contains atoms in which no neutrons can be found. These atoms still
contain __________ and __________ .
3. All the protons and neutrons in complex atoms are located in the
____________ of the atoms.
4. A single atom of hydrogen contains 1 proton and 1 electron. If a sample of
hydrogen is found to contain 1,000,000 protons and 1,000,000 electrons, there
must therefore be 1,000,000 ___________ of hydrogen in the sample.
5. The atomic particle that has a negative charge is the ___________.
6. If the electrons were stripped from an atom, the remaining atom would have
a____________ charge.
7. All atoms are made up of a nucleus consisting of neutrons and ____________
and have ____________ revolving around the nucleus.
8. The smallest particle of a compound is a _____________.

II True/ False.

1. Electrons and protons have unlike electric charges.

2. Atoms are always made up of a nucleus and two or more electrons.
3. The nucleus is in the middle of the atom.
4. The one exception to the fact that atoms are composed of three types of atomic
particles is the hydrogen atom.
5. The electrons carry a strong, positive charge.
6. The atomic nucleus is made up of electrons.
7. Atoms of two or more elements which are chemically combined are known as
molecules and these form substances as compounds.
8. Two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen form one molecule of water.

II. Comprehension

1. What is an atom?
2. What is an atomic nucleus?
3. What is the whole atom electrically neutral?
4. What is a molecule?
5. Which part of an atom is positively charged?

 Reading Passage 3

1
Atoms are, in general, composed of three types of sub-atomic particles. 2The one
exception to this is the hydrogen atom, which is composed of only two: electrons and
protons. 3All of the other 104 different types of atoms contain electrons, protons and
neutrons. 4The nucleus, which is composed of neutrons and protons, is in the middle
of the atom and it has electrons going around it. 5It takes up only a very tiny part of
the whole area the atom covers. 6The atom is nearly all empty space. 7It is held
together by the attraction between the nucleus, which carries a positive charge, and
the electrons, which carry a negative charge. 8The whole atom is electrically neutral
because the negative charge of the electrons is balanced by the positive charge of the
11
protons in the nucleus. 9The loss or addition of electrons to it causes it to take a
charge. 10The electrons move around the nucleus in different areas or shells. 11The
shell closest to the nucleus has only two electrons at most. 12These are the ones which
are strongly attracted to the nucleus. 13The second shell has a maximum of eight
electrons, the third a maximum of eighteen and the fourth a maximum of thirty-two.
14
The last shell can never have more than eight electrons.

IV. Substitution

1. In sentence 2, this stands for:

a) Atoms in general.
b) The fact that atoms are composed of three types of sub-atomic particles.
c) The types of sub-atomic particles.

2. In sentence 5, it substitutes for:

a) The neutrons and protons.

b) The middle of atom.
c) The nucleus.

3. In sentence 9, it stands for:

a) The electrically neutral atom.
b) The nucleus.
c) The negative charge.

4. In sentence 12, these substitutes for:

a) The electrons.
b) The electrons around the nucleus.
c) The electrons in the shell closest to the nucleus.

V. Grammar

 Present participal phrase

Example:
The simplest atom of all is hydrogen, containing one proton at the center and
one electron revolving around it.

 Past participal phrase

Example:
Molecules of chemical compounds consist of atoms linked together in a
definite way.

(A Practical English Grammar, Thomas & Martinet)

12
 UNIT 4
SYMBOLS – FORMULAE – EQUATIONS

Symbols. Elements and compounds can be described concisely by using symbols for
the elements. Symbols are abbreviations of the names of the elements using either the
first letter or the first letter and another letter of the name. Thus hydrogen, H; oxygen,
O; calcium, Ca; aluminium, Al; chlorine, Cl. Symbols for some elements are
abbreviations of latinized names.

The symbol Na for sodium comes from the Latin natrium, and Cu for copper comes
from the Latin word cuprum. With minor exception, the chemical symbols are
international. Scientists throughout the world know what is meant by NaCl even
though they may use quite different common names for the substance we call salt or
table salt.
Common elements and their symbols

Metals Non metals

Aluminum Al Carbon C
Calcium Ca Chlorine Cl
Copper Cu (cuprum) Fluorine F
Iron Fe (ferrum) Helium He
Magnesium Mg Hydrogen H
Manganese Mn Iodine I
Potassium K (kalium) Nitrogen N
Silver Ag (argentum) Oxygen O
Sodium Na (natrium) Phosphorus P
Zinc Zn Sulfur S

Chemical Formulae and Names. The symbol for an element represents not only the
name of the element but also one atom of the element and therefore the mass of the
atom. A chemical formula for a compound lists the atoms in the smallest possible
particle of the compound. Thus iron sulphide contains one iron atom, Fe, and one
sulphur atom, S, and its formula is FeS.

In chemical formulae for compounds of a metal with a non-metal, the symbol for the
metal is written first and followed by the symbol for the non-metal, the name of
which is altered so that it ends in “-ide”. For example, magnesium and oxygen form a
compound magnesium oxide, MgO. Sodium and chlorine form a compound sodium
chlorite, NaCl. When more than one atom of one kind is present in a molecule, the
number of atoms is written after the symbol, thus water is H 2O (two hydrogen atoms
and one oxygen atom).
Many compounds contain more than two elements. A common third element is
oxygen. The names of such compounds are made up as for two elements, except that
the ending is changed, generally, to “-ate” which therefore indicates “including

13
oxygen”. Thus iron sulphate is a compound of iron, sulphur and oxygen. Potassium
silicate is a compound of potassium, silicon and oxygen.

Chemical Equations. A chemical change, also called a chemical reaction, can be

described in a concise way by means of a chemical equation, using symbols for the
various substances involved with numerical subscripts following them to denote the
numbers of each atom in the molecule. Numbers are prefixed to denote the least
number of atoms or molecules which can be involved in the transformation. An arrow
separates the reacting substances from their products. Thus, the combination of one
volume of nitrogen, represented by the symbol N and the molecular formula N 2, with
3 of hydrogen, represented by H2, to form ammonia, NH3 is represented:
N2 + 3H2 2NH3

An equation is balanced when the number of atoms of each kind in the reacting
substances equals the number of atoms of that kind in the products. The 6 atoms in
the 3 diatomic molecules of hydrogen, in the above example, thus, equal the 6 atoms
of hydrogen in the 2 molecules of ammonia, each of which contains 3.

I. True/ False
1. Magnesium oxide is a mixture of magnesium and oxygen.
2. The symbols K, Ca, Pb, Mg, Cu and P all represent metals.
3. S, M and P are the chemical symbols for sulfur, magnesium and potassium
respectively.
4. The symbols today consist of the initial letter or initial two letters of the Latin
name of the element or its name in a modern language.

II. Comprehension
1. Name the compounds represented by the following formula: MgO, Na 2S, FeS,
ZnSO4, FeSO4
2. What does a chemical symbol represent?
3. What are the names of the elements represented by the symbols: S, C, N, Al,
Zn, and Na?
4. Are the same symbols adopted by all chemists throughout the world?
5. What is a chemical equation?
6. Do we have to alter the formulae of either the products or reactants when we
balance the equations?
III. Grammar
Common connectors in written English

a) Connectors which show addition

also furthermore,
and in addition to
as well moreover
besides

14
b) Connectors which illustrate
For example
For instance
For one thing

c) Connectors which show result

Accordingly so
As a result therefore
Consequently thus

d) Connectors which show contrast

However nevertheless
In spite of this on the one hand_on the other hand
Instead

e) Connectors which show sequence

First (second, third…) then
Next finally
After that

f) Connectors which show emphasis

Indeed
Infact

1. She is taking Life Science _____________ Chemistry _____________

Physics.
2. _____________Life Science, she is _________ taking Physics and Chemistry.
3. _____________ , she is studying Life Science and Astronomy __________.
4. a + b = c ______________ a = c – b
5. Several factors caused the metal workers to strike last week. ____________,
they wanted a pay-increase.
6. The weather-map shows a low pressure area over Sydney. _________ rain is
expected tomorrow.
7. Most people are frightened of snakes. __________, many varieties are
harmless.
8. In the 17th century, Galileo started that the Earth rotated round the sun.
____________ the Church refused to accept this fact.
9. To make fried rice, ____________ fry some onions in a little oil. _________
add some small pieces of meat and vegetables. ___________, add some
cooked rice. ___________, stir in some soya sauce before you serve it.
10. Laura is a very pretty girl. ____________, I think she is the prettiest girl in the
class.

15
 UNIT 5
STATES OF MATTER
 Reading passage 1

Matter, whether in the form of elements or compounds can exist as a solid, a liquid,
or a gas. A solid has definite shape and volume. A liquid has definite volume but no
definite shape; it will take the shape of the container which holds it. A gas has neither
definite shape nor definite volume. Gases can be compressed from larger to smaller
volumes and will spontaneously fill any container in which they are placed. In a solid
the atoms or molecules are close together; in a liquid a bit father apart and in gases,
there are few particles and a great deal of empty space. This is shown by the
observation that a given volume of a gas weighs less than the same volume of a
liquid, and the liquid, in general, weighs less than the same volume of a solid.

With certain exception, matter may exist in any of the three states, and may be
changed from one state to another under the influence of changes in temperature and
pressure. We know, for instance, that water exists in the three forms, as solid ice, as
liquid water, and as a gas or water vapor. Below 0 oC water exists as ice and above
100oC it is steam.

I. Completing Sentences

- shape - liquid
- volume - matter
- solid
1. The universe is composed of matter. Rock is matter in the solid form. An
ocean is matter in the liquid form. The atmosphere is a gaseous form of
_____________.
2. Glycerin assumes the same shape as its container but does not change its
volume and mass. Glycerin is a ______________.
3. When a sphere of iron is melted in a cylindrical vat, it retains its own volume
but flows freely and assumes the shape of the vat. Thus, a liquid is a state of
matter which retains its volume but can easily change its _______________.
4. X. is a mineral. A cube of X. measuring 1 inch on each side retains its shape
and volume when placed in a large can; the cube has a fixed mass no matter
where it is placed. The cube is, therefore, the form of matter known
as____________.
5. If the iron is heated still more, it can change into a vapor or gas. If the
vaporizing chamber is 10 cubic feet in volume, the original cubic foot of iron
will expand to fill very crevice of the chamber. Thus, a gas assumes both the
shape and _____________ of the container.

 Reading passage 2

o Solids

16
Solids can maintain a definite shape. If we stretch a steel wire slightly and then
withdraw the force, the wire tends to return to its original length. If the pull on the
wire is strong enough, the wire will break. If we heat an iron rod, its length increases
slightly. From such observations we can make the following conclusions about the
arrangement of atoms within a solid.

1. Because solids maintain their shape, the atoms in a solid are held together by
forces between them.
2. Because some solids can be stretched slightly, the atoms in those solids are
able to move under the action of forces applied to the solid.
3. Because a solid can be broken, the atom or molecules in solids may be
separated completely if the force applied is great enough.
4. Atoms are made to move faster by raising their temperature. Because a solid
does not ordinarily change in shape, the atoms in it do not move away from
their place but can be considered as vibrating to and fro always in the same
place.

o Liquids

Molecules in liquids are much closer together than in gases under ordinary
conditions. It is virtually impossible to compress a liquid such as water.
If we place some water – soluble dye in the bottom of a dish of clear water and leave
it in a vibration – free place, we shall find that the dye gradually dissolves and that
the coloured solution spreads slowly through the water. Thus the dye molecules
diffuse through the water but the space between molecules appears to be so small that
their movement is hampered.
We can make some comments on the properties of liquids.

1. Because a liquid can be poured from one container to another, the molecules
of a liquid are less free to move apart from each other than those of a gas.
2. Because a liquid forms a horizontal surface, the molecules of a liquid are close
enough to attract each other strongly.
3. Because a liquid cannot be compressed easily, there is little space between
molecules.
4. Because coloured substances spread by diffusion in a liquid, there must be
movement of molecules in the liquid.

o Gases

Gases flow into a container and occupy the whole space. The molecules of the gas are
apparently free to move without much effect on each other. Compared with liquids
and solids, the molecules of a gas are far apart from each other.
A gas is composed of molecules moving about fairly freely and very rapidly.
Although there is plenty of space between them, they are colliding with each other
continually and bouncing away from each other without suffering any effect from a
collision. One molecule of gas in air is likely to travel a quarter of a mile and to

17
collide one thousand million times with other molecules in one second. When
perfumes used in a room, it is not long before we can smell the perfume on the other
side of the room. Apparently there is enough space between the air molecules to
allow the perfume molecules to move across the room. The process of spreading of
one gas into another is called diffusion.

II. Multiple choice

1. All matter; as it acquires sufficient thermal energy, will change from

a) gas to liquid c) liquid to solid
b) solid to gas d) gas to solid
2. Matter will best retain its shape if it is in the
a) solid state c) gas state
b) liquid state d) all of above
3. Matter will change its volume most easily in the
a) solid state c) gas state
b) liquid state d) none of the above state
4. All forms of matter occupy __________ and have _____________.
a) space and weight c) space and matter
b) volume and shape d) solid and liquid
5. A solid, unless affected by temperature or pressure, changes neither shape nor
a) weight c) collision
b) volume d) property
6. A substance that adjusts its shape and volume to its container is called a
a) solid c) gas
b) liquid d) molecule
III. Comprehension

1. What are the three states of matter? How would you classify the following:
milk, honey, cheese, hot air, ice, steam, water?
2. How do the forces between atoms or molecules in a solid compare with those
in a liquid?
3. What is diffusion?
4. When a gas tap is left on, the odour is soon noticeable at the other side of the
room. On what property of gases does this depend?
5. Which substances have you met in all three physical states, i.e. as a solid, a
liquid and a vapor?

IV. Grammar

Conditional sentences
- Type 1
Examples:
- If the pull on the wire is strong enough, the wire will break.
- If we heat an iron rod, its length increases slightly
18
- Type 2
- Type 3

(A Practical English Grammar, Thomas & Martinet)

19
 UNIT 6
METALS

Of the known elements, approximately three – fourths are classified as metals. While
there is no distinct line of demarcation between metals and non – metals, there are
several differences which are usually characteristic. Some of these characteristics are
so well known that most people have little difficulty in distinguishing a metal from a
nonmetal.

1. Metals have luster, particularly when freshly cut or when polished.

2. Metals are malleable; most of them can be hammered into desired shapes.
3. Metals are ductile; they may be drawn into wire.
4. In general; metals have greater densities than nonmetals.
5. Metals are generally good conductors of electricity, whereas non-metals are
not.
6. Metals form simple positive ions such as Fe2+, Zn2+, while non- metals form
simple negative ions, Cl-, S2-

Metals and alloys

Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Many are so strong and can be
bent into different shapes without breaking. For some uses, metals need to be very
pure. For example, the copper in copper wire has to be very pure (up to 99.98
percent) so that it conducts electricity as well as possible. But for many purposes,
mixtures of two or more metals are used. These mixtures (called alloys) are made by
melting the metals together and letting them cool and solidify. Alloys have different
properties from the separate metals and nowadays scientists can make alloys with the
properties they want for a particular job. Generally, alloys are harder than the
separate metals and have lower melting point. They may also be more resistant to
corrosion. The best known alloy is steel which is made from iron and non- metal
(carbon) rather than from two metals.

The corrosion of metals

Everyone knows that iron forms a layer of brown crumbly rust on its surface when it
is exposed to the ‘weather’. Rusting is caused by the reaction of iron with oxygen and
water in the air.
Many other metals corrode in air. You can tell this because they lose their shine and
sometimes change color as well. The surfaces of copper water-tanks and bronze
statues start off copper-colored but slowly go brownish, grey and then green as they
corrode.
The layer formed on most metals by corrosion is an oxide or a carbonate of the metal.
Unlike rust itself, this layer does not usually flake off quickly. Instead it stays there
and helps to stop the air from attacking the fresh metal underneath. So these metals
have their own ‘do – it – yourself’ protection. This is why some metals like
aluminium resist corrosion better than iron.

20
It is very difficult to stop iron and ordinary steel from rusting, though regular painting
or greasing does help. One of the best ways is to make an alloy of iron and another
metal: stainless steel is a good example.

But steel alloys can be much more expensive than ordinary steel. No one would think
of making very long underground pipelines or large ships out of stainless steel; and
yet the ordinary steel in these things could rust very quickly because acids in the soil
and salt in the sea speed up the process a lot.

I. Matching

(A) (B)
1. luster a) that can be pulled into fine strands
2.malleable b) become hard
3. demarcation c) brightness of a shining surface
4. pure d) limit or boundary
5. solidify e) substance that allows heat or electric
6. ductile current to pass along.
7. conductor f) not mixed with any other substance
g) that can be pressed into different shapes easily.

II. Completing

color polished
melting points electricity
physical alloys
solid

1. Metals are a group of chemical elements that exhibit all or most of the
following …………….. properties: Solidity at ordinary temperatures; good
conductivity for …………….. and heat; high reflectivity for light when
…………..and crystalline structure when in the …………… state.
2. Metallic elements can combine with certain other elements; these
combinations are known as …………….
3. Most metals are grayish in ………………, but bismuth, copper and gold are
pinkish, red and yellow respectively.
4. The………………of metals range from -38.90C for mercury to 3.3800C for
tungsten.
III. Comprehension
1. What is an alloy?
2. Why are alloys often better than pure metals for whole variety of uses in the
home and in industry?
3. State one reason why some alloys are not widely used despite having very
useful properties?
4. What is corrosion?

21
IV. Word forms

Noun Verb
corrosion ……………….
…………….. react
protection ……………….
expansion ……………….
……………… form

1. All metals ……………..when heated and contract when cooled.

2. In the …………………, coke combines with the heated oxygen to form
carbon dioxide.
3. Iron and steel can be …………..from rusting.
4. The metal ……………. because of rust.
5. Barium oxide, if heated in air, combines with oxygen………….barium
peroxide.

V. Grammar
Modals: can, could, will, would, ….
Example:
 Ordinary steel can be protected from rusting.
 The next experiment will help you to find out why.
 No one would think of making very long underground pipelines or large ships
out of stainless steel and yet the ordinary steel in these things could rust very
quickly.

(English Grammar in Use – Raymond Murphy)

(A Practical English Grammar – Thomson & Martinet)

22
 UNIT 7
ACIDS
1
An acid is a compound containing hydrogen (which can be) replaced, directly
or indirectly, by a metal. 2Its solution in water turns blue litmus red.
3
Acids can be classified into two groups. 4Acids which always contain the
element carbon are called organic acids and they often come from growing things,
like fruit. 5Citric acid which is found in lemons and oranges and other citrus fruits,
and acetic acid, which is found in vinegar, are organic acids. 6Acids which do not
contain the element carbon are known as inorganic acids. 7They are usually prepared
from non-living matter. 8Inorganic acids consist only of hydrogen and an acid radical.
9
Hydrochloric acid consists of hydrogen and the chloride radical, and sulfuric acid
consists of hydrogen and the sulphate radical. 10They are inorganic acids.
11
The hydrogen in an acid is replaceable by a metal. 12Acids can be divided
into classes according to the number or atoms in each molecule which a metal can
replace. 13Those which have only one replaceable hydrogen in each molecule are
known as monobasic acids. 14Other acids may contain either two or three such
replaceable hydrogen atoms in each molecule and these are known as dibasic and
tribasic acids respectively. 15All the atoms of hydrogen in the molecules of inorganic
acids are replaceable by a metal. 16Sulfuric acid is an inorganic acid which is dibasic.
17
Hydrochloric acid is an example of inorganic acid which is monobasic.
18
Orthophosphoric acid, whose molecules contain three atoms of hydrogen, is tribasic.
19
Acetic acid molecules each contain four hydrogen atoms but only one of these can
be replaced by a metal. 20Acetic acid is monobasic.

I. True / False

1. All acids contain hydrogen.

2. Inorganic acids are monobasic.
3. Lemons and oranges are citrus fruits.
4. Organic acids always come from growing things.
5. A molecule of sulfuric acid contains three atoms of hydrogen.
6. Inorganic acids contain the chloride radical.

II. Comprehension

1. How can you know that a substance is an acid?

2. What are the differences between organic acids and inorganic acids?
3. Why is acetic acid monobasic though it contains 4 hydrogen atoms in each
molecule?

III. Substitution

1. In sentence 2, its refers to:

23
 a) Acid
b) Hydrogen
c) Metal
2. In sentence 4, they refers to:
a) Acids
b) Organic acids
3. In sentence 10, they refers to:
a) Hydrogen and the chloride radical
b) Hydrogen and the sulphate radical
c) Hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid
4. In sentence 13, those refers to:
a) Classes
b) Acids
c) Atoms
5. In sentence 19, these refers to:
a) Acetic acid molecule
b) The four hydrogen atoms

IV. Information Transfer

Complete the following diagram by reference to the text

Acids

Whose molecules contain

Two replaceable
hydrogen atoms

Are called

Tribasic acids
(orthophosphoric acid)

V. Grammar

1. Relationships between statements

24
Place the following expressions in the sentences indicated. Replace and reorder the
words in the sentence where necessary.

a) can be defined as (sentence 1)

b) are classified as (sentence 9)
c) for example (sentence 9)
d) therefore (sentence 10)
e) however (sentence 15)
f) whereas (sentence 16 + 17)
g) although (sentence 19)
h) therefore (sentence 20)

25
Example:
An acid can be defined as a compound containing hydrogen which can be replaced,
directly or indirectly, by a metal.

2. Definitions

Example

(a) 1. ………acids
2. ……….acids
3. ……….acids are (b)
4. ……….acids ……………….
5…………
which

………………………..in each molecule

c) 2. have………………………………..
contain………………………………
………………………….element carbon

Example:
- Monobasic acids are acids which have one replaceable hydrogen atom in each
molecule.
 UNIT 8
PROBLEM SOLVING WITH RUBBER
For many centuries, the native people of Central and South America used a milky
liquid (latex) from certain trees to make elastic, bouncing balls. The early European
explorers used the latex to waterproof their clothes. This worked well until the sun
melted the rubber, making it soft and sticky. And during cold weather the rubberised
material became hard and brittle.
Charles Goodyear, an American inventor, became interested in finding a treatment
for rubber that would allow it to resist extremes of heat and cold. The story is told
that after 10 years of unsuccessful experimenting, he accidentally spilt mixture of
latex and sulfur on a hot stove. He craped it off, let it cool, and found that it was no
longer sticky. It stayed flexible at high or low temperatures, and did not react with
chemicals. He had discovered the process now call vulcanisation.
Early this century it was found that rubber is a natural polymer. It consists of a large
number of small molecules linked together (fig.1). Knowing this, scientists tried to
make synthetic rubber by linking up small molecules into a polymer.

H3C CH3

C C C CH C CH

H2C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2

Fig. 1 Structure of natural rubber

Scientists in Germany succeeded in making large quantities of synthetic rubber

before World War II (1939-1945). During the war the supply of natural rubber was
cut off by the capture of the rubber plantations in South – East Asia by the Japanese.
This meant the Allies had to produce their own synthetic rubber or risk losing the
war. It wasn’t until 1942 that the Americans were able to do this.
Since World War II many different types of synthetic rubber have been made; for
example, one which is bouncier than natural rubber and which resists punctures is
used in car tyres.
Ordinary vulcanised rubber does not melt on heating, and therefore cannot be
recycled. Because of this, disposal of used tyres is a major problem. Scientists have
been trying to solve this problem by making thermoplastic rubber. This is made by
mixing the small – molecule building blocks of a plastic with the building blocks of
rubber.
Thermoplastic rubber has the elastic properties of rubber, as well as the properties of
a thermoplastic. This means it can be remelted and moulded into different shapes. If
car tyres could be made from this new material, then used tyres could be collected
and melted to make new tyres.
The thermoplastic rubbers produced so far, however, are unsuitable for car tyres
because they start to soften at about 600C. Scientists are still trying to solve this
problem.
I. Completing

synthetic supply
properties physical
elasticity vulcanised
latex resistance

1. Natural rubber is obtained from the milky white liquid called…………

2. It is characterized by its ……………., water repellence and electrical
resistance.
3. When crude rubber is heated with sulfur to a temperature between 120 and
1600C it becomes……………that is, it has more strength and elasticity and
greater……………….to changes in temperature.
4. In 1839 Charles Goodyear discovered that cooking rubber with sulfur removed
from the gum all of its unfavorable…………….
5. …………………..rubber is the name for any artificially produced substance
which resembles natural rubber became evident when, during World War II,
the …………….from the Far East was terminated.

II. Comprehension

1. What were the three problems with rubber?

2. Which problem was solved partly by accident?
3. Which problem is still unsolved?
4. Is natural rubber a polymer? Explain.
5. Why was synthetic rubber developed during World War II?
6. How is thermoplastic rubber different from normal rubber?

III. Grammar
- Passive voice

Examples:
During the war the supply of natural rubber was cut off………………….
Since World War II many different types of synthetic rubber have been made.
Early this century it was found that rubber is a natural polymer.

(English Grammar in Use_Raymond Murphy)

 UNIT 9
PROTEIN
Proteins are organic compounds that contain nitrogen. They are made only by living
cells.
Proteins are made up various combinations of basic substances called amino
acids; of which 22 are known. Most of these can be manufactured in the human body
if they are not in the diet, using nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen from other sources. But
there are 8 of them that cannot be made in the body, and each of them is necessary in
its building and repair.
A complete protein is one that contains all 8, and it is almost always of animal
origin – meat, organs, poultry, fish, milk, and eggs, for example. Most vegetable
proteins lack one or more of the acids, and are called incomplete.
The body ordinarily does not store any incomplete protein from one meal to
the next. It does not wait for a missing amino acid in order to build the particular
protein it needs. It may breakdown another protein in its tissue to obtain it, or destroy
the incomplete set, excreting the nitrogen. The carbon – oxygen remainder may be
oxidized to provide energy, combined with hydrogen from water to make fat or
excreted in the feces.
If plant material is used as a source of protein, it is therefore important that
animal food be eaten at the same meal or that there be two or more types of vegetable
protein eaten together, so that one may make up the deficiencies of the other.
Protein body substances are being continuously broken down and replaced, so
an intake of fresh proteins for rebuilding work is essential for health. Proteins can
also be oxidized to obtain energy, if both carbohydrates and fats are in short supply.
This process is leisurely, so high protein foods are not satisfactory for a quick pick-up
of energy, but are excellent for maintaining it over long periods.
Organic compounds = combinations of two or more substances one of whose
elements is carbon.
I. Matching
 A B
1. Proteins are made up of various a) do not have
combinations of basic substances. b) composed
2. Most vegetable proteins lack one or c) compensate for
more of the amino acids and are called d) what is missing from?
incomplete.
e) rather slow
3. ……… so that one may make up the
deficiencies of the other.
4. This process is leisurely
II. True/False

1. Proteins contain both carbon and nitrogen.

2. There are 8 kinds of proteins.
3. Protein of animal origin is more likely to be complete than protein of plant
origin.
4. An incomplete protein lacks any one of the amino acids.
5. It is essential to eat meat in order to get a complete protein.
6. Incomplete proteins eaten in one meal cannot be completed with amino acids
from a later meal.
7. A supply of protein is necessary for health.
8. Proteins are burned to supply energy only if there are insufficient carbohydrates
and fats.

III. Completing

animal intake
vegetable built
low repaired
complete body-building

1. Proteins are essential…………….. foods necessary for growth and for the
replacement of substances lost in the wear and tear of the tissues.
2. Every cell in the body contains protein and no cell can be………… or ……………
unless enough protein is available.
3. Proteins are derived from both plants and animals. The main………….. protein
foods are meat, fish, eggs, poultry and dairy products………….. proteins are obtained
from cereals, nuts, peas and beans.
4. Generally animal proteins are ………… in their range of amino acids whereas
plant proteins are ………. in some of the amino acids.
5. An adequate daily ………… of protein food is needed.

IV. Comprehension

1. Why is protein necessary in the diet?

2. What are amino acids?
3. Does protein contain only nitrogen?
4. What happens to protein body substances?

V. Grammar

Example:
It is therefore important that animal food be eaten at the same meal or
that there be two or more types of vegetable protein eaten together.
  Present subjunctive

It + be + Adj + that + Subject + Verb in simple form

(any tense)

It is necessary that………
It was urgent that………..
It has been proposed that ………
It is important that …………
It has been suggested that …………
It was recommended that ………..

(TOEFL Preparation Guide [Cliffs] – Michael A. Pyle & Mary Ellen Munoz)
(Apractical English Grammar – Thomson & Martinet)
 UNIT 10
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
Soap has been made from animal fats and vegetable oils for many centuries
and was used for all types of cleaning. Nowadays it is usually used only for personal
hygiene, while detergents or washing powders are used for most other types of
cleaning tasks. One of the reasons for this is that soap does not work well in hard
water. Hard water has calcium and magnesium salts dissolved in it, and these react
with the soap to produce a grey scum. This causes that dirty ring around the bathtub,
and makes washing clothes difficult.
During the 1950s synthetic detergents or washing powders were made from
chemicals obtained from crude oil. These detergents don’t form a scum with hard
water.

How soaps and detergents work

Soaps and detergents work because of their long, thin molecules. The ends of
these molecules have a negative charge on them, and are attracted to water molecules,
that is they will dissolve in water. The other ends are repelled by water, but will
attract themselves to dirt or grease.
Suppose you are washing dirty clothes (A). The detergent helps the water to
spread through the fibers of the cloth. The uncharged ends of the detergent molecules
bury themselves in any dirt or grease, while the other ends stick out into the water
(B). the dirt breaks up into tiny bits which are surrounded by detergent molecules and
held suspended in the water (C). Agitating the clothes assists in the washing process.

Fig. 10.1
 Fig. 10.2 How washing powder is made

I. Comprehension 1

1. What are the differences between hard and soft water?

2. What are detergents made from?
3. In what ways are soaps and detergents similar? How are they different?
4. Use the diagrams on the previous page to explain, in your own words, how
soaps and detergents work?
5. What difference does agitating the clothes make?
6. Look at the above flow diagram (Fig 10.2), which shows what happens in a
factory making washing powder.
a) What raw materials are used by the factory?
b) What is the end product?
c) Are there any waste materials?
d) Why is a sieve used before packing the washing powder?
e) Suggest why the bleach and perfume are not added with the other
ingredients at the start.
Washing powders contain other chemicals besides detergent

Fig.10.3 Ingredients in washing powder

II. Comprehension 2

1. What is the purpose of the metal protector?

2. What might happen if the sodium silicate was left out?
3. Are there any ingredients you think are unnecessary?

III. Grammar

 Indefinite and definite articles

Examples:
The ends of these molecules have a negative charge on them.
These react with soap to produce a grey scum.

1. ……. Electricity is generated by …….. generators.

2. ……. Electricity which derived its power from water is known as …… hydro –
electricity.
3. …….. vegetables are good for health.
4. …….. industry of Sheffield is steel – making.
5. They should pay more attention to heavy ……….. industry.
6. Water is necessary to ……….. life.
7. …….. life of these insects is very short.
8. Transistor is ………. Small electronic device used in radios, television.

 Prepositions
Examples:
Soap was used for all types of cleaning.
Washing powders were made from chemicals.
The other ends are repelled by water, but will attach themselves to dirt or
grease.

 That
That (relative clause)
That (noun clause)
That is: that is to say

Examples:
- Proteins are organic compounds that contain nitrogen.
- One of the reasons for this is that soap does not work well in hard water.
- That is, they will dissolve in water.

(English Grammar in Use – Raymond Murphy)

(A Practical English Grammar – Thomson & Martinet)
 WRITING
I. WRITING A PARAGRAPH
The following are statements about atoms. They are divided into two
paragraphs. Write them out in the correct order.
Paragraph 1
1. All of them, except the hydrogen
atom, have protons, neutrons and
electrons.
Paragraph 1
2. At the other end of the size scale is
hahnium with 105 electrons, 105 protons
and 155 neutrons. There are
3. There are 105 know elements each
made up of a different type of atom.
4. The hydrogen atom is without
neutrons and consists of only one proton All of them
and one electron.
5. The differences in atoms are due to
differences in the numbers of sub-atomic
particles found in them.
6. Somewhere in the middle there is, for At the other end
instance, iodine, with 53 electrons, 53
protons and 74 neutrons
Somewhere

Paragraph 2
7. If you could make a hydrogen atom 1 km
in diameter, the nucleus would be about 1 Paragraph 2
cm across and the outermost orbit of its
electron would be about 500 meters from it.
8. The atom itself is held together by nuclear
It
forces.
9. The nucleus is found in the centre of the
atom. If
10. You can see from this an atom is mainly
open space.
You can see
11. It is made up of neutrons and protons and
is surrounded by electrons which orbit at
relatively great distances from it.
The atom
II. WRITING DEFINITIONS

Study these facts from the table about aluminum:

1. Aluminum is a light metal.
2. Aluminum is used to make aircraft.
We can link these facts to make a definition of aluminum:
1+2 Aluminum is a light metal which is used to make aircraft.
Use the following table to make definitions of each of the materials in column A.
Choose the correct information in columns B and C to describe the materials in column
A
A B C
1. An alloy -allows heat or current to flow easily
2. A thermoplastic -remains rigid at high temperatures
3. Mild steel -does not allow heat or current to flow
easily
4. A conductor a metal -contains iron and 0.7% to 1.4% carbon
5. An insulator a material -becomes plastic when heated
6. High carbon steel an alloy -contains iron and 0.15% to 0.3% carbon
7. Brass -formed by mixing other metals or
elements
8. A thermosetting plastic -consists of copper and zinc

Adding information to a text

- Aluminum is used to make aircraft, engine components, and many items for
the kitchen.
We can add extra information to the text like this:
- Aluminum, which is light, soft, and ductile, is used to make aircraft engine
components – for example, cylinder heads and many items for the kitchen, such as
pots.
Note that the extra information is marked with commas or dashes:
, which…
_for example…
, such as…
Add this extra information to the following text about plastics.
1. Plastics can be moulded into plates, car components, and medical aids.
2. Thermoplastics soften when heated again and again.
3. Thermosetting plastics set hard and do not alter if heated again.
4. ABS is used for safety helmets.
5. Nylon is self-lubricating.
6. Nylon is used for motorized drives in cameras.
7. Acrylic is a clear thermoplastic.
8. Acrylic is used for aircraft canopies and double glazing.
9. Polyester resin is used for boat and car bodies.
 10. Polyester resin is hard and has good chemical and heat resistance.

Plastics are synthetic materials. They can be softened and moulded into useful
articles. They have many applications in engineering. There are two types of plastics:
thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics.

ABS is a thermoplastic which is tough and durable. Because it has high impact
strength, it has applications where sudden loads may occur.

Nylon is a hard tough thermoplastic. It is used where silent, low-friction

operation is required.

Acrylic can be formed in several ways. It is hard, durable, and has many uses.

Polyester resin is a thermosetting plastic used for castings. It has a number of

useful properties.

III. WRITING A PROCESS

When we write about a process we have to sequence the stages.

Consider these stages in the operation of a washing machine.

1. The drum is filled with water.

2. The water is heated to the right temperature.
3. Soap is added.
4. The drum is rotated slowly.
5. The dirty water is pumped out.
6. Clean water is added.
7. The drum is rotated much faster and the water pumped out.
8. The clean clothes are removed.
Instead of numbers, we can show the correct order using sequence words
First the drum is filled with water.
Then the water is heated to the right temperature.
Next soap is added.
After that, the drum is rotate slowly.
Next the dirty water is pumped out.
Then clean water is added.
After that, the drum is rotated much faster and the water pumped out.
Finally, the clean clothes are removed.

Study this diagram. It shows an extruder for forming plastic pipes. Describe the
extruder.
Now put these stages in the process in the correct sequence.
a. The hot plastic is forced through the die to form a continuous length of pipe.
b. The rotating screw forces the plastic past heaters.
c. The plastic granules are mixed and placed in the hopper
d. The pipe is cooled and cut to suitable lengths.
e. The plastic melts.

Describe the correct order using sequence words. Form your text into a paragraph

IV. WRITING A REPORT

Write a report about the setting up of the circuit.

An electric circuit

battery terminal positive clip

negative copper join torch
wire attach lamp current
globe holder alight set up
light up crocodile clip electric
Aim:
To set up an electric circuit.

Apparatus:

1. One six volt dry cell battery.

2. Four crocodile clips.
3. Two lengths of copper wire
4. One torch globe
5. One lam holder
Procedure :
1. Put the battery, the copper wire, the crocodile clips, the globe and the lamp
holder together on the table.
2. Attach the ends of the lengths of copper wire to crocodile clips.
Attach the end of one copper wire to the positive terminal of the battery and
attach its other end to the lamp holder.
4. Take the other copper wire and attach one end to the negative terminal of
the battery.
5. Attach the other end of the same length of wire to the lamp holder.
6. Note the result
7. Detach the copper wire from the negative terminal
8. Note the result.
9. Attach it again, but detach the wire from the positive terminal of the battery.
10. Note the result.

Conclusion

Instructions Report of what I did Report of what was done

1. Put the battery, the First, I put the battery the First, the battery, the
copper wire, the crocodile copper wire, the crocodile copper wire, the crocodile
clips, the globe and the clips, the globe and the clips, the globe and the
lamp together on the table. lamp holder together on lamp holder were put
the table. together on the table
2. Attach the end of the Then I attached the Then the ends…
lengths of copper wire to ends…
crocodile clips
3. Attach the end of one Next I attached… Next the ends…
copper wire to the positive
terminal of the battery and
attach its other end to the
lamp holder.
4. Take the other copper After that I took… After that the other copper
wire and attach one end to wire…
the negative terminal of the
battery.
5. Attach the other end of Next I attached… Next that the other end…
the same length of wire to
the lamp holder.
6. Note the result … …
7. Detach the copper wire Then I detached… Then the copper wire…
from the negative terminal
8. Note the result … …
9. Attach it again, but Finally I attached Finally it…
detach the wire from the
positive terminal of the
battery
10. Note the result … …
Write a conclusion to your In conclusion… In conclusion…
report.