UNIT 10: CONCEPT OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELPOMENT

- STAGES OF GROWTH- PRE-NATAL, NATAL, INFANT, CHILDHOOD, ADOLESCENT,

MATURITY,
SENESCENCE
• GROWTH
 Growth is defined as the net increase in the size of the mass of the tissues which include the process of multiplication of
cells. It includes the process of DNA replication, increase in cell size.
 Indicators of growth are:-
1. Weight for age
2. Height for age
3. Weight for height

• DEVELPOMENT
 It includes acquisition of variety of skills for optimum functioning of individuals. It specifies maturation of functions.
Thus, growth pertains to structure and development pertains to function.
 For proper functioning of human body structure and functions should be integrated. Any delay in development (or)
gaining of variety of skills (in the process of development) may reflect under development.
 Development is a matter of quality. One of the measurements of development is IQ.
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 IQ= MA/CA, where MA= Mental age and CA= Chronological age
 The growth and development in children is a continuous process.
 The general body growth for girls is 18years and boys is 21 years.
 For humans, the brain grows 90% in the first two years.
 The sexual organs mature by 14 years.
 The stages of growth in human beings are 7:
1. Pre-natal
2. Natal
3. Infancy
4. Childhood
5. Adolescence
6. Maturity
7. Senescence
1. PRE-NATAL STAGE
 The pre-natal stage is classified into 3 stages:
i) Germinal stage (0-2 weeks)
ii) Embryonic stage (2-8 weeks)
iii) Foetal stage (8 weeks-birth) VishnuVardhan
 Pre-natal means growth before birth of an individual. After fertilisation, the resultant egg is implanted into uterus where the
placenta is formed and the embryo derives nutrition from the maternal blood which results in growth and development of the
embryo.
 Growth in pre-natal stage is classified into 3 types:
i) Germinal or zygotic stage (0-2 weeks)
 The fertilised egg will take the shape of zygote. Here, there is formation of 3 germinal layers:
(a) Outer layer is called ectoderm (hair, skin, etc)
(b) middle layer is called mesoderm (internal parts of gonads)
(c) inner layer is called endoderm (lung cells, pancreatic cells, etc)
ii) Period of embryo (2-8 weeks)
 Here, head and arms are formed which is called organogenesis (regionalisation).
 Apart from organogenesis there is histogenesis (formation of specialised tissues). Hence in this period different organs and
tissues are differentiated, sex determination occurs during 5 th to 10th week.
iii) Foetal stage (8 weeks to birth)
 The peak velocity of length of foetus will reach by the 18th week. Peak growth of weight is obtained by the 34th week.
 Hence, birth weight and birth height in general reflects the maternal environment more than the genotype of the child.
 Birth usually occurs approximately 280 days after the first day of the mother’s last menstrual period.

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2. NEO-NATAL AND INFANCY (Motor capabilities and limb movements)
 Neo-natal is considered as the new born baby within one month.
 The first 4 weeks of life after birth is called neo-natal period.
 A time of transition from intra-uterine life to an independent existence.
 Upto 3 years, it is considered as infancy. During infancy, growth is very rapid. More than 50% of birth length and 200% of birth
weight takes place during the first year of life.
 Infancy period is a short period during which the infant seems to change from week to week in physical and motor capabilities
in the first 3 years of life.
 As infants grow physically, they also gain control over their bodies.
 The infant measurements are:
i) 50 cm at birth
ii) 60cm at 3 months
iii) 70cm at 9 months
iv) 90cm at 2 years of age
 Brain rapidly grows during infant stage.
i) At birth, 25% of adult weight of brain.
ii) By 3 months, 40% of adult weight of brain
iii) By 2 years, 90% of adult brain weight.
 There is cultural development in infants:
i) By 2-3 months there will be social smile.
ii) By 3-6 months, the baby recognises mother.
iii) By 6 months, infant shows anxiety after meeting strangers.
 There is behavioural response of infants like palmer group reflex.
 In Caucasoid, infants follow the above measurements whereas there is a general term, there is delayed measurements for
mongoloids and negroids.
 In India too, in socially and economically strong groups the standard infant measurements are followed, which is not the case
with the infants born to lower social and economic status individuals.
 That means, infant measurements are equally genetic and environmental. The environmental factors are nutrition, socio-
economic and culture.
4. CHILDHOOD
 The stage of childhood falls between 3-12 years.
 We shall further classify this type into early childhood (3-6 years). And late childhood (6-12 years).
 Both hereditary and environment play their role in physical growth of the children. There are population variation in the
growth of the child. During childhood, mainly early childhood, growth is relatively in width than in length.
 At about 7-8 years, mid-growth spur occurs, that means sudden acceleration of body organs (sexual and morphological),
differentiation starts, muscular and skeletal growth, motor skills develop and all the primary teeth start evolving. Hence, the
children can eat.
 Growth rate varies with race, national origin, socio-econoVmishicnucVoarndhdaintion of
 During childhood, one can observe disorganized behavior transformed in to organized behavior.
5. ADOLESCENCE
 The human body undergoes several changes. Adolescence begins with the onset of puberty, i.e. boys and girls are capable of
reproduction. Adolescence period is from puberty to 50 years of age.
 Sexual maturation takes place and many anatomical changes occur in all parts of the body. Height increases with lengthening
of the legs.
 Secondary sexual characters like change of voice, development of hair on the face, chest and genital regions and development
of mammary glands in the females.
 Overall there is development of sex organs.
 Adolescence growth spur occur in both girls and boys.
 In girls, between 12-13 years, and in boys between 14-15 years. The cease of growth resembles the stage of maturity.
6. MATURITY
 This stage is characterised by no growth stage as the bones lose their capacity to grow.
 Maturity is the long process which includes the young adulthood (20-45 years) and matured adulthood or middle adulthood
(45-65 years).
 In caucasoids, it is upto 45 years (degeneration of cells).
 In negroid and mongoloid, it is only upto 40 years. This means that caucasoids are healthier than mongoloids and negroids. It
is not because of environmental factors but because of genetic factors.
 During young adulthood, people will make many of their decisions that will affect the rest of their lives like health, happiness,
career and success. VishnuVardhan
 The unique feature of middle adulthood is menopause for females (cessation of reproductive procedure) and climacteric in
males. At the end of middle adulthood, the sensory perceptions (eye sight, hearing, taste, feeling, olfactory) start degrading.

7. SENESCENCE
 It is setting of old age, which is characterized by complete stopping of growth of cells, degeneration of tissues, failure of
vision, drying and wrinkling of skin, declining of memory, weakening of bones, etc.
 The onset of senescence varies drastically from one population to another. For example, in the population of Okamura, Japan
senescence begins at the age of 80, whereas in Sub-Saharan Africa senescence begins at 40 years.
 This is because of the role played by the environmental factors that is more laudable than genetical.
 In India, senescence begins early in urban population when compared to rural population, i.e. there is huge rural-urban divide
in relation to the onset of senescence as well.

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 Maintenance and welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007 and Amendment bill 2018
2007 ACT
1) Biological children and grandchildren.
2) 90 days of imprisonment.
3) General judicature.
4) If parents gave property to biological children and
now they are not taking care-> (not mentioned about
this).
5) Food, shelter, medication and clothing
6) 10,000/- should be given to parents.
2018 BILL
1) biological, adopted, daughter-in-law and son-in-
law.
2) 180 days imprisonment (increased).
3) Separate tribunals (Can file case here directly)
4) Here property can be taken back.
5) Now safety and security of parents is important
(other than food, shelter).
6) Based on income (variable)
• FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Factors influencing growth and development are:-
1) Genetics
2) Environmental
3) Biochemical
4) Nutritional
5) Cultural
6) Socio-economics

1) GENETICS
 For coordinated growth to occur, there is a need for coordination of genes. The coordination of genes is called induction.
 Though all the cells contain the same genetic material but different genes are activated at different parts and different
times in the body as per the demand of the function of the cell.
 There are two varieties of genes:-
(i) Housekeeping genes: Synthesise proteins for the cell functions.
(ii) Luxury genes: Related to specific functions. For example, insulin gene.
 DNA replication and protein synthesis are the basic for the growth and development of human beings.
 Tall parents give tall children, parents with high IQ are likely to have children with high IQ. The phenotype is influenced by
genotype.

2) ENVIRONMENTAL
 Countries with better natural resources, better GDP and GNP exhibit good health and satisfactory growth and development.
For example, in Netherlands, one of the government objectives is child care.
 Climatic conditions also affect growth and development. Growth will be faster in winter and slower in summer. The food and
drugs taken by the mother influences the foetus.
 The growth pattern differs in terms of races.
 Caucasoid register faster growth while negroids less growth. But environment also plays a major role. For instance, Japanese
people migrated to Hawaii within two generations observed growth in length and weight.

3) NUTRITIONAL
 Nutrition is important for growth and development of individuals. The growing child, if deprived of nutrition, will exhibit
inhibited growth and development.
 Balanced nutrition consists of all nutrition like carbohydrates, vitamins, fats and proteins in required quantities.
 The deficiency of nutrition will adversely affect growth and development.
 .
 The reasons for nutritional stress are:-
(i) Absence of balanced diet
(ii) Reduced food consumption
(iii) Lack of awareness of nutritional knowledge
(iv) Irrational beliefs of food habits
 The effects of nutritional stress are:-
(i) High incidence of IMR and MMR. In Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, subcontinent of India, there are higher rates of
IMR and MMR as compared to the western world.
(ii) Nutrition affects reproductive capacity.
(iii) Nutrition affects immune system and decreases disease resistance.

4) CULTURAL
 Cultural factors include ideas, superstitions, taboos, food habits, misconceptions and prejudices which will interfere with
better cooking hygiene, consumption practice and also the overall contact with nutrition.
 For instance, deficiency in thymine is because of eating polished rice, long time eating of jowar and maize leads to niacin
deficiency.
 There are some tribes for whom ploughing the soil is a taboo because of which they will not cultivate the food. Hence it leads
to nutritional stress eventually inhibiting growth and development. Over ploughing of soil also leads to zinc deficiency in
cultivated crops. VishnuVardhan
5) SOCIO-ECONOMIC
 Higher socio-economic people will have better nutrition and people with poor socio-economic background will face
malnutrition. Hence they are not coming out of the vicious cycle of malnutrition.
Well off

Good nutrition

Taller and intelligent

Greater mobility towards higher economic status

Poor

Poor nutrition

Shorter and less intelligent

Pushed to lower status

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 Conditions at home like good parentage, intelligent and positive attitude parents can create good children at home.
 Economic budgeting, i.e. faulty family budgeting and economic deprivation which are not child centric leads to poor conditions of growth and development.
 The habit of smoking and alcoholism also leads to health deprivation of children.
 The emotional factors like divide of mother and father also affect growth and development of children.
• BIO-CHEMICAL
 Human growth and development is largely an interplay of hormones secreted by various endocrine glands.
 Though hormones are needed in all stages of growth but they become crucial in some stages of development and any fluctuation in its level will be reflected by
serious imbalances in growth and development.

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 Function of hormones is to accelerate growth and control the growth. It helps in maturation and regeneration of cells
 It facilitates in the production of secondary sexual characters and regulation of reproductive genes.
 It also enables the human body to adapt to external stimuli.
• AGEING AND SENESCENCE
 AGEING- With respect to age the cells become old. (Chronological longevity)
 SENESCENCE- Biological longevity. (Age will be 30 years but get features of 60 years.)
 SOME THEORIES:
1) Inter-cellular- Within the cell (error)
2) Extra-cellular- Outside the cell.
3) Modern theory- Programmed theory- chromosome 1 and chromosome 21.
• BIOLOGICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL LONGEVITY
 Chronological ageing or longevity is defined as number of years that any individual has added to his life span from the date of
birth.
 Whereas biological ageing or senescence is the age in which old age symptoms appear in no reaction to his chronological age
which results in decrease in efficiency of the individual.
• CHRONOLOGICAL AGE
 Based on date of birth
 No impairment of cell functions.
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 People may be old but may not suffer from old age problems.
 It is calculated as age in years.
 For example, Sardinia (Italy) people.
• BIOLOGICAL AGEING
 It is based on biological malfunction mainly at cell level.
 Impairment of body functions regardless of age.
 Individual may not be old but may suffer from old age problems.
 It is age at the cellular level not at the chronological level.
 For example, Sub-Saharan African people.
 Stretchler defined senescence as the changes that occur generally in the post-reproductive period and which results in
decreased survival capacity on the part of the individual.
• REASONS FOR LONGEVITY
 Nutrition
 Frequent bodily exercise
 Anti-oxidant status
 Stress and emotional factors
 Eating plant-based diet for long term
 Spending time in nature
.
 • INTRA-CELLULAR THEORIES

1) Theory of genetic blueprint by Hayflick

With chronological ageing, there is potential victim in the human body with relation to senescence, i.e. the endocrine
system , Which releases abnormal hormones because of which there is loss of function of cells.

2) Theory of free radical reactions by Lester Packer and James R. Smith

Free radicals of oxygen are produced in the cell which results in damage and death of the cell.

ctions are responsible for generating superoxide radicals.

Highly reactive radicals hydro peroxyl is formed,
i.e. HO₂ and also H2O2 Pigment LIPOFUSCIN (age
pigment)

3) The error theories

- Error at the level of DNA by Ronald Hart and Richard Setlow:-
If there is an error in DNA replication and errors in mutations leads to ageing.
- Error catastrophic theory given by Leslie Orgie:-
A mistake in DNA polymerase enzyme gene which is responsible for DNA replication will produce errors. Errors lead to
subsequent ageing, hence ageing.
Theory of missing factor
- Non-functioning genes or non-optimal functioning of genes leads to ageing.
• EXTRA-CELLULAR THEORIES OF AGEING
1) COLLAGEN THEORY – Collagen, a fibrous protein which constitutes 40% of body protein, is present in extra-cellular spaces
and on cell membrane. Collagen is a substance that stands between the cell and its environment.
- Collagen content increases with age which reduce diffusion of nutrients and waste from cell membrane, hence eventually leads
dysfunction (abnormality) leading to ageing.
• IMMUNOLOGICAL THEORIES
 As age increases, our body immune system becomes unable to identify self from foreign body. Hence produces antibodies
against its own tissues.
 For example, Type I diabetes.
 The pancreas produces the hormone insulin which helps in regulating blood sugar levels. In Type I diabetes, the immune
system attacks and destroys insulin-producing cells in the pancreas.
• MODERN THEORIES
1) PROGRAMMED AGE THEORY
- Here ageing is predetermined and inborn which is confined to chromosome 1 (or) 21, i.e. it depends on chromosomes 1 and
21.
2) WEAR AND TEAR THEORY
- As time advances, cells grow older and they are unable to repair or replace the damaged components. Hence it leads to ageing.
Internal and external stresses aggravate the wearing down process.
• HUMAN PHYSIQUE AND SOMATOTYPES OR GROWTH TYPES
 In old anthropology, there is study of only morphology. Here the study is about understanding the changes in physical body
and analysing the reasons for variations in the body.
 New anthropology deals about relationship between morphology and environmental factors. Like different population growth
curves, etc with morphological body features of man like adolescent curve, hand strength curve and its methodologies.
 METHODS: Longitudinal, cross-sectional.
 SOMATOTYPES: How the growth of body organs is placed-Biological features only, no environmental features are considered.
(Old physical anthropology)
 The studies of late 18th century and early 19th century mainly concentrated on physiological factors which are mainly
morphoscopic and morphometric.. Hence the old physical anthropology is considered synonymous to somatotypes.
 Whereas new physical anthropology with morphological, behavioural, social and physiological aspects.
 But in overall, somatotypes deal with growth patterns.
 Growth curves in humans are generated to represent growth as a mechanism of evolution. The curves are based on the
principle that growth patterns refer to increase in size of cell or mass of tissue due to multiplication of cells.
 Important growth curves includes:
1) Height attainment curve
2) Growth curve of brain
3) Curve of senescence
1) Height attainment curve

The curve represents height attainment patterns among the Indo-European sub-racial stock, which based on the census of 1931.
2) Growth curve of brain

It is considered that 2 years baby acquires 90% of brain growth. Total 100% of brain growth is acquired by 20 years.
3) Curve of senescence
(i) Rate of hair greying

(ii) Hand growth strength

 The senescence curves do not take into account environmental nutrition and nurture.
 Greying of hair is considered to be the first indicator of ageing from maturation stage to senescence stage.
 Here there is deterioration of cell and tissue functioning.
 Reproductive organs:

Reproductive organs growth is almost dormant during childhood and becomes clearer during adolescence age. As the growth is
sudden, it is called adolescent growth spur.
• METHODOLOGIES FOR GROWTH STUDIES
1) Viola classification
2) Kretchmer classification
3) Sheldon classification
4) Heath and Carter classification
1) VIOLA CLASSIFICATION
 Viola classified individuals (human beings) into 4 somatotypes based on the length of the limbs, length of trunk, circumference
of the body.
 These factors are measured under 4 indices:
(a) Lengthwise variation
(b) Circumference variation
(c) Proportionate relationship between length and circumference
(d) Correlation between head and body size
 Based on these 4 indices, 4 categories are proposed by Viola:
(i) LIPTOPHYTE (LONGITYPE)
- Longer limbs than their trunk
- Body circumference has the highest range between the waist circumference and pelvis circumference.
(ii) BRACHYTYPE (BROADER)
- It is reverse of liptotype
- Longer trunk than the limbs
- The transverse circumference at the pelvis is almost equal to the waist circumference.
(iii) NORMATYPE
- It is the average of liptophyte and thr brachytype.
- It is the intermediate between liptophyte and brachytype.
- The trunk and the limbs are in equal proportion.
- In later studies, there is no racial stock as perfect as normatype.
(iv) MIXED TYPE
- here, the individuals have all the 3 varieties.
- Hence, there is no rational proportion.
- This type is defined/ referred as disproportionate group.
2) KRETCHER CLASSIFICATION
 He considered limited body measurements and mostly depended upon visual observations of anthroposcopic inspections.
 He categorised individuals into:
(i) PYKNIC TYPE: Bulkier (broad, fat and round; sturdy)
(ii) ATHLETIC TYPE: Strong and muscular (heavy muscled large shoulders and narrow hip)
(iii) LEPTOSOME: Slender (long, thin and linear)
3) SHELDON CLASSIFICATION
 Sheldon brought all the earlier approaches to his study.
 He considered anatomical as well as genetic studies.
 His studies are based on photographs of 400 college students that were standardised into 3 groups:-
(i) ENDOMORPH
- Predominance of roundness in different body parts.
- Arms and legs are puffy and weak.
- Thighs have unusually high deposition of fats.
(ii) MESOMORPH
- Predominance of bony features, highly developed limb muscles.
- They are medium with rectangular counters like wide shoulders and prominently wide pelvis.
- The head is massive and cubical in shape.
(iii) ECTOMORPH
- Linearity is their special feature, thin and lean body.
- They have thin face, high forehead or receding chin.
- They are the most slender individuals with proportionately longer limbs.
- Sheldon also considered ability to withstand disease and to prevent the disease in the classification and concluded that
ectomorphs are highly disease-resistant individuals and endomorphs are vulnerable to diseases as compared to ectomorphs
and mesomorphs.
- But he was criticised because of scientific evidences and was also criticised for considering individuals only from adolescent
groups. His study is treated as incomplete particularly in the sphere of study of diseases.
4) HEATH AND CARTER CLASSIFICATION
 Here, the factors considered are:- Height, Weight and CIRCUMFERENCE. For the first time rating is given to individuals.
(i) ENDOMORPH
- Endomorph reflects relative fatness and roundness in the individual body.
- They are poor in physical fitness, eventually poor in athletics.
- Heath and Carter recommended wrestling and heavy weight lifting for this group.
- The rating is 7-1-1 (endo-meso-ectomorph)
(ii) MESOMORPH
- Reflects relative muscular skeletal development relative to the height.
- The best suitable sport is short put.
- The rating is 1-7-1.
(iii) ECTOMORPH
- Linearity, high in physical fitness, the best in sport, typical long distance runners. High flexibility and agility are the features
of ectomorph.
- The rating is 1-1-7.
• GROWTH MEASUREMENTS
 Growth study normally aims at observing in details the growth in an individual or setting up standards giving the normal
variation of a parameter in people of different age groups.
 There are 3 types of growth measurements methodologies:
(i) LONGITUDINAL METHOD
- Repeated measurements on the same individual of the same population for different age intervals.
- For example, stature against age, which is also called distance curve.
- It is the study of overall growth .
- Gradually with time, there is increase in height and weight of the people.
- It studies an individual over a long period of time.
- Advantages of longitudinal method:-
(a) It reveals the growth pattern of individuals accurately.
(b) It enables us to study changes in the speed of growth.
(c) It enables us to study any sequence of events like eruption of teeth, secondary sexual characters, etc.
(ii) CROSS-SECTIONAL
- Different individuals are measured at same age level but no individual is measure over a long period of time as in Longitudinal
method. This gives growth average of a population. It is believed that an individual of this population will show “growth normal”
over a period of time.
- It is the best method for estimation of population mean at successive age levels.
- It is faster and cost effective as compared to the longitudinal method.
- (iii)Mixed or semi-longitudinal model.
- Here the individual is measured at different time scales and parallelly two or more individuals are measured at the
same time. Hence, we can find individual variation as well as population variation.