The Particulate Nature of Matter

Matter:

Matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes space.

There are 3 states of matter:

 Solids
 Liquids
 Gases

Scientists have developed a model called the kinetic theory, which explains how solids, liquids
and gases behave.

Some of its main points are:

 All matter is made up of very small particles.

 The particles are moving all the time.
 Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles at the same temperature.

The particles also attract each other when close, but these attractions are weakened when the
particles are far apart.

The 3 states of matter also show different properties:

 Solids:
- Volume: Has a fixed volume. Not affected by changing
pressure.
- Density: High density compared to liquids and gases of
the same element.
- Shape: Has definite shape.
- Does not flow.

 Liquids:
- Volume: Has a fixed volume, with a slight effect of
pressure on it.
- Density: Moderate to high.
- Shape: No definite shape, takes the shape of the
container.
 - It is a fluid; can flow.

 Gases:
- Volume: No fixed volume, expands to fill the
conatiner.
- Density: Low.
- Shape: No definite shape.
- It is a fluid; can flow.

These also show differences in how they respond to a change of pressure or temperature:

Generally, all shoe an increase in volume when the temperature is increase. They decrease in
volume when their temperatures are lowered.

But they have different magnitudes of expansion:

Gases Ammount of expansion

Liquids
Solids INCREASES UPWARDS

The kinetic theory explanation of thermal expansion:

“When, for example, a steel bar is heated, its particles speed up. They vibrate more and more,
taking more space. As they do, they take up more space, so the bar expands in all directions
slightly.

If the temperature falls, the reverse happens.”

They also show differneces in their responds to pressure changes:

The volume of the gas at a fixed temperature can be easily reduced by increasing the pressure
on the gas.

This is because the intermolecular space between the particles is huge, and so the particles
can be easily brought together by decreasing the size of their container (appling pressure).

Liquids on the other hand can only be slightly compressed, because they have very small
intermolecular spaces between the particles.

Solid’s volumes are unaffected by changing atmospheric pressure on them.

Changes in physical states of substances:

Gas

Increase in Temperature
Liquid

Solid
 Evapouration and condensation:
These happen between a liquid and a gas. The change of a liquid into a gas is called
evapouration. Condenstation is the reverse. These happen on a range of tempertures.

 Boiling:
This takes place at a specific temperature called a boiling point. It is the rapis change of
a liquid into a gas at a certain temperature.
The boiling point of a substance decreases if the pressure decreases.
Impurities in the liquid can increase the boiling point.

 Melting and freezing:

These happen at a particular temperature called the melting/freezing point.
Melting is the change of solid into a liquid and freezing is the reverse.
Impurities in the solid/liquid can decrease the melting point.

 Sublimation:
A few solids like carbon dioxide and iodine, do not melt when heated, but change
directly into a gas.
This also happens at a specific temperature.
Pure and impure substances:

A pure substance consists of one substance only. There is nothing else in it – it has no
contaminating impurities.

A pure substance melts and boils at definite temperatures.

An impure substance (that has impurities in it) like sea water has salts and other impurities
dissolved in it. This make the sea water have a lower melting point and a higher boiling point.

Types of mixtures:

There are 2 ways in which mixtures can be formed between 2 substances:

1. Homogeneous mixtures, where the substance are totally mixed together and are
indistinguisable, e.g. salt dissolved in water.

There are many mixtures that are homogeneous:

 Solution of a soluble solid in a liquid
 Solution of 2 miscible liquids
 Solution of a gas in a liquid
 Mixture of a gas in a gas
 Alloy of two metals

2. Hetrogeneous mixtures, where the substances remain seperated and one substance is
spread throughout the other as small particles, droplets or bubbles, e.g. suspensions of
insoluble solids in water.

Some of these mixtures are:

 Suspension of a solid in a liquid
 Gel
 Emulsion of 2 immiscible liquids
 Aeorsol of either a liquid or a solid in a gas
 Foam of a gas in a liquid
 Solid foam of a gas in a solid
Diffusion:

It is the spreading out of particles in a liquid or a gas, which is cause by the random movement
of particles.

It is also the movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.

Diffusion in liquids is much slower than in gases.

Diffusion in liquids is also called dissolving.

e.g. Copper (II) Sulphate crystals in water:

A copper 2 sulphate cyrstal is put in water beaker. It is then left to stand. At first the water
next to the crystal becomes blue as the solid dissolves.

Particles move off the surface of the crystal.

Eventually the crystal dissolves completely and the whole solution become blue. The particles
of the crystal have spread out evenly in the liquid.
Diffusion in gases:

e.g.1 When a few drops of liquid bromine are put in gas jar and the lid is placed, the gas jar
soon gets fully brown.

Bromine vapourises easily and fills all the available space completely.

e.g.2 Not all gases diffuse at the same rate, ammonia and hydrochloric acid put in cotton wool
on either side of a closed glass tubing create some smoke near to the cotton wool soaked in
HCl, as shown:

Mr NH3 = 14 + 1x3 = 17 (Ammonia)

Mr HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 (Hydrochloric Acid)

This shows that HCl molecules are heavier than NH3 molecules.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:
 Experimental techniques
2.1 Measurement

Apparatus used in the lab:

Name Use Picture

Beaker Used to hold liquids

Burette Used to add accurate

volumes of liquid

Conical Flask Used to hold liquids

Crystallizing dish Holds solutions

evapourating into
crystals
Flat bottomed flask Used to hold liquids
which don’t require
heating

Filter funnel Used to separate

solids from liquids

Condenser Used to condense

vapours

Measuring cylinder Used to measure

approximate volumes
of a liquid
Clock Used to measure time
in experiments

Pipette Used to dispense an

accurate volume of
liquid, can measure
volumes of 10ml to
25ml

Round bottomed Used for heating

flask liquids evenly

Spatula Used to handle small

amounts of a solid
Tap funnel Used to add a
controlled volume of
a liquid

Tripod Used as a stand for

flasks and beakers
during heating

Test tube Used to hold liquids

while being mixed.
Boiling tube Used to hold liquids
while it is being
heated.

Dropping Pipette Used to collect a

small amount of
liquid and drop the
collect liquid as drops.

Gas syringe Used to collect gases

emitted from
reactions. Can also
measure the volume
of gas collected.

Digital Balance Used to measure the

mass of solids or
liquids in grams or
kilograms
2.2

(a) Criteria of purity

Chromatography:

Chromatography is used to separate several substances dissolved in a solution. A drop of

the solution is placed on the origin line at the bottom of a chromatography paper.

The different solutes in the solution move up the paper with the solvent, but at different
speeds. A solute, which is very soluble in the solvent, travels through the paper faster than
a solute, which is only slightly soluble.

When the solvent reaches the top of the paper, the process is stopped. Different solutes
will have traveled different distances. The result is a chromatogram.

Chromatography is only suitable for separating very small quantities. It is not only used to
determine what a mixture consists of, but it is also used as a purity test. A single pure
substance will produce only one spot.

Chromatography was originally devised to separate coloured substances in solution. It can

also be used to separate colourless substances, which can be seen by spraying the filter
paper by a suitable chemical called a locating agent, which colours the spots produced.

A chromatogram can be made of some known pure substances and one unknown. The
positions of the different components of the unknown substance can be compared to those
of the known substances. The figure below shows how results can be obtained by this
method.

Testing for purity:

Testing for purity of many substances such as foodstuffs and drugs can be carried by either
one of two methods:
1. By making a chromatogram for the substance. A single pure substance will produce only
one spot.

2. By measuring the melting point or the boiling point of the substance. Pure substances
have their own fixed melting & boiling points.

(b) Methods of purification

1) Filtration:

This method is used to separate:

- A solid from a liquid
- An insoluble solid from a soluble one. The soluble solid is dissolved and can be
removed by evapouration
Filtration is carried out by pouring the mixture through the filter paper. The liquid that goes
through is called the filtrate; the solid that remains behind is the residue. To obtain the
pure sample of the soluble solid the filtrate is evapourated.

Decantation
It is an alternative method in which the solid is left to settle. Then the liquid is poured
leaving the solid behind.
2) Evapouration:

This evapouration is used to recover a solute form its solution. For example, to recover NaCl
from sea water, sea water is boiled so that water is released as a vapour and NaCl is left in
the evapourating basin.

The solution is boiled so that the liquid is released as a gas and the solid is left in the
evapourating basin.

Crystallization
It is an alternative method to recover a solute from its solution. The solution is evapourated
to the crystallization point, i.e. the point at which crystals of the solute will form on cooling,
which can filtered out, washed and dried.
3) Distillation

This method is used to recover a solvent from a solution e.g. getting pure water from sea
water. Distillation involves boiling followed by condensation. When the flask is heated the
solution boils and steam passes into the condenser where it is cooled by cold water passing
through the outer condenser tube. The steam condenses and the distillate (distilled water)
collects in the receiver. The salts (impurities) are left in the flask.

4) Sublimation:

Sublimation is used to separate a mixture of two substances where only one of the two
substances sublimes.

For example, if a mixture- of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride is heated, the
ammonium chloride turns directly to vapour (sublimes) but the sodium chloride remains
unchanged. When the vapour is cooled, solid ammonium chloride collects free from sodium
chloride.
5) Fractional distillation:

This method is used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids with different boiling points.
e.g. a mixture of ethanol (78°C) and water (100°C).

The mixture in the flask is heated so that it boils. Both ethanol vapour and water vapour go
up the fractionating column until the vapour of water (the liquid with higher boiling point
100°C) condenses in the fractionating column and drips back into the flask, while the
vapour of alcohol (the liquid with lower boiling point 78°C) reaches the top of the column
and distils over and is collected first.

Important applications of fractional distillation

a. The separation of liquid air into oxygen and nitrogen.
b. The separation of crude oil (petroleum) into useful fractions.
c. The separation of fermented liquor into alcohol and water.
If the liquids are immiscible (such as a mixture of oil and water) they can be separated using
a tap funnel.
 Atoms, elements and compounds
3.1 Atomic structure and the periodic table

All elements are made up of atoms. An atom is the smallest part of an element than can
retain the properties of that element. The atom consists of a minute heavy nucleus of
protons and neutrons and a surrounding region of space containing fast moving electrons.

Particles Charge Mass

Proton (p) + 1u
Neutron (n) 0 1u
Electron (e-) - 1/1836 (negligible)

Because the atom is electrically neutral, the protons in any atom equal the number of
electrons.

Atomic (proton) # and Mass (nuclear) #:

Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Mass number is the number of protons + neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

Isotopes:

Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same proton number but different
mass number. In other words, it is an atom having the same number of protons but
different number of electrons.

E.g. Hydrogen’s isotopes:

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium

e= 1 1 1
n= 0 1 2
p= 1 1 1
 The isotopes of an element have different physical properties but because they all have the
same electron configuration, their chemical reactions are the same.

Radioactive isotopes:

Radioactive isotopes have unstable nuclei. Unstable nuclei are particularly those of heavy
elements, such as uranium and radium. Some light elements also have a little number of
naturally occurring radioactive isotopes. Most artificial isotopes are radioactive.

Radioactive isotopes eject alpha and beta particles from their nuclei, so that they can
become more stable. They are often accompanied by a release of energy in the form of
gamma rays.

Uses of radioactive isotopes:

Medical uses:

1. Treatment of cancer by subjecting cancerous tumour to controlled amounts of gamma

rays from a cobalt-60 source.

2. Sterilizing medical equipment using gamma rays.

Industrial uses:

1. Controlling the thickness of paper, rubber, metal and plastic accurately.

2. The energy produced by radioactive fission of uranium-235, is used within a nuclear

power station to produce electricity.

Electron configuration:

1. Electrons move rapidly around the nucleus in energy levels or shells.

2. These shells from the nucleus outward are:

K L M N O P Q
No. of shell (n) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. The number of electrons that can b held by a certain shell = 2n2

K Shell 2 x 12 = 2e
L Shell 2 x 22 = 8e
M Shell 2 x 32 = 18e
N Shell 2 x 42 = 32e
4. The outermost shell cannot hold more than 8 electrons, except the first shell, which can
hold up to 2 electrons only.

5. When 8 electrons are in the third shell, there is a degree of stability and the next 2
electrons added go into the fourth shell. Then the extra electrons enter the third energy
level until it contains a maximum of 18 electrons.

6. The electron configuration is written to show the number of electrons present in each
shell.

7. The electrons in the outermost shell (valence electrons) are the only involved in the
chemical reactions and therefore determine how reactive the atom is and also its valency.

Group I (one) II (two) III (three) IV(four) V (five) VI (six) VII (seven) 0 (eight)
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0

8. When an atom reacts, it tries to have a full outer shell:

- Noble or inert gases all have full outer shell, which makes it difficult for them to gain or
lose electrons. They are therefore unreactive.

- Other elements are reactive because they do not have full outer shells:

 Atoms of metals with a nearly empty outer shell, lose electrons and so become
positive ions.
E.g. Na (2.8.1) –e- = Na+ (2.8)
 Atoms of non-metals with a nearly full shell, gain electrons and so become
negative ions.
E.g. Cl (2.8.7) + e- = Cl- (2.8.8)
3.2 Bonding – the structure of matter

Elements, compound and mixtures

Pure substances are either elements or compounds.

An element is a substance, which cannot be broken chemically into a simpler substance.

There are over 105 elements, most of them are metals.

Elements can be classified as metals, non-metals, or metalloids. There are only 22 non-
metals.

Some elements such as silicon (Si) have both metallic and non-metallic properties and are
known as metalloids.

A comparison between metals and non-metals

Metals Non-metals
- All are solids except mercury - Solids, gases and one liquid (bromine)
- Have high melting points except alkali - Have low melting points except carbon and
metals silicon
Shiny - Dull
- Malleable and ductile (can be beaten into - Brittle
sheets and drawn into wires)
- Good conductors of heat and electricity - Bad conductors of heat and electricity
except graphite

Compounds are pure substances, which consists of two or more elements chemically
combined.

The properties of the compound are completely different from those of its elements.

Mixtures are impure substances containing two or more compounds (elements and/or
compounds) mixed together, not chemically combined. Its components can be easily
separated by physical methods such as filtration, distillation and crystallization.

Mixtures are either clear and in one phase or cloudy and in more than one phase
(suspensions)

The substances making up a solution are often solute and solvent.

The solute is the part of the solution that is dissolved, while the solvent is the part that
does the dissolving.
A saturated solution is a solution, which has as much solute dissolved in it as is possible at
that temperature.

Solubility is the maximum mass of solute that will dissolve in 100g of the solvent at a stated
temperature. For most solutes, solubility increases with temperature. It follows that when a
saturated solution is cooled the solution can hold less solute at the lower temperature.
Some solute comes out of the solution; it crystallizes.

Alloys:

An alloy is a mixture of a metal with other elements especially metals.

It is made by weighing out correctly the different constituents and melting them together.

Steel is the most important alloy. It is an alloy of iron and about 1% carbon.

Brass is an alloy of 80% copper and 20% zinc. It is harder than copper, does not corrode and
is easily worked. It is often used for ornaments and picture frames.

Some examples are:

Alloy Typical composition Particular properties

Brass copper 70% Harder than pure
zinc 30% copper; gold
coloured
Bronze copper 90% Harder than pure
tin 10% copper
Mild Steel iron 99.7% Stronger and harder
carbon 00.3% than pure iron
Stainless Steel iron 70% Harder than pure
chromium 20% iron; does not rust
nickel 10%
Solder tin 50% lower melting point
lead 50% than either tin or
lead

3.2 (a) Ions and ionic bonds

Ionic bonding involves complete transfer of elements from a metallic atom to a non-
metallic atom.

An ion is a charged particle formed by the loss or gain of electrons. A cation is a positive ion
and an anion is a negative ion.

Ionic bond is the electrostatic forces of attraction between two oppositely charged ions
Electrovalency is the number of electrons lost or gained by an atom.

Properties of ionic compounds:

1. Have high melting and boiling points because the bonds between positive and negative
ions are strong and therefore a large amount of energy is needed to break them.

2. Usually soluble in water (a polar solvent) but insoluble in organic (non-polar) solvents
such as ethanol and petrol. (If they do not dissolve in water it is often because they have
very high lattice energy).

3. Conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water because ions ar free to move
towards the electrodes.

Examples of ionic compounds:

1. Sodium Chloride (NaCl):

- A sodium atom has an electronic configuration of 2.8.1

- A chlorine atom has an electronic configuration of 2.8.7
- Sodium atom loses one electron to form Na+ ion, and chlorine gains one electron to
form Cl- Ion.
- The oppositely charged ions are held
together by strong electrostatic attraction
called ionic bond. Sodium chloride formed
is an ionic compound.
- Ionic compounds tend to form
crystals. A crystal of an ionic compound is a
regular arrangement of a great number of
alternating negative and positive ions.
 2. Magnesium oxide (MgO):

- One atom of magnesium, Mg (2.8.2), gives 2 electrons to one atom of oxygen, O (2.6)
- The ions Mg2+ and O2- are formed. The electrostatic attraction between them is an
ionic bond.

3.2 (b) Molecules and covalent compounds

Covalent bonding involves sharing of electrons between non-metallic atoms. By sharing all
the bonded atoms gain a full outer shell of electrons and the particle they form is a covalent
compound.

Single covalent bonds:

In a single covalent bong, one pair of electrons is shared between the two atoms. One
electron comes from each of the two atoms.

A single covalent bond is the force of attraction between a shared [pair of electrons and the
nuclei of the two bonded atoms.

Hydrogen

Water (Hydrogen oxide)

Double covalent bonds:

In double covalent bond two pairs of electrons are shared between the two atoms. Two
electrons come from each of the two atoms.

A double covalent bond is the force of attraction between 2 shared pairs of electrons and
the nuclei of the two bonded atoms.

e.g. carbon dioxide

Oxygen

Triple covalent bonds:

In a triple covalent bond three pairs of electrons are shared between the two atoms. Three
electrons come from each of the 2 atoms.

Triple covalent bonds are the force of attraction

between three shared pairs of electrons and the nuclei
of the two bonded atoms.
A covalent bond is the forces of attraction between the shared pairs of electrons and the
nuclei of the two bonded atoms.

Covalency is the number of electrons which an atom shares when a bond is formed.

Properties of covalent compounds:

 May be a solid, a liquid or a gas.

 Solids are not very hard and have low melting and boiling points because the
forces of attraction between the molecules are very weak.
 Do not dissolve in water (a polar solvent) but dissolve in organic solvent (non-
polar) solvents.
 Do not conduct electricity because there are no free electrons to carry the charge.

3.2 (c) Macromolecules

1. Diamond

 Diamond is a macromolecular solid in which each carbon atom is covalently bonded

to four other carbon atoms terahedrally.
 It has very high melting and boiling points and is very hard, the hardest substance
known, and is mainly used in cutting and drilling equipment because all the atoms in
the lattice are bonded together by rigid strong covalent bonds.
 It does not conduct electricity because there are no free electrons in the lattice
structure to conduct electric charge.
2. Graphite

 Graphite has a layer structure. In each layer, each carbon atom is covalently bonded
to other three carbon atoms. The remaining electron from each carbon atom is
delocalized between the layers. It is these free electrons which allow graphite to
conduct electricity.
 Since the bonds between the layers in graphite are very weak, the layers can slide
past each other giving graphite its slippery feel and the ability of being used as a
lubricant.

The broken lines show the weak bonds and the lines show the strong bonds.
3. Silicon (IV) oxide

 Silicon dioxide is a macromolecular solid in which each silicon atom is covalently

bonded with 4 other oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom to 2 silicon atoms in such a
way that each silicon atom is at the centre of a regular tetrahedron of oxygen atoms.
 This structure is similar to the macromolecular structure of diamond.
 Silicon dioxide is hard has a high melting point and does not conduct electricity.
3.2 (d) Metallic bonding

Atoms of a metal can form lattices. All metal lattices consist of a close packed arrangement
of positive ions, which are surrounded by a sea of delocalized electrons that bind the ions
together.

Definition of lattice: a regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms, molecules or ions

in a crystalline solid.

Properties of metals:

 Metals generally have high densities because thee ions are close packed in the lattice
 Metals generally have high melting and boiling points because of the strong metallic
bonds holding the lattice.
 Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, because the delocalized electrons
are free to move through the lattice.
 Metallic bond is the force of attraction between two positive metal ions and the
delocalized electrons in the lattice between them.
 Moles
Mole:
The amount of substance that contains exactly the same number of
particle(atoms, molecules, ions) as the number of atoms in 12g of carbon-12.

Important:
1. The mass of one mole of a substance is numerically equal to it’s atomic
mass or molecular mass.
2. For example, mass of one mole of hydrogen is:
 Hydrogen consists of 2 hydrogen atoms. (H2)
 The molecular mass of one hydrogen atom is 1.
 Therefore, the mass of one mole of hydrogen gas is 2x1=2g
3. Mass of one mole of oxygen is 32g
4. Mass of one mole of magnesium is 24g
5. To find the mass of one mole water:
 A molecule of water consists of 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen
atoms.
 The composition of water is H2O
 Mass of 1 mole of 2 hydrogen atoms is 2g and mass of 1 mole of
and oxygen atom is 16g
 Thus, the mass of one mole of water is 18g.
6. Mass of 1 mole of sulphuric acid is(H2SO4 98g
7. Mass of 1 mole of sodium chloride(NaCl) is 58.5g

Molar mass:
Mass in grams of 1 mol of a substance is called its molar mass.
Formula:
One mole of each
Moles x Molar mass= Mass (g)
gas has a volume of
24 dm3 at room
Formula for converting moles to number of particles
temperature.
No. of particles= No. of moles x 6x1023 (Avogadro’s Constant).

Molar gas volume:

The volume of 1 mole of a gas in dm3 (Cubic decimeter)
Formula:
Moles x Molar gas volume=Volume of gas in dm3
Questions:
Q1: State the number of moles.
I. 90g of water
II. 100g of calcium
III. 14g of iron(II)oxide
Q2: State the mass of:
I. 1.5mol of sulphuric acid
II. 0.5mol of nitrogen dioxide
III. 0.1mol of calcium carbonate

Percentage Composition:
Percentage composition refers to the percentage of the mass of 1 particular
atom in its compound. For example, the percentage composition of sulphur in
sulphur dioxide (SO2) is 50%.

How to calculate Percentage composition?

Example: sulphur dioxide.
Mass of 1 mole of sulphur is 32g where as mass of
1 mole of oxygen is 16. Total mass of sulphur
dioxide is:
32+ (16x2) =64g
Percentage of sulphur= 32/64 x100% =50%
Percentage of Oxygen= (16x2)/64x100%=50%

Questions:
Q3: Calculate the percentage composition of:
I. Methane
II. Sodium hydroxide
III. Magnesium nitrate
 Empirical Formula:
Empirical formula gives simplest numerical ratio in which atoms of different
elements combine to form a compound.
Molecular Formula:
A molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element that
form a molecule.
Examples:
No. Name of compound Molecular formula Empirical formula
1 Benzene C6H6 CH
2 Ethane C2H6 CH3
3 Ethene C2H4 CH2
4 Methane CH4 CH4
5 Glucose C6H1206 CH20
6 Ammonia NH3 NH3
7 Water H 20 H 2O
8 Sulphuric acid H2SO4 H2SO4
9 Sucrose C12H22011 C12H22011
10 Ethanoic acid CH3COOH CH20

How to calculate empirical formula if percentage is given?

Q: Magnesium nitrate in which 72% is magnesium combines with nitrogen. Find the
simplest formula.
Magnesium Nitrogen
Percentage 72 100-72=28
Molar mass 24 14
Moles 72 =3 28 =2
24 14
*Empirical formula is Mg3N2
Steps:
I. Calculate the percentage of an element in the compound.
II. Divide the percentage by that element’s molar mass to obtain the number of
moles.
III. Number of moles of an element shows its number of atoms in empirical
formula.
 How to calculate empirical formula if mass is given?
Q: 0.8g of methane contains 0.6g of Carbon. Calculate the empirical formula.
Carbon Hydrogen
Mass 0.6 0.8-0.6=0.2
Molar mass 12 1
Moles 0.6 =0.05 0.2 =0.2
12 1
Mole Ratio 1 0.2/0.05=4
*Empirical formula is CH4
Tip:
IV. In case of given mass divide it by the molar mass to get moles
V. When moles are attained in decimals then obtain the ratio of the moles of
the elements present in the compound.

Questions
Q4: Find the empirical formula of:
I. Silicon oxide given that 6g of the oxide contains 2.8g of silicon
II. Iron bromide if 0.378g of iron reacts with bromine to form 2g of
compound.
III. Hydrated Calcium sulphate (CaSO4) contains 21% water. Work out
the empirical formula.

Calculations from equations

Now this is a difficult method to understand. From this method we calculate
moles, mass or volume of one of the products/reactants. This method uses
different types of relationship. Well! Just focus on what I am about to tell
you.
Q: Hydrogen is burned to form water. When 1.5g of hydrogen is burned calculate:
1. Mass of water
2. Mass of oxygen
Sol: First form an equation for this reaction
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
Mass of hydrogen is given! Find the mass of water
Now form a ratio:
Compound H2 H 2O
Molar mass 2g 36g
Mass 1.5g X
Form a ratio:
2/1.5 = 36/x
Solve the ratio!
2X=36x1.5
X=27g (Correct answer as given in by book)
Now we have to find the mass of oxygen in a similar manner
Compound H2 (Take any of the compound O2
whose mass in known)
Molar mass 2g 32g
Mass 1.5g X
Solve!
2/1.5g=32/X
2X=1.5x32
X=24g
Q: What moles of iron are obtained form the reduction of 3mol of the oxide?
Sol: Equation of reaction.
Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2
Form a ratio. Note that now it asks for ‘MOLES’ therefore, we will form a ratio according to the
moles of equation.
Notice that the co-efficient of Iron oxide is 1 there fore it has 1 mole as stated by the
equation. Similarly, the co-efficient of Iron is 2 there for it has 2 moles in the equation.
Form a ratio:
Compound Fe Fe2O3
Moles in equation 2 1
Moles in actual X 3
Solve!
2/X = 1/3
X=2/3 moles
I made this question. It is not authentic but was just to make you understand that how to solve
a problem asking for moles of a substance.
Q: What mass of aluminum is required to react with dry chlorine gas to
make 20 moles of anhydrous aluminum chloride?
Sol: Note that it has now asked mass but has given the number of moles in
the question. First form an equation.
2Al + 3Cl2 = 2AlCl3
Now notice we have to find the mass so then convert the number of moles
into mass of aluminum chloride.
Use the formula: Moles x Molar mass = Mass
20 = X/267
X= 5340 grams
Form a ratio
Compound AlCl3 Al
Molar mass 267 54
Mass 5340 X
Solve!
267/5340=54/X
X= 1080g
There fore mass of Aluminum is 1080 grams.
Q: A mixture of 60 cm3 methane and 100 cm3 oxygen is ignited in a
close container. If all the products are gases what is the volume
composition of there resulting mixture.
Now first form an equation: CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) = CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
Notice that all the products and reactants are gases. Focus on the method to
solve this problem.
Methane in the equation has 1 mole, oxygen has 2 moles, Carbon dioxide has 1
mole and water has 2 moles. Now we have to recognize that which reactant is
in excess.
Methane has 1 mole and 60 cm3 of volume where as oxygen has 2 moles and
its volume is 100 cm3
So, 1 moles of oxygen has 50 cm3 of volume and this makes equal number of
moles for both Methane and oxygen which makes it clear that 50 cm3 of
Methane is required; therefore, Methane is 10 cm3 excess!
In the equation 1 mole of gas has a volume of 50 cm3. As stated by equation
there is 1 mole of carbon dioxide which makes it Volume to be 50 cm3 and 2
moles of water which makes its volume to be 100 cm3
The Composition of the resulting mixture:
10 cm3 of Methane
100 cm3 of Water
50 cm3 of carbon dioxide
Q: Calculate the volume of carbon dioxide given off at room temperature, when 0.9g of glucose ferments. C 6H12O16
(s) = 2C2H5OH (aq) + 2CO2 (g)
Sol: Note that all the reactants and products are not gases so we cannot apply the formula in previous questions. So we will
first find the mass of carbon dioxide and then convert it into volume.
Compound C6H12O6 CO2
Molar mass 180 44
Mass 0.9g X
Solve!
180/0.9 = 44/X
X = 0.22g
Convert mass into volume.
Moles of carbon dioxide = 0.22/ 44
= 0.005 x 2 mol (In equation carbon dioxide has 2 co-efficient and has 2 moles).
0.01 = Volume/24000
Volume = 240 cm3

Q: When 6.4g of copper were heated in air 7.6g of copper (II) oxide, CuO, were obtained
2Cu (s) + O2 (g) = 2CuO:
(a) Calculate the mass of copper (II) oxide that would be formed.
(b) Calculate the PERCENTAGE YIELD that was actually obtained.
Sol: In part a find the mass of CuO
Compound Cu CuO
Molar mass 128 (Copper has 2 as co-efficient) 160
Mass 6.4 X
Solve: 128/6.4 = 160/X
X = 8g, there fore 8 g of CuO is formed but in question it is given 7.6 g of CuO was formed. What is the confusion? It is
revealed in part (b).
Now the formula of finding percentage yield is:
Percentage Yield = (Actual yield/Theoretical yield) x 100%
Actual yield refers to that of given in the question and theoretical yield refers to that of we calculated in question by using
theory formula.
Now observe,
Percentage yield = (7.6/8.0) x 100%
= 95%
Q: A 0.68g of impure zinc was reacted with excess hydrochloric
acid and hydrogen formed collected in a gas syringe. Hydrogen
collected measured 240 cm3 at room temperature. Calculate:
(i) The mass of pure zinc that reacted with acid
(ii) Percentage purity of the sample of zinc.
Form and equation: Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl2 + H2
Now first convert the volume of HCl into mass
Mole = 240/24000
Moles of HCl = 0.01 moles
0.01= mass/36.5
Mass= 0.365g
Form ratio
Compound HCl Zn
Molar mass 36.5 65
Mass 0.365 X
Solve!
36.5/0.365 = 65/X
X= 0.65g
Now how to calculate Percentage purity:
Formula for percentage purity is:
Percentage purity = (Theoretical yield/total mass) x 100%
= (0.65/0.68) x 100%
=95.6%
Molar Concentration:
The moles of solute per unit volume of solution.
Formula:
Concentration = Moles of solute/Volume of solution (dm3)

OR
Concentration = Mass of solute (g)/ [Molar mass x volume of solution (dm3)]

Q: Calculate the concentration of 30g of Ethanoic acid, C2H4O2 in 500

cm3 of solution.
Convert 500 cm3 into dm3
500/1000 = 0.5 dm3
Apply to formula:
Concentration= 30/ (0.5 x 60)
Concentration = 1 mol/dm3

Hope you understand!

 Electricity and Chemistry
Electrochemistry:

It is a branch of chemistry that deals with the reactions involving the conversion of chemical
Page |
energy into electrical energy and vice-versa.
33

Electrochemical reactions:

A chemical reaction which takes place when electricity flows through the substance.

Electrolysis:

The decomposition of an ionic compound (molten or aqueous) by electricity is called

electrolysis.

The liquid that decomposes is called the electrolyte.

Non-electrolyte is any substance that does not conduct electricity such as distilled water.

Weak electrolyte:

A poor conductor of electricity, because it is only partially ionized. (E.g. ethanoic acid)

Strong electrolyte:

It is a good conductor of electricity because it is completely ionized.

(E.g. potassium chromate, sulphuric acid)

Conductors:

A conductor is a substance that conducts electricity but is not chemically changed in the
process.

(E.g. carbon, metals and alloys)

Insulators:

Solid covalent non-metals don’t conduct electricity as there are no electrons that can carry
electricity as they are involved in bonding.

Some insulators include all non-metals (except silicon and such) and plastics.
Electrolysis of molten salts using inert electrodes:

The electrolysis of molten salts is comparatively easy to understand because only one of
type of positive ion (cation) and negative ion (anion) is present. Page |
34
Molten salts are elctroysed into their elements; a metal is produced at the cathode and a
non-metal is produced at the anode.

Electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide PbBr2:

Electrolyte: Lead (II) bromide

Electrodes: Carbon (graphite) or platinum

Reactions:
- At anode (Positive electrode):

2 Br- -2e = Br2

- At cathode (Negative electrode):

Pb2+ + 2e- = Pb

- Net reaction:

PbBr2 = Pb + Br2 which is molten Pb at the cathode and Bromine gas at anode.
 Page |
35

Cations (Positive) The ease Anions (Negative)

K SO42-
Na of discharge NO3-
Ca OH-
Mg INCREASES CL-
H Br-
Cu downwards I-
Ag

Electrolysis of aqueous electrolytes

In the electrolysis of aqueous solutions there will always be a few H+ ions and OH-
ions from water.
These may be discharged at the electrodes instead of the ions of the electrolyte.
This table shows the ease of discharge of ions:

1) Electrolysis of Concentrated hydrochloric acid

Electrolyte: Concentrated Hydrochloric acid

Electrodes: Graphite electrodes
Ions present: H+ and Cl-
Cathode reaction:
2H+ + 2e- = H2 (A colourless gas is produced at the cathode which burns with a pop)
Anode reaction:
2Cl- - 2e- = Cl2 (A yellow gas is produced at the anode which bleaches litmus paper)
 This apparatus is used:

Page |
36

2) Electrolysis of concentrated
Sodium Chloride (Brine)

Electrolyte: Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Electrodes: Platinum electrodes

Ions present: Na+ Cl-
H+ OH-

Cathode reaction:
Here H+ is more easily discharged than Na+ so Hydrogen gas is produced.
2H+ + 2e- = H2
Anode reaction:
Here Cl- is more easily discharged that OH- so Chlorine gas is produced.
2Cl- - 2e- = Cl2
Net reaction:
NaCl(aq) = NaOH + H2 + Cl2
 Page |
37

3) Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate with:

a) Graphite electrodes:
Cathode:
Cu2+ + 2e- = Cu
Anode:
4OH- = 2H20 + O2 + 4e-
This electrolysis produces Copper at the cathode and oxygen at the anode.
 Page |
38

b) Copper electrodes (Purifying impure copper)

Metals can be refined or purified by electrolysis. The impure metal forms the anode and the
pure metal forms the cathode. The electrolyte is an aqueous metal salt.
In the purification of copper, impure copper is used as the anode and a thin sheet of pure
copper is used as the cathode.
The following reaction occurs:
At anode, the copper is ionized (becomes an ion):
Cu -2e- = Cu2+
At the cathode, the copper ion is unionized, which produces solid copper on the cathode:
Cu2+ +2e- = Cu
As electrolysis takes place the pure copper sheet gains mass and the anode (impure copper)
loses mass and the impurities are deposited under the anode in the container.

This means that the copper ions had left the impure copper side and joined the pure copper
side.

The colour of the copper (II) sulphate solution does not change as the concentration of
copper ions in the solution does not change.

This is done on large scale and is the way how impure copper is purified.
 Page |
39

Electroplating of metals:

Electrolysis can be used to form a very thin coating of a metal on the surface of another
metal object. This can be used for decorative purposes or for protection against corrosion.

If for example an object made of copper is to be silver plated, the object is made to be the
cathode, a piece of silver is the anode and silver (II) sulphate solution is the electrolyte.

Anode reaction:

Ag –e- = Ag+(aq)

Cathode reaction:

Ag+ + e- = Ag

Uses of electroplating:
  To give a protective layer of the metal on the object. This also happens when
galvanizing with zinc.
 To give an attractive layer, e.g. electroplating steel with chromium gives it a shiny
appearance and a protective anti-scratch layer. The steel also has to be electroplated
with layers of copper and nickel before it is electroplated with chromium. Page |
40
Conditions for electroplating an object with a metal M:

 The object must be made the CATHODE

 The electrolyte must be a solution of salt of metal M (commonly a nitrate)
 The anode is a strip of metal M
 The object to be plated has to be very clean with no grease or smudges on it
 The object has to be rotated in the electrolyte so an even layer of the metal M can be
plated over it.

The manufacture of aluminium:

The method used to extract the metal form its ore depends on the position of the metal in
the reactivity series. If the metal is high up in the series, its ores are stable and can be only
be obtained by electrolysis.

Aluminium is extracted from bauxite (Al2O3) by electrolysis. However, bauxite has a very
high melting point but can be dissolved in molten cryolite at 900 degrees Celsius. In other
words, the cryolite is used to lower the melting point of bauxite.

Cathode reaction:

4 Al3+ + 12 e- = 4 Al
Anode reaction:

6 O2- = 3O2 + 12 e-

Carbon dioxide is also produced from this reaction. It is produced from the carbon
electrodes burning in the heat and oxygen produced. Page |
41
Manufacture of sodium hydroxide from brine (Conc. NaCl):

Several different types of electrolytic cell have been used for the electrolysis of brine. The
modern membrane cell is the safest for the environment and uses the least electricity.
Other types of cell use either a flowing mercury cathode, or a diaphragm (partition) made
from asbestos.

The membrane cell has a titanium anode and a nickel cathode. Titanium is chosen for the
anode as it is not attacked by chlorine. The anode and cathode compartments are
separated by an ion exchange membrane. This membrane is selective; it allows Na+ ions
and water to flow through, but no other ions. This means that, while Na+ ions can move
freely to the cathode, the products are kept separate and cannot react with each other. The
Na+ and OH- ions collect in the cathode compartment.

The electrolysis of water:

 Page |
42

Pure water is a very poor conductor of electricity. However it can be made to decompose if
some dilute sulphuric acid is added.

A Hoffmann voltameter can be used to keep the gases produced separate.

After some time the volume of the gas in each arm can be measured and tested. The gas
collected in the anode is oxygen gas, while the one collected at the cathode is hydrogen.

The ratio of the volumes is 1:2

This experiment is effectively the electrolysis of water:

 At the anode:

Hydroxide ions from the water are attracted and become oxygen gas:

4OH- (aq) = O2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + 4e-

 At the cathode:

Four hydrogen ions pick up these 4 electrons to form TWO molecules of hydrogen
gas

2H+ (aq)+ 2e- = H2(g)

This apparatus can also be used in the electrolysis of concentrated hydrochloric acid, where
the products are hydrogen at the cathode and chlorine at the anode.
Why are copper and other metals used as wires?

Copper and other metals have free electrons in their lattices that can carry the electrical
charge from one end of the metal to the other.

Aluminium steel-cored wires are used to transmit very high voltages of electricity on pylons Page |
from power stations to industries, factories, homes and offices, because aluminium is a very 43
good conductor of electricity.

The wires are steel-cored to make them stronger.

 Chemical changes
6.1 Energetics of a reaction

All chemical reactions involve an energy change. Energy is taken in or given out in the form
of heat. So the reactions are divided into 2 groups – Exothermic and Endothermic.

All exothermic reactions release heat energy to the surroundings.

Reactants = Products + Heat energy

The chemical energy of the reactants is bigger than the chemical energy of the products.
The difference is transferred to the surroundings in the form of heat energy.

Reactants

Energy (Kj) Heat given out

Products

Progress of reaction 

This is an energy level diagram.

An endothermic reaction absorbs energy from the surrounding.

Reactants + Heat energy = Products

The chemical energy of the reactants is smaller than the products, so this difference in
energy is transferred from the surrounding to the chemicals.
 Products

Energy (Kj)
Heat taken in

Reactants

Progress of reaction 

An energy level diagram for an endothermic reaction.

For a reaction to be exothermic, the total energy taken in to break the bonds should be less
than the energy given out when forming the bond.

For a reaction to be endothermic, the total energy taken in to break the bonds should be
more than the energy given out when the bonds are formed.

So in conclusion, bond breaking is endothermic and bond forming is exothermic.

e.g. H2 + Cl2  2HCl

 Bonds present:
H-H and Cl-Cl
These 2 bonds at first have to be broken.
The H-H bond needs 436 kJ/mol to be broken.
The Cl-Cl bond needs 242 kJ/mol to be broken
So total energy need to break the bonds = 436 + 242 = 678 kJ
 Bonds to be made:
2x H-Cl
These bonds release 431 kJ/mol when made.
So total energy released = 431 x 2 = 862 kJ/mol.

678-862= -184 Kj/mol

The – sign indicates that the reaction was exothermic, as energy was released.
The hydrogen and chlorine reaction is actually explosive, which obviously show that the
reaction is exothermic.

e.g. 2, the decomposition of ammonia:

If ammonia is heated strongly the following reaction occurs:

2NH3  N2 + 3H2

 Bonds present:
6x N-H
The energy needed to break these bonds = 391 kJ/mol x6 = 2346 kJ/mol

 Bonds to be made:
3x H-H
N≡N
H-H bond releases 436 kJ/mol
N≡N bond releases 946 kJ/mol
Total = 3(436) + 946 = 2254 kJ/mol

2346 – 2254 = 92 kJ/mol

This shows that this reaction is endothermic as the energy released is less than the energy
taken in.

6.2 Production of energy

 Production of heat energy by burning fuels:

The most common way of producing heat energy is by burning of fossil fuels. Heat
energy and then electrical energy is then produced from this energy in power
stations.

e.g. Methane (natural gas) being burnt:

CH4 + 4O2  2CO2 + 2H2O + (ENERGY)

 Hydrogen as a fuel:
The combustion of hydrogen is highly exothermic.
It is used as rocket fuel, in experimental vehicles and in fuel cells.
 Advantages:
- It is the most energy rich fuel. It releases more energy per kg than any other
conventional fuel.
- The only product of combustion is water, no pollutants are formed.
- Oxides of nitrogen are not formed.

H2 + O2  H2O + (ENERGY)

 Nuclear reactions:
Energy is released in nuclear reactions. This nuclear energy can be released in an
explosive and controlled manner.

- Fission (splitting of uranium-235)

It was used in the atom bomb. If the nuclear energy from the fission of the U-235 is
released in a safe regulated manner, it can be used to produce electrical energy in
nuclear power stations.

-Fusion (joining together)

The fusion of the hydrogen nuclei is the source of energy in the hydrogen bomb. The
sun obtains its energy from the fusion of the hydrogen atoms.
It is also how the sun gets its heat!
 Electrolytic cells

Metals and solutions of their own salts can be used to generate electricity. If the above
experiment is set up, a bulb will glow showing that electricity has been produced in the
zinc and copper half-cells.

Zinc is higher than copper in the reactivity series, so is the producer of electrons at THE
CATHODE. The copper takes the electrons at THE ANODE.

The reactions are:

CATHODE (-) Zn(s) = Zn2+(aq) + 2e- (OXIDATION LOSS OF ELECTRONS)

ANODE (+) Cu2+(aq) + 2e- = Cu (REDUCTION GAIN IN ELECTRONS)

Although zinc/copper is used here as the example, you can get electricity from any pair
of metals set up in a diagram like the one shown above.

The amount of electricity produced depends on the position of the metals in the
reactivity series. The rule is:

THE FURTHER APART THE METALS ARE IN THE REACTIVITY SERIES – THE MORE
ELECTRICITY WILL BE PRODUCED.
 Hydrogen fuel cells

In a fuel cell there are 2 electrodes usually containing platinum. An electrolyte of

aqueous sodium hydroxide and the reactants which are continuously supplied
through the electrodes supplies electrical energy continuously.

At the negative electrode hydrogen is supplied. The molecules lose electrons and
form ions in the electrolyte.

H2  2H+ +2e-

The electrons move through the external circuit to the positive electrode to which O2
is supplied

O2 + H2O +4e-  4OH-

The ions react to produce water

H+ + OH-  H2O

The overall reaction is 2H2 + O2  2H2O

 Chemical reactions
7.1 Speed of reaction

Some reactions are very fast, e.g. the formation of silver chloride precipitate when silver
nitrate and silver chloride solutions are mixed. Other reactions are very slow, e.g. the
rusting of iron.

Factors affecting speed of reactions:

 Particle size (surface area)

 Concentration
 Temperature
 Presence of catalyst
 Light

Measuring the speed of a reaction that produces a gas:

Take for example the reaction between magnesium and excess dilute hydrochloric acid.

The speed of the reaction can be followed by measuring the volume of gas evolved over a
period of time using the apparatus below:
The flask is divided into 2 compartments. The acid is put into one compartment and the
metal into the other. The reactants are separated whilst setting the apparatus so that the
starting time of the reaction can be accurately determined. When the flask is tipped up, the
reactants mix and start producing the gas. The gas pushes its way out of into the syringe;
the plunger of the syringe is forced back. Readings of the volume are taken every minute,
using the scale marked on the side of the syringe.

The reaction is much faster at the start: 12 cm3 are produced during the first minute, but
only 3 cm3 during the fifth minute (33 cm3 – 30 cm3 = 3 cm3).

Notice that the curve is steepest at the start: after nine minutes it has gone completely flat.
That means that the reaction is complete.
The collision theory:

The collision theory is the most common one used to explain the facts concerning the
speed of reactions.

The two main statements of this theory are:

 Particles must collide before they can react.

 The colliding particles must contain enough energy to cause bonds to break.

Effect of particle size (surface area):

The effect of particle size can be examined by doing 2 experiments, A and B.

The experiment using the divided flask can be done with calcium carbonate and acid.

HCl of the same concentration is added in excess to:

 Powdered marble in A
 Marble chips in B
1. Curve A is steeper than curve B showing that the reaction was faster in case of powdered
marble. This explains why mixtures of air and coal dust in mines sometimes explode.

2. 40 cm3 of CO2 were produced in both the two experiments: in 1.5 minutes in A, but in 5.5
minutes in B.

Conclusion:

The speed of a reaction increases with increase of the surface area of a solid reactant.

This is because a reaction can only take place at the surface of a solid. Breaking a solid into
smaller pieces increases its surface area, allowing more collisions with other reactants.

This also results in explosions in flour mills and coal mines where flour and coal are
powdered and the surface area in contact with air is huge.

Effect of concentration:

The effect of concentration can be examined by doing 2 experiments A and B. Hydrochloric

acid of different concentrations (1 M in A and 0.5 M in B) is added in excess of equal masses
of Magnesium ribbon (e.g. 0.06 g)

The acid in B is twice as

concentrated as in A. Both
sets of results are shown on
the same graph.

1. Curve A is steeper than

curve B showing that the
reaction is faster in the case of 1 M acid.

2. 60 cm3 of hydrogen was produced in both experiments: in 60 seconds in A, but in 120

seconds in B.

Conclusion:

The speed of the reaction increases with the increase of the concentration of the
reactants.

Reason:

This is because increasing the concentration of reactants increases the number of particles
in a given volume and so increases the number of collisions between the reactants which
means an increase in successful collisions.

Effect of temperature:

The speed of the reaction increases with an increase of temperature.

A rise of 10 degrees C approximately doubles the speed of the reaction.

Reason:

This is because increasing the temperature makes the particles move faster and increase
the number of successful collisions.

The reverse decreases the rate of the reaction. This is what fridges do, by lowering the
temperature, lowers the rate of food decay.

Effect of catalyst:

A catalyst is a substance which speeds up reactions, but remains chemically unchanged at

the end of the reaction. Enzymes are biological catalysts.

Some industrial reactions need high temperatures in order to give good yield or products. If
a powerful catalyst is used, the reaction will take place faster and at a lower temperature.
The decreases fuel costs and lower the cost of eventual products.

For example:

 A finely divided iron catalyst in Haber’s process to produce ammonia

 Vanadium (V) oxide in the contact process to process sulphuric acid.

Catalysts are mostly transitional elements or their compounds.

Since catalysis takes place at the surface of the catalyst; the catalyst must be finely divided
in order to increase the surface area in contact with the reactants.

E.g. At room temperature, Hydrogen Peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen, but very
slowly. Using manganese (IV) oxide, the reaction speeds up.

This reaction is done twice, once without the catalyst and once with the catalyst:

If the manganese (IV) oxide is filtered off at the end of the reaction, washed, dried and
reweighted, it will be found that its mass has not changed.

Effect of light:

The speeds of some reactions are increased by exposure to light. Light, like heat, is a form
of energy. Therefore, light has a similar effect to an increase temperature.

The reactions which are speeded up by light are called photochemical reactions.

Examples:

 A mixture of Hydrogen and Chlorine explodes in light forming hydrogen chloride

(Hydrochloric acid in water).
 Photography:

The darkness of a silver bromide coating on a film in a camera when a light is shown
on it is the basis of photography.
The photochemical reaction that takes place is:

It takes place in two steps:

Oxidation
And

Reduction

 Photosynthesis:

It is the process by which plants make glucose from water (in the soil) and carbon
dioxide (in the air) by using sunlight energy, which is absorbed by chlorophyll present
in the chloroplast in the plant’s cells. The chlorophyll here is a catalyst.

Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction, in which the energy of sunlight is

transformed into the energy of the chemical bonds in the glucose.

Respiration:
On the reverse, it is an exothermic reaction, in which the energy in glucose is
released by oxidizing it with atmospheric oxygen in animal cells.
7.2 Reversible Reactions

Most chemical reactions can only go in one direction.

Example:

There is no way that the reverse reaction would occur. Hydrogen will not react with
magnesium chloride to make magnesium and hydrochloric acid.

Some reactions, however, are reversible.

A reversible reaction is a reaction that can go in either direction from the left to the right
and vice-versa, depending on the conditions of the reaction.

The sign in an equation show that the reaction is reversible and is at equilibrium.

Some examples:

 When blue copper (II) sulphate crystals are heated, the water of crystallization is
driven off. The blue crystals become white crystals of anhydrous copper (II) sulpahte.

( ) ( )

When water is added to the copper sulphate, the reverse happens, so the sign is
used instead of the forward arrow sign.

 When ammonium chloride crystals are heated, the ammonium chloride decomposed
into ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas. As the gas cools the reverse happens.

 Hot iron reacts with steam forming iron oxide and hydrogen
 The reverse can also happen; hot iron oxide is reduced to iron and steam by passing
dry hydrogen over it.
An interesting consideration now is what would happen if the four chemicals were
together in a seal container.

Iron would react with steam forming iron oxide and hydrogen, but at the same time
iron oxide would be reacting with hydrogen to make iron and steam.

After some time the reactions stops, which is said to be at a state of equilibrium,
where the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the backward reaction.

Equilibrium means:

Le Chatelier’s Principle:

For any system in equilibrium, any change in an external factor such as temperature,
pressure or concentrations), the equilibrium moves to oppose the change.

 The effect of temperature:

Exothermic reactions are favored by decreasing the temperature and opposed by

increasing the temperature, which is because exothermic reactions give out heat.

The reverse happens with endothermic reactions.

 The effect of pressure:

This applies only to reactions involving gases.

Reactions accompanied with a decrease in volume (produce less molecules) are

favored by increasing the pressure, and opposed by decreasing it.

e.g. the formation of ammonia in the Haber’s process:

 1 Mol 3 Mols 2 Mols
On the left side 4 volumes and on the right 2 volumes

The reverse happens with reactions accompanied with pressure.

 Effect of concentration

For a system in equilibrium, if the concentration of one reactant is increased, the

equilibrium will move in the direction which tends to decrease the concentration of
the substance.

The reverse happens when the concentration of one substance is decreased or if it

is removed, where the equilibrium would move to direction that would produce
more of that product.

7.3 Oxidation and reduction

Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or the loss of electrons.

Reduction is the loss of oxygen or the gain of electrons.

OIL RIG of electrons

Oxidation is Loss and Reduction is Gain
1. Oxidation:

Oxidation is the gain of oxygen or the loss of electrons.

An oxidizing agent is a substance that will add oxygen to other substances during a reaction.

 It gives oxygen to other substances

 Takes hydrogen from other substances
 Takes electrons from a substances

Common oxidizing agents are:

 Oxygen
 Hydrogen peroxide
 Potassium manganate (VII)
  Potassium dichromate (VI)
 Chlorine
 Sulphuric acid
 Nitric acid

Oxidation is:

 The addition of oxygen:

Example:

The oxygen here is added to the copper, so the copper is oxidized

 Removal of Hydrogen:

Example:

Hydrogen was removed from the HCl by oxidation.

 Loss of electrons:

 The increase in oxidation state

What is an oxidation state?

It is the number of electrons lost or gained during a chemical reaction to form an octet
configuration.

Group Oxidation State Valency

1 +1 1
2 +2 2
3 +3 3
 4 ±4 4
5 -3 3
6 -2 2
7 -1 1
8/0 0 0

Rules for the oxidation state:

 The oxidation state on any atom in the elemental state is 0

E.g. Na⁰, Mg⁰, Cl⁰

 The sum of oxidation states of all atoms in a molecule is 0

E.g. Cl⁰ + Cl⁰ -> Cl20

 The oxidation state of an ion is the charge on the ion

E.g. Cl-1, Na+1, NO3-1

 The oxidation state of Hydrogen is +1, for example, in HCl is H+1 Cl -1.
When it combines with metals to form hydrides, the oxidation state is -1.

 Oxidation state of oxygen is -2, except when it forms peroxides, for example, H2O2

 Transitional elements show variable valency so they have variable oxidation states,
for example, Iron (II) and Iron (III).

2. Reduction:

Reduction is the loss of oxygen or the gain of electrons.

A reducing agent is a substance that will remove oxygen from other elements.

 Takes oxygen from other substances

 Gives hydrogen to other substances
 Gives electrons to other substances

Some examples are:

 Hydrogen
 Carbon
 Carbon monoxide
  Metals

Reduction is:

 The loss of oxygen:

Example:

 Addition of hydrogen:

Example:

 Gain of electrons:

Example:

 Decrease in oxidation state

REDOX – Reduction and Oxidation in the same time

In redox reactions, reduction and oxidation occur together.

If one substance is oxidized the other is reduced.

Example:
  Copper (II) oxide here is reduced into Copper. It had lost oxygen, so it is the oxidizing
agent.
 Hydrogen is oxidized. It had gained oxygen, so it is the reducing agent.

Conclusion:

The substance oxidized is the reducing agent and the one reduced is the oxidizing agent.

Example:

( ) ( )

Identification of redox reactions:

1. Change in oxidation state:

Since oxidation is the loss of electrons, the oxidation of the reducing agent would increase,
which means more protons and less electrons.

e.g.

Fe2+  Fe 3+ + e-

Since reduction is the gain of electron, the oxidation state of the element would decrease.

Fe3+ + e -  Fe 2+

2. Change in colour:

 Potassium Iodide K+I- solution turns from colorless to brown when the iodide ions are
oxidized by a oxidizing agent into iodine (Brown)

 Potassium manganate (VII) KMnO4 solution (acidified with dilute sulphuric acid) turns
from purple to colourless when the manganate (VII) ions are reduced by a reducing
agent into manganese ions Mn-

 Potassium dichromate (VI) K2Cr2O7 solution (acidified with dilute sulphuric acid) turns
from orange to green when the dichromate ions are reduced by a reducing agent to
chromium (III) ions Cr3+
 Acids, bases and salts
Acids:

An acid is a substance which forms H+ ions when dissolved in water.

E.g. HCl  H+ + Cl-

The H+ ion is a proton, which is a hydrogen atom which had lost its electron.

Acids therefore are called proton donors, because they provide H+ ions.

General properties of acids:

The H+ ions are responsible for all the general chemical reactions to all acids.

 Turns BLUE litmus paper RED

 Acids reacts with reactive metals to produce metal salt + hydrogen

Metal + Acid  Metal Salt + Hydrogen Gas

Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid  Magnesium Chloride + Hydrogen
Mg + HCl  MgCl2 + H2

 Acids react with bases to produce metal salt and water

Metal (oxide or hydroxide) + Acid  Metal Salt + Water

Magnesium Oxide + Hydrochloric Acid  Magnesium Chloride + Water
MgO + HCl  MgCl2 +H2O

 Acids react with carbonates to produce metal salt, water and carbon dioxide

Metal Carbonate + Acid  Metal Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide

Magnesium Carbonate + Hydrochloric Acid  Magnesium Chloride + Water + Carbon
Dioxide
MgCO3 + HCl  MgCl2 + H2O + C2O
Examples of Common acids:

 Hydrochloric Acid
 Sulphuric Acid
 Nitric Acid

Strong and Weak Acids:

A strong acid is and acid that is completely ionized in solution.

E.g. HCl  H+ + Cl-

Common strong acids:

 Hydrochloric acid
 Sulphuric acid
 Nitric Acid

A weak acid is an acid which is partially ionized in solution.

Some molecules remain unionized in solution.

e.g.

CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+

Common weak acids:

 Ethanoic acid
 Carbonic acid
 Sulphurous acid

How to distinguish between a strong and weak acid:

 At the same concentration, the stronger acid would have the lowest pH
 The stronger acid would be a better conductor of electricity at the same concentration
 At the same concentration and temperature, the stronger acid will react faster with
solids
Bases:

A base is a substance that can accept H+ ions, and therefore is a proton acceptor.

Bases are metal oxides and metal hydroxides, e.g.

 Copper (II) Oxide (CuO)

 Iron (III) Oxide (Fe2O3)
 Copper (II) Hydroxide (Cu(OH)2)
 Iron (III) Hydroxide (Fe(OH)3)

Bases which are soluble are called alkalis, e.g.

 Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)

 Potassium Hydroxide (NaOH)

Alkalis dissolve in water forming alkaline solutions. Alkaline solutions turn RED litmus paper
BLUE.

Sodium Oxide + Water  Sodium Hydroxide

Na2O + H20  2 NaOH

NaOH  Na+ + OH-

It is the OH- ion that causes the red litmus paper to turn blue.

Strong and weak alkalis:

A strong alkali is an alkali which is completely ionized in solution.

e.g.

NaOH  Na+ + OH-

Common strong alkalis are:

 Sodium hydroxide
 Potassium hydroxide

A weak alkali is an alkali which is a partially ionized in solution.

E.g. Ammonium hydroxide (Ammonia gas dissolved in water)

NH3 + H2O  NH4OH NH4OH NH4+ + OH-

How to distinguish between a strong and a weak alkali:

 The stronger alkali at the same concentration has the highest pH

 At the same concentration the strongest alkali would be the best conductor of
electricity

pH scale:

pH scale is a scale of numbers, which usually ranges from 0 to 14. The pH number of a solution
is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity.

0-1 = Very strong acid

2-4 = Strong acids

 5-6 = Weak acids

7= Neutral

8-9 = Weak alkalis

10-13 = Strong alkalis

14 = Very strong Alkalis

Universal indicator:

It is a very useful indicator, which is a mixture of different dyes and gives a greater range of
colour changes. It can be used to determine the pH value of a solution.

pH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Colour

Can also be used to determine the strength of the acid or the alkali.

Types of oxides:

1. Basic oxides – oxides of metals

These react with acids to make salt and water.

E.g. CuO + 2HCl  CuCl2 + H2O

 Most basic oxides are insoluble in water

 The ones soluble are called alkalis

2. Acidic oxides

These are oxides of non-metals

React with bases to form salt and water:

CO2 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + H2O

Most acidic oxides dissolve in water to form acids.

Carbon dioxide + water  Carbonic acid

3. Neutral oxides

Neutral oxides are oxides of some non-metals

e.g.

 Carbon monoxide
 Nitric Acid
 Hydrogen Oxide

These don’t react with any acid or alkali.

4. Amphoteric oxides

These are oxides of some metals such as aluminium, zinc, and lead.

They show both acidic and basic properties, i.e. they react with both alkalis and acids forming
salts and water.

e.g. Hydrochloric acid + Aluminium oxide  Aluminium chloride + water

6 HCl + Al2O3  2 AlCl3 + 3 H2O

 The Periodic Table of the Elements
The periodic table is a table which contains all the elements that have been discovered, which
are arranged in the increasing order of atomic number.

The vertical columns of elements with similar properties are called Groups.

The horizontal rows of elements are called Periods.

The periodic table can also be used to predict the properties of elements, whether chemical or
physical.

The groups show the number of electrons in that element in this group. E.g. in group 5,
Nitrogen has 5 electrons in its outer shell.

The elements get smaller less metallic as going to the right.

Atoms getting smaller, less metallic

Non-metals getting more reactive

Metals getting more reactive

Densities and melting points

Atoms getting larger, more

increase down any group

metallic
The Group I elements (The reactive alkali metals):

Group 1 elements are called the alkali metals because they react with water forming alkaline
solutions.

Electron arrangement in Group I:

Element Symbol Atomic Electron Reactivity Density M.P &

Number Config. B.P
Lithium Li 3 2.1

DOWNWARDS

DOWNWARDS

DOWNWARDS
Increases

Increases

Increases
Sodium Na 11 2.8.1

Potassium K 19 2.8.8.1

Properties of Group I elements:

Chemical Properties:

 They have one electron in their outer shell.

 They have similar chemical properties.
 They lose their outer shell electron making positive ions.
 Their reactivity increases downwards, because their outer shell electron get further
away as the size of the atom increases, so it gets easier for it to be removed.
 Very reactive.
 Burn forming oxides
 React violently with water forming hydroxides

Physical Properties:

 Their melting and boiling points increase downwards.

 Their densities increase downwards.
 They are solids at room temperature.
 When freshly cut, they have a shiny metallic surface.
 Good conductors of electricity.
 Relatively soft

Chemical reactions:
  Form hydroxides when put in water
 Form oxides when burnt in air
 React with acids to make metal salt and hydrogen gas

The transition metals:

The transition metals are found between Group II & Group III at periods 4, 5 and 6.

First row: Scandium to Zinc

Second row: Yttrium to Cadmium

Third row: Lanthanum to Mercury

The electron arrangement of some transition metals in the first row:

Element Symbol Atomic Number Electron Config.

Scandium Sc 21 2.8.9.2
Iron Fe 26 2.8.14.2

All the transition elements in the first row have 2 electrons in their outer shell, the fourth
shell. The difference is in the number of electrons in the third shell.

The chemical properties of these elements depend on the electrons in the outer shell, which
are the ones most likely to be gained and lost in chemical reactions.

Properties of transition metals:

Chemical properties:

 They are less reactive than Group I elements.

 They have the ability to form ions with different oxidation states.
 Their compounds are highly coloured.
 They and their compounds are used as catalysts in some reactions.

Physical Properties:

 These have high densities.

 These have high melting and boiling points.
 These are hard, shiny metals.
 They are very good conductors of electricity and heat.
  Group VII (7) elements (Halogens):

These elements are called halogens because they react with metals forming salts.

Electron arrangement in Group VII:

Element Symbol Atomic Number Electron Config. Reactivity

Fluorine F 9 2.7

DOWNWARDS
Chlorine Cl 17 2.8.7

Decreases
Bromine Br 35 2.8.18.7

Going DOWN the group:

 The atoms get BIGGER

 LESS reactive
 DARKER in colour
 GAS to SOLID
 Melting and boiling points become HIGHER

Fluorine and Chlorine  GASES

Bromine  Liquid

Iodine  Solid

Properties:

Chemical properties:

 They are the reactive non-metals

 Do both covalent and ionic compounds
 They displace less reactive halogens from their compounds
 They react with metals making halide salts
 They are diatomic
 They can displace other less reactive halides from their salts
Physical properties:

 Poisonous
 They have a pungent smell
 Don’t conduct electricity
 Colour gets darker as going down the group

Group 0 the noble Gases:

It is often called group 0.

Element Symbol Atomic Number Electron State (at r.t.p)

Arrangement
Helium He 2 2 Gas
Neon Ne 10 2.8 Gas
Argon Ar 18 2.8.8 Gas

The noble gases are a set of non-metallic elements, which make up 1% of air.

They are monoatomic gases with no smell or colour.

They are chemically unreactive and exist as single atoms because of a full outer shell.

Properties:

 Inert
 Colourless, monoatomic gases
 Exist as single atoms

Uses:

 Helium is used for filling balloons and airships.

 Neon is used in neon lights
 Argon is used to fill argon filament bulbs
 Metals
Metals make up almost 75% of the periodic table and are the familiar substances to man.
Man-kind had used metals from thousands of years to make weapons, tools and from the last
century, to conduct electricity.

They are the group I, II, the transition metals and some elements of group 3 and 4 and 5.

Properties of Metals:

Physical Properties:

 Most metals are shiny and silvery in colour

 They are very good conductors of electricity due to free electrons in their structures that
can carry the negative charge
 They are good conductors of heat due to the free electrons that can transmit heat
throughout the structure
 They have high densities because of the ions closely packed in the lattice
 They have high melting and boiling points because of strong metallic bonds
 They are ductile (can be drawn into wires) and are malleable (can be beaten into sheets)
because the layers of ions can move past each other without breaking the metallic
bonds

Chemical Properties:

 They react with oxygen to form basic oxides

 Most react with dilute acid to make metal salt and hydrogen gas
 The more the reactive the metal, the higher its tendency to form compounds and vice-
versa
 The more reactive a compound is the more stable its compounds are and vice-versa

Alloys:

A pure metal doesn’t have the exact

properties that are needed for a
particular job. Mixture of one or more
metals called alloys can be created with
properties that make them more
suitable for specific purposes than pure metals.

An alloy is a mixture of metallic elements, and some non-metallic elements.

An alloy is made by weighing out correctly the different elements in different proportions and
then mixing them together when they are molten.

An alloy is usually less ductile and malleable than pure metals. When force is applied to an
alloy, the impurity atom stops the layers from slipping very far.

Some examples are:

Alloy Typical composition Particular properties

Brass copper 70% Harder than pure
zinc 30% copper; gold
coloured
Bronze copper 90% Harder than pure
tin 10% copper
Mild Steel iron 99.7% Stronger and harder
carbon 00.3% than pure iron
Stainless Steel iron 70% Harder than pure
chromium 20% iron; does not rust
nickel 10%
Solder tin 50% lower melting point
lead 50% than either tin or
lead

The reactivity series:

Reactivity series is a list of metals which are arranged in order of decreasing reactivity.

The more reactive the metal, the higher its tendency to form positive ions.

The more reactive the metal, the more stable are its compounds.
 Potassium K Most Reactive
Sodium Na

Reactivity INCREASES upwards

Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Carbon C
Zinc Zn
Iron Fe
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
Copper Cu
Silver Ag
Gold Au Least Reactive

Metal reactions:

Metal Symbol Reaction when Reaction with Reaction with

heated in air cold water dilute acids
Potassium K React violently to
Sodium Na produce OH and
Calcium Ca H2
Magnesium Mg Burn to form React with steam React to form
Aluminium Al oxides to form basic metal salt and
Zinc Zn oxides and H2 hydrogen gas
Iron Fe
Lead Pb Form oxides
Copper Cu slowly (no
burning) NO REACTION
Silver Ag NO REACTION NO REACTION
Gold Au
Reduction of metal oxides with carbon:

Metals ABOVE carbon in the reactivity series cannot reduce their oxides.

Metals below carbon can be prepared by reduction of their oxides with carbon.

e.g.

Reduction of metal oxides by a more reactive metal:

A metal oxide can reduced to the metal by heating the oxide with a more reactive metal.

e.g.

Displacement reactions:

Any metal can displace a metal below it from its compounds.

If a piece of iron is put in copper (II) sulphate solution, a reaction takes place. The blue solution
turns colourless and brown copper is deposited. Iron has displaced copper from its compound.

Exception to the reactivity series:

Aluminium, although quite high in the reactivity series, takes time to react with an acid.

This is due to the layer of its oxide on it which acts like a protective layer, not allowing the acid
to attack the underneath aluminium.

This layer acts in the same way as painting the metal, but is made from the metal itself.
Action of heat on Hydroxides of metals:

Metal Hydroxide Formula Action of Heat

Potassium Potassium Hydroxide KOH DON’T DECOMPOSE
Sodium Sodium Hydroxide NaOH
Calcium Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Decompose to make
Magnesium Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)2 metal oxide and
Aluminium Aluminium Hydroxide Al(OH)3 oxygen
Zinc Zinc Hydroxide Zn(OH)2
Iron Iron Hydroxide Fe(OH)3
Lead Lead Hydroxide Pb(OH)2
Copper Copper Hydroxide Cu(OH)2
Silver Silver Hydroxide AgOH Decompose to the
metal, water and
oxygen

Action of heat on Metal nitrates:

Metal Nitrate Formula Action of Heat

Potassium Potassium Nitrate KNO3 Decompose to form
Sodium Sodium Nitrate NaNO3 metal NITRITE and
oxygen
Calcium Calcium Nitrate Ca(NO3)2 Decompose to make
Magnesium Magnesium Nitrate Mg(NO3)2 metal oxide, nitrogen
Aluminium Aluminium Nitrate Al(NO3)3 dioxide and oxygen
Zinc Zinc Nitrate Zn(NO3)2
Iron Iron Nitrate Fe(NO3)3
Lead Lead Nitrate Pb(NO3)2
Copper Copper Nitrate Cu(NO3)2
Silver Silver Nitrate AgNO3 Decompose to the
metal, nitrogen
dioxide and oxygen
The extraction of metals:

Metals are widely used in everyday life. Very rarely are pure metals found free in the ground.
Usually they are found in compounds with other materials in the form of ores.

Some very unreactive metals can be found alone in the earth’s crust, like for example, gold.
Other metals are found combined with other elements in the form of an ore.

Some ores include:

Metal Ore Chief chemical constituent

Aluminium Bauxite Aluminium Oxide Al2O3
Zinc Zinc Blende Zinc Sulphide ZnS
Iron Haematite Iron (III) Oxide Fe2O3

Before the metal is extracted from the ore, the ore is purified or concentrated.

The method used to extract the metal depends on its position in the reactivity series.

 Metals high in the reactivity series form stable ores, so they can only be got by
electrolysis
 Metals in the middle of the reaction series form less stable ores, so carbon can be used
to reduce the ore to the metal
 Metals low in the reactivity series are found uncombined in the earth’s crust. If they are
found in compounds, the compound should simply be heated, as it would decompose
because the ore is unstable.
The extraction of Aluminium:

Aluminium is extracted from the ore BAUXITE or aluminium oxide Al2O3.

The aluminium oxide is INSOLUBLE so it is MELTED to allow the ions to move when the electric
current is passed through it. Remember that electrolysis can only take place when the ions are
MOLTEN or IN SOLUTION.

The anodes are made from CARBON and the cathode is a carbon-lined STEEL CASE.

At the cathode, aluminium metal forms:

Al3+ (l) + 3e- = Al (l)

At the anode, oxygen is formed:

2O2- (l) = O2(g) + 4e-

The oxygen reacts with the carbon anodes and makes CO2 gas. Anodes have to be replaced
periodically.

Aluminium is extracted by electrolysis because it is high in the reactivity series and forms
stable ores. It is also purified, before electrolysis, from other impurities like iron (III) oxide that
can be found in the ore.
Aluminium oxide has a very high melting point, about 2000 degrees C, so it is dissolved in
molten cryolite (Na3AlF6 Sodium Aluminium Fluoride) so its melting point is decreased from
2000 degrees C to about 900 degrees C.

This makes the aluminium ore able to be electrolysed at a lower cost (less heat has to be
supplied to melt the ore).

The uses of aluminium:

Aluminium has low density and unlike iron, it resists corrosion due to a layer of its oxide on it,
which prevents it from further oxidation.

It is used in the manufacture of:

 Air crafts; low density and strength

 Food containers; resistance to corrosion
 Overhead cables; good conductor of electricity and light
 Saucepans; good thermal conductivity
 Window frames; resistance to corrosion and low density
The extraction of iron:

Iron is extracted from haematite (Iron (III) Oxide) in a hot furnace. It is reduced by coke
(carbon) because its ore is less stable (low in the reactivity series) and can be reduced using
carbon.

Step 1:

Iron (III) oxide, coke and limestone are added into the hot furnace.

Step 2:

Hot air is pumped into the furnace. The coke burns in the hot air producing carbon dioxide and
more heat, raising the temperature to about 1500 degrees C.

Step 3:

The carbon dioxide is reduced by more carbon to form carbon monoxide.

Step 4:

The carbon monoxide reduces the iron (III) oxide into iron and carbon dioxide.

Step 5:

The limestone (calcium carbonate) decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
because of heat.
Step 6:

The impurities in the ore, like sand react with calcium oxide to make slag (Calcium Silicate).

The molten iron sinks to the bottom of the furnace and the slag on the surface can taped off
separately.

The slag is used in road making and in the manufacture of cement.

The iron the flows out of the furnace are called cast iron. It contains 4% carbon and other
impurities like silicon, sulphur and phosphorous.

These lower the iron’s melting point and make the iron expand slightly when cooled. The cast
iron is also brittle.

To make the iron into steel, air or oxygen is bubbled through the molten cast iron. The
impurities present are oxidised and leave as waste gases, but some like silica remain, which is
removed by adding calcium oxide from decomposed limestone.

The slag formed is removed which floats over the molten iron.
Carbon can then be added by know amounts to make different types of steel, e.g. mild steel
which is made of 0.25% carbon and the rest iron, and is used to make car bodies and
machinery.

Other metal can be added to make different types of steel called alloys, e.g. stainless steel,
which is made up of 18% chromium and 8% nickel, which is used to make cutlery and
containers in chemical plants.

The extraction of zinc:

Zinc is found in the ore zinc Blende, which is zinc sulphide.

Step 1:

The ore is first concentrated. It is then roasted strongly in air to convert the zinc sulphide into
zinc oxide. This called roasting.

The sulphur dioxide is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid.

Step 2:

The zinc oxide is then reduced by carbon in a blast furnace. The zinc formed is a gas.

Impurities are separated by the floatation method.

Depending on how much oxygen is present, carbon can form carbon monoxide. The zinc
vapours pass out of the furnace and are cooled.

The uses of zinc:

 Galvanising steel; which is coating steel with a layer of zinc to protect it from rusting.
Even if the layer is scratched the iron is still protected, because the zinc is more reactive
than the iron.
 Making brass; an alloy of zinc 40% and copper 60%
 Making the outer coating of batteries
  The uses of copper:

Copper is used in the manufacture of:

 Brass; an alloy of copper 60% and zinc 40%

 Cooking utensils; good thermal conductivity
 Electrical wires; good conductor of electricity, ductile, unreactive and does not corrode.
 Air and water
A chemical test for water:

1. Water turns white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate blue

Copper (II) sulphate + water > Copper (II) sulphate-5-water

CuSO4 + 5 H20 = CuS04.5H20

White solid blue solid

2. Water turns blue anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride pink.

Cobalt (II) chloride + water > Cobalt (II) chloride -6-water

CoCl2 + 6 H2O = CoCl.6 H20

Blue solid pink solid

3. Pure water boils at 100 degrees Celsius and freezes at 0 degrees Celsius.

The purification of water:

The process of water treatment involves filtration and chlorination

Most tap water is obtained from lakes and rivers. The water should be treated to make it
suitable for drinking with no pollution or contamination and with a pleasant taste and
smell.

The water is pumped in through a screen, which gets rid of the larger bits of rubbish.

Then it goes through these stages:

1. It is filtered through a bed of coarse sand, which traps the Iarger particles of solid

2. Next it flows into a sedimentation tank where chemicals such as aluminum sulphate are
added to make the smaller particles stick together and sink to the bottom of the tank

3. These particles are removed by further filtration through fine sand (lime is added to
adjust acidity)

4. Finally a little chlorine gas is added to kill any remaining bacteria. (Instead of
Cl2, ozone gas can be added). Excess chlorine can be removed by the addition of sulphur
dioxide gas. The addition of CI2 gas makes the water more acidic so NaOH is added

In some places, a fluoride compound is also added to the water, to help prevent tooth
decay.
Uses of water:

1. In industry:

- As a solvent in many industries, e.g. paper industry

- Manufacture of hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis of water
- Much water is used for cooling. Power stations are built near rivers or coasts so that
they can have continuous supplies of water for the cooling towers
- In production of electricity

2. In the home:

- Drinking
- Washing
- Cooking

Air:

The composition of air varies from one place to another because air is a mixture of gases.
The composition by volume of a typical sample of air is approximately 79% nitrogen, 20%
oxygen, and the remainder is a mixture of noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, and
xenon), carbon dioxide and water vapour.

Air pollution

The most common source of air pollution is the combustion of fossil fuels. This usually
happens in vehicle engines and power stations.

The four common air pollutants are:

 Carbon monoxide, CO
 CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic gas produced when fuels containing carbon are
burned where there is too little oxygen. The main source of CO is the incomplete
combustion of petrol in car engines and factories that use fossil fuels.

CO is poisonous gas that prevents haemoglobin in the blood from absorbing oxygen.
At a level of 1%, CO will kill quickly; at lower levels it causes headaches and dizziness.

 Sulphur dioxide, S02

Fossil fuels (coal and oil) always contain sulphur. When burned, sulphur dioxide is
formed. Factories and power stations burn coal, which contains sulphur too.

Sulphur dioxide (S02) is a colourless, nonflammable gas with a penetrating odour that
irritates the eyes and air passages.

S02 causes bronchitis and lung diseases. It also dissolves in rainwater to form
sulphurous acid. This acid rain damages buildings, trees and plants.

 Oxides of nitrogen

These are an indirect result of burning fossil fuels. Inside car engines and power
station furnaces, the air gets so hot that its nitrogen and oxygen react together,
forming oxides of nitrogen.

N2 + O2 = 2NO
2NO + O2 = 2NO2

About 30-40% of the nitrogen oxides come from vehicle exhausts and power-
stations. N02 is highly corrosive and toxic. Nitrogen oxides dissolve in water to form
nitric acid leading to acid rain.

 Lead compounds

A lead compound called tetraethyl lead is added in small quantities to petrol to

increase the octane number of petrol (improve performance). When the petrol burns
in the engine, lead compounds are released from car exhaust.

Lead compound are nerve poisons. In particular, they cause brain damage in young
children. To prevent this problem, unleaded petrol is used.

Catalytic converters:
High temperature combustion (as in petrol and diesel engines) produces toxic gases in
addition to carbon dioxide.

Since the early 1990's, car exhausts have been fitted with catalytic converters.

These employ transition metals such as rhodium, palladium and platinum to convert
harmful emissions into less harmful substances.

Typical reactions are:

Carbon monoxide + oxygen  carbon dioxide.

2CO (g) + 02(g) = 2C02 (g)

Carbon monoxide + nitrogen monoxide  carbon dioxide + nitrogen.

2CO (g) + 2NO (g) = 2C02 (g) + N2 (g)

Hydrocarbons + nitrogen monoxide  carbon dioxide + nitrogen + water.

In addition, lead has been removed from petrol, reducing widespread lead pollution in the
environment.

Fractional Distillation of Liquid Air:

Air is filtered to remove dust, and then cooled in stages until it reaches –200°C. At this
temperature it is a liquid. We say that the air has been liquefied.

Here's what happens as the air liquefies:

 water vapour condenses, and is removed using absorbent filters

 carbon dioxide freezes at –79°C, and is removed
 oxygen liquefies at –183°C
 nitrogen liquefies at –196°C

The liquid nitrogen and oxygen are then separated by fractional distillation.

The liquefied air is passed into the bottom of a fractionating column. Just as in the columns
used to separate oil fractions, the column is warmer at the bottom than it is at the top.

The liquid nitrogen boils at the bottom of the column. Gaseous nitrogen rises to the top,
where it is piped off and stored. Liquid oxygen collects at the bottom of the column. The
boiling point of argon (the noble gas that forms 0.9% of the air) is close to the boiling point
of oxygen, so a second fractionating column is often used to separate the argon from the
oxygen.

Uses of nitrogen and oxygen

 liquid nitrogen is used to freeze food

 food is packaged in gaseous nitrogen to increase its shelf life
  oil tankers are flushed with gaseous nitrogen to reduce the chance of explosion
 oxygen is used in the manufacture of steel and in medicine

Rust Prevention:

 Anything that prevents air and/or water from contacting the surface of the iron will
prevent the metal from rusting; as does anything that reacts faster than the iron,
i.e. is higher in the reactivity series.
 In the latter case the oxygen and water will preferentially react with the more
reactive metal, to form metal oxides, before the iron can react. This allows the
overall strength of the metal to remain the same.
 Common methods for rust prevention involve painting the metal; covering the
metal in oil or grease; coating the metal in zinc, called galvanising; attaching blocks
of a more reactive metal, such as magnesium or zinc, called sacrificial protection;
alloying the iron with other metals, such as chromium and nickel, or changing the
carbon content of the iron to create steel.

Fertilizers:

The rapid increase in the demand for crops due to the increase in world populations had led
to the upset of the balance of minerals in the soil. These minerals like nitrogen,
phosphorous and potassium in soil have no chance of being replaced. Therefore farmers
use artificial fertilizers to replace them.

Nitrogen fertilizers

Plants need nitrogen in large amounts to make proteins in their bodies. It is absorbed
through the roots in the form of nitrate ions. Ammonium salts can also be used as fertilizers
because ammonium salts are converted into nitrates by organisms, which live in the soil.

Nitrogen fertilizers include:

 Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2
 Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3
 Urea CON2H4

Phosphorous fertilizers

Plants need phosphorous to build up a good root system.

Calcium phosphate, which is naturally present in the soil is only slightly soluble, and is only
slowly absorbed by plants.

Ammonium phosphate is prepared from ores containing calcium phosphate. It is soluble

phosphorous fertilizer and contains nitrogen in addition.
Potassium fertilizers

Plants need potassium for the production of flowers and seeds. Potassium can be added to
the soil in the form of wood ash or as potassium sulphate fertilizer.

NPK fertilizers

These are mixtures of fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, the three
elements, which most need replacement in the soil.

The manufacture of ammonia:

The manufacture of ammonia is done by a process called the Haber process. It combines
nitrogen and hydrogen to make ammonia (NH3).

 Nitrogen is got from the fractional distillation of liquid air.

 Hydrogen is obtained from natural gas or crude oil by cracking of longer alkanes to
produce a shorter alkane and hydrogen gas.

The mixture of nitrogen (1 part) and hydrogen (3 parts) is compressed to 250 atmospheres
and heated to 450 degrees C and passed over a finely divided iron.

Only about 10% of the mixture is converted to ammonia.

The mixture of gases containing nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia is the cooled which
liquefies ammonia, and therefore can be separated, and the unreacted gases recycled.
Conditions that favour the formation of ammonia:

1. High pressure:

A high pressure of 25o atm is used because the reaction is accompanied by a decrease in
volume (4 volumes give 2 volumes).

2. Low temperature:

A low temperature is used because the reaction is exothermic. A lower temperature would
cause a greater yield of ammonia but it would be formed too slowly (rate of reaction slow).

3. The use of a finely divided iron as a catalyst:

The catalyst enables the equilibrium to be established more quickly but does not produce
ammonia.
The displacement of ammonia from its salts:

Being a weak base, ammonia is driven out from its salts by strong bases. If ammonia salt is
warmed with an alkali, ammonia gas is given out.

e.g.

The formation of carbon dioxide:

 Carbon dioxide is formed by the complete combustion of carbon and carbon

containing substances such as natural gas and petrol.

 Carbon Dioxide is produced as a waste gas from respiration processes in plant and
animal cells.

 Carbon Dioxide is formed from the reaction between dilute acids and metal
carbonates.

The green house effect and green house gases:

Global warming:

Global warming is caused by the green house gases. The green house effect caused by
normal levels of green house gases is a natural process, but due to above normal emission
of green house gases, which makes the earth warm up.

Some green house gases are:

Green house gas Sources % contribution to the Number of years is

greenhouse effect stays in the
 atmosphere
Carbon Dioxide Burning fossil fuels, 64 200
deforestation and
burning wood
Methane Deforestation, 18 12
decomposition of
waste, rice and cattle
farming, rotting
vegetation
CFCs Aerosols, 14 1000 or more
(chlorofluorocarbons) refrigerators
Nitrogen oxide Use of chemical 4 120
fertilizers, motor
transport burning
fuels, deforestation,
burning vegetation

These above-normal emissions of green house gases are creating the accelerated
greenhouse effect.

The most known cause of the accelerated greenhouse effect is human activities. The green
house gases cannot block the incoming infra-red radiation from the sun, but block the ones
radiating from the earth, and mirror them back to the earth’s surfaces, warming it as it
does.

The earth emits almost all radiation it got from the sun during the night, which keeps the
temperature constant. When the radiation is mirrored back to the earth, it absorbs them
and warm up.
The effects of global warming:

Melting of the Ice

Worldwide effects
Sheets in the Arctic
of global warming
and Antarctic

Flooding of low-
lying areas - deltas,
Rising Sea Levels
welands and coral
islands

Previously
Sea defences
populated areas no
breached
longer habitable
The Carbon Cycle:

Carbon is an element which is present in all living organisms. It is obtained by plants from
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a result of their photosynthesis, which is stored as
sugar or starch in fruits.

When the plants are eaten by animals, the organic plant material is digested, absorbed and
built into compounds making up the animal’s tissues; carbon from the plants become a part
of the animal.

The carbon cycle, therefore, is about the intake and re-release of carbon dioxide.

Carbon is added to the atmosphere in three main ways:

 Respiration: The release of energy from starch and sugars into carbon dioxide and
water in animal and plant cells.

 Decay: Organic matter from dead plants and animals is used by decomposers as a
source of energy. The micro-organisms turn the carbon compounds back into carbon
dioxide, which is released into the atmosphere.

 Combustion: The burning of wood, fossil fuels, any other fuel which contain carbon
produces carbon dioxide.
 Sulphur
Sulphur is a non-metallic element. It does not conduct heat or electricity. It is brittle yellow
solid, melts at 112 degrees and boils at 444 degrees Celsius. It exists in two allotropic forms;
rhombic and monoclinic.

Sulphur is trapped between rock layers in volcanic regions; in Sicily, Poland, Japan and USA.

Sources of sulphur:

 Found in underground sulphur beds

 Natural gas and petroleum contain sulphur compounds. These have to be removed
and are an important source of sulphur.
 Metal suphides, such as Zinc Blende can be used to get sulphur.

Sulphur Dioxide:

Sulphur dioxide SO2 is a colourless gas with a pungent smell. It is formed when sulphur is
burnt in air.

Sulphur + Oxygen = Sulphur Dioxide

S + O2 = SO2

Uses of sulphur dioxide:

 In the manufacture of sulphuric acid

 As a bleaching agent in the manufacture of wood pulp, this is used in paper industry.
 As a food preservative. It prevents the growth of bacteria when added in small
quantities to food.

Manufacture of sulphuric acid:

1) Sulphur is burnt in air to produce Sulphur Dioxide

Sulphur + Oxygen = Sulphur Dioxide

S + O2 = SO2

2) A mixture of sulphur dioxide and oxygen is heated to 450 degrees and then passed over a
catalyst of vanadium (V) oxide, V2O5, to produce sulphur dioxide.

Sulphur dioxide + Oxygen = Sulphur Trioxide

2SO2 + O2 = 2 SO3
3) The sulphur trioxide formed is not dissolved directly in water because the reaction is too
exothermic. Instead, it is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form fuming sulphuric
acid, called oleum, H2S2O7.

Sulphur trioxide + Sulphuric acid = Oleum (fuming sulphuric acid)

SO3 + H2SO4 = H2S2O7

Oleum can be then carefully diluted with water to form concentrated sulphuric acid.

Oleum + Water = Sulphuric Acid

H2S2O7 + H2O = 2 H2SO4

An optimum temperature is used because the forward reaction is exothermic, so there has
to be a compromise between the yield and the rate.

Uses of sulphuric acid:

Sulphuric acid is very important industrially. It is commonly used as a raw material in the
manufacture of many products such as fertilizers, paints, detergents, plastics, batteries and
man-made fibres.

It is also used as a dehydrating agent as it removes water from wet gases bubbled through
it. It can also remove water from other compounds.

Properties of sulphuric acid:

Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with metals and their oxides, hydroxides and carbonates in a
typical acid fashion:

1) With metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series, it gives a salt called sulphate and
hydrogen.

Sulphuric acid + zinc = Zinc Sulphate + Hydrogen

H2SO4 + Zn = ZnSO4 + H2

2) With bases (metal oxides and hydroxides) it gives a metal sulphate + water.

Sulphuric acid + copper (II) oxide = Copper sulphate + water

H2SO4 + CuO = CuSO4 + H2O

3) With metal carbonates or metal hydrogen carbonates it gives a metal sulphate + water +
Carbon Dioxide.
Sulphuric acid + sodium carbonate = sodium sulphate + water + carbon dioxide

H2SO4 + NaCO3 = Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2

Or

Sulphuric acid + sodium hydrogen carbonate = sodium sulphate + water + carbon dioxide

H2SO4 + 2NaHCO3 = Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2

4) It produces H+ ions in aqueous solutions.

H2SO4 (aq) = 2H+ (aq) + SO42-(aq)

 Carbonates
Carbonates are usually insoluble; those of the alkali metals being the only important
exceptions.

All carbonates, except those of the alkali metals, decompose on heating to form the oxide
of the metal and carbon dioxide.

Calcium Carbonate (Limestone) Calcium oxide (lime or quick lime) + Carbon Dioxide

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

All carbonates react with dilute acids to form salt of the acid, water and carbon dioxide.

Hydrochloric Acid + Calcium Carbonate Calcium Chloride + Water + Carbon Dioxide

HCl + CaCO3 CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Calcium carbonate (Limestone CaCO3)

Uses of limestone:

1) Manufacture of cement:

Cement is made in large scale by heating a mixture of limestone and clay.

2) Manufacture of iron:

Limestone is added to iron ore, which composes into Calcium Oxide and combines with the
impurities in the ore, such as sand and other impurities to make slag (Calcium Silicate).

Calcium Oxide + Silicon (IV) Oxide Calcium Silicate (Slag)

3) Manufacture of lime:

Lime is made on a large scale by heating limestone in a lime kiln.

Calcium Carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbon Dioxide

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

Lime and slaked lime can be used to neutralize acidic soils and acidic wastes.

When water is added to a lump of lime (Calcium Oxide), a fine powder of slaked lime
(Calcium Hydroxide) is formed. The process is known as slaking of lime.

Calcium Oxide + Water Calcium Hydroxide

CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2

When water is added to slaked lime, a creamy coloured suspension called “milk-of-lime” is
formed. If the suspension is filtered, an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide, called lime
water is produced.

Detection of CO2

The action of carbon dioxide on lime water is the standard method for detecting carbon
dioxide.

When carbon dioxide is bubbled through a solution of lime water, the solution turns milky
due to the formation of the insoluble calcium carbonate.

Calcium hydroxide + Carbon Dioxide = Calcium Carbonate + Water

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 = CaCO3 + H2O

Uses of lime, CaO and slaked lime, Ca(OH)2

Lime and slaked lime are bases and are therefore, used to neutralize acidic soils in
agriculture and acidic waster products in industry.

Important:

Limestone = Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)

Lime = Calcium Oxide (CaO)

Slaked lime = Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)

 Organic Chemistry
Organic compounds:

The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of carbon compounds is called
organic chemistry.

Catenation:

The carbon atom has a property to undergo self linking by covalent bonds to form
long chains, branching rings and networks of carbon atoms.

Hydrocarbons:

They are organic compounds in which the carbon atoms are covalently bounded to
hydrogen atoms only. There are three types of hydrocarbons:

 Alkanes
 Alkenes
 Alkynes

Alkanes are hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are

joined by single covalent bonds.

Alkenes are hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are

joined by double covalent bonds.

Alcohols are hydrocarbons with the functional group –OH.

Alkanes
Alkanes have a general formula of CnH2n+2

General Molecular Structural Name State

Formula Formula Formula
n=1 CH4 Methane Gas

n=2 C2 H6 Ethane Gas

n=3 C3 H8 Propane Gas

n=4 C4H10 Butane Gas

n=5 C5H12 Pentane Liquid

Most alkanes are obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil. The first
members are used as fuel.

As the molecular mass of alkanes increases their boiling points also increase. They
are less volatile, harder to ignite, denser and thicker than the upper members of
the alkane group.
Reactions of the Alkane group:

 Combustion ( used as fuels)

- Complete combustion:
Burning in the presence of sufficient supply of oxygen is called complete
combustion. Hydrocarbons on complete combustion produce carbon
dioxide and water.
E.g. Methane + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) = 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
- Incomplete combustion:
Burning in the presence of insufficient supply of oxygen gas is called in
complete combustion. Hydrocarbons on incomplete combustion produce
Carbon Monoxide and Water.
E.g. Methane + Oxygen = Carbon Monoxide + Water
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) = 2CO(g) + 4H2O(g)
 Substitution
Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens, with diffused light.
e.g. Methane + Chlorine = Chloromethane + Hydrochloric acid

This reaction can keep on happening until all the hydrogen atoms in the
hydrocarbons have been replaced by a halogen (group 7 elements).

The products of substitution reactions involving alkanes and halogens are called
halogenoalkanes.

Alkanes functional group (the part of the molecule in which reactions happen) is
the C-H bond.
Branched alkanes:

When the alkane is not just a simple straight chain of carbon atoms joined
together the names become a little more complex.

The longest connected chain of carbon atoms must be found as before and the
alkane name generated as usual.

Then the name for the pendent group is found, again by counting the number of
carbon atoms present, and used as a prefix.

CH3- group : methyl___

CH3CH2- group : ethyl___

CH3CH2CH2- group : propyl___

CH3CH2CH2CH2- group : butyl___

The numbers used to indicate the positions of the pendent groups must be the
lowest numbers possible, so always check them from both ends of the molecule.

Example -

3-ethylpentane :

2,3- methyl pentane :

Alkenes
These are unsaturated hydrocarbons (having the C=C double bond), with the
functional group C=C.

General Molecular Structural Name State

Formula Formula Formula
n=2 C2 H4 Ethene Gas

n=3 C3 H6 Prop-1-ene Gas

n=4 C4 H8 But-1-ene Gas

n=5 C5H10 Pent-1-ene Liquid

Alkenes have the general formula = CnH2n

In the alkene group methene does not exist because a C double bond C can’t exist.

Reactions of alkenes:

a) Combustion

They form CO2 and water in an excess oxygen supply, and CO and water in a
limited supply of oxygen. These show greater tendency to undergo incomplete
combustion to form CO and water. They are not used as fuels because the double
bond makes them chemically reactive and can therefore, are used to make plastics
and solvents. They burn with a yellow smoky flame.

b) Addition reactions of alkenes:

(i) Addition of bromine -

The double bond of an alkene will undergo an addition reaction with aqueous
bromine to give a di-bromo compound. The orange bromine water is decolourised
in the process.

e.g. ethene reacts with bromine water to give 1,2-dibromoethane,

(ii) Addition of hydrogen -

Alkenes may be turned into alkanes by reacting the alkene with hydrogen gas at a
high temperature and high pressure. A nickel catalyst is also needed to accomplish
this addition reaction.

e.g. ethene reacts with hydrogen to give ethane,

This reaction is also called saturation of the double bond. In ethene the carbon
atoms are said to be unsaturated. In ethane the carbon atoms have the maximum
number of hydrogen atoms bonded to them, and are said to be saturated.

(iii) Addition of steam -

Water adds to alkenes across the double bond to form alcohols with the same
number of carbon atoms.

e.g. ethene reacts with steam to give ethanol

Alcohols:
They are alkanes in which one H atom has been replaced by a –OH group.

They have the –OH functional group (hydroxyl).

General formula - CnH2n+1OH

General Molecular Structural Formula Name State

Formula Formula
n=1 CH3OH Methanol Liquid

n=2 C2H5OH Ethanol Liquid

n=3 C3H7OH Propanol Liquid

n=4 C4H9OH Butanol Liquid

Reactions of alcohols:

(i) Preparation of ethanol by fermentation -

Ethanol is prepared in the laboratory and in the alcoholic drinks industry, by
the process of fermentation. This involves the use of an enzyme ( yeast ) that
changes a carbohydrate, e.g. sucrose, into ethanol and carbon dioxide gas,

C6H12O6(aq) 2CH3CH2OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

The yeast used requires a certain temperature to be active - somewhere

between 15 and 37 °C. Too high a temperature and the yeast "dies" and too
low a temperature causes the yeast to become dormant.

The production of carbon dioxide gas can be monitored by bubbling any gases
produced during the reaction through limewater ( calcium hydroxide (aq) ). The
formation of a white precipitate ( calcium carbonate ) in the limewater shows
that carbon dioxide has been given off.
 To obtain pure ethanol from the fermentation mixture, the process of
fractional distillation must be carried out on the resulting solution. The
equipment is shown below,

In a process similar to that of crude oil, the ethanol/water mixture can be

separated by fractional distillation because of the difference in boiling points.

Ethanol boils at 79 °C and water boils at 100 °C, so that ethanol boils first and
therefore comes over through the condenser first. The fractionating column allows
the vapours to condense and drop back down into the round-bottom flask,
stopping water vapour from passing through into the condenser

(ii) Dehydration of ethanol -

All alcohols contain hydrogen and oxygen (as well as carbon) and these atoms can
be removed from an alcohol as a molecule of water ( H2O ). This type of reaction is
called dehydration. It can be accomplished by passing alcohol vapour over a
heated aluminium oxide catalyst.

e.g. ethanol can be turned into ethene,

CH3CH2OH(g) CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(g)

(iii) Oxidation of ethanol –

Oxidation can be defined as the addition of oxygen to a substance. This can be

accomplished with alcohols by the use of acidified potassium dichromate (VI) (aq).
This turns the alcohol into a carboxylic acid.

e.g. ethanol can be turned into ethanoic acid,

Uses of Ethanol:

- Used as a solvent
- Used as a fuel in some cars
- Used to make alcoholic drinks
- Camping stoves
- To make organic chemicals such as esters
Carboxylic Acids
These have the functional group –COOH and the general formula CnH2n+1COOH

General Molecular Structural Formula Name State

Formula Formula
n=1 HCOOH Methanoic Liquid
Acid

n=2 CH3COOH Ethanoic Liquid

Acid

n=3 C2H5COOH Propanoic Liquid

Acid

n=4 C4H9OH Butanoic Liquid

Acid

Carboxylic Acids reactions:

1) Esterification

The Esterification of Ethanol to Ethyl Ethanoate

Apart from the normal reactions of acids, such as reactions with metals and bases,
ethanoic acid (along with all the carboxylic acids) will react with ethanol (or other
alcohols) to give ethyl ethanoate (an ester) in a simple process.

Diagram -
Method

Set up a boiling tube in a beaker of cold water as in the diagram above. Add about
a few cm's depth of ethanol followed by another cm of ethanoic acid from a
bottle. Then carefully add a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid (CARE: very
dangerous) to the boiling tube. Add an anti-bumping granule or two, and heat up
the water bath until the reaction mixture in the boiling tube starts to boil gently.
Keep the reaction boiling gently for about 15 minute. Then raise the boiling tube
out of the water bath and leave to cool.

Carefully add some sodium or calcium carbonate to the boiling tube until no more
fizzing is produced. Filter the solution and carefully smell the clear liquid
remaining.

Note down all your observations during this reaction.

Carboxylic acids will react with alcohols to produce organic compounds called
esters.

e.g. ethanoic acid and ethanol will produce ethyl ethanoate,

Some concentrated sulphuric acid is added to act as a catalyst for the reaction.
It removes the water produced in the reaction, thus helping the reaction to
produce more products.
 Esters are used as flavourings and perfumes in all sorts of materials.

Preparation of ethanoic acid:

1) By the oxidation of ethanol in fermented solution with atmospheric oxygen

in the presence of certain bacteria.
This is why wine smells like vinegar when it’s exposed to air. The ethanol is
oxidized into ethanoic acid.
2) By heating ethanol with an oxidation agent such as acidified potassium
dichromate (VI) K2Cr2O7.
In the reaction, potassium dichromate which is orange is reduced, so the
colour changes from orange to green.
C2H5OH + K2Cr2O7 = CH3-COOH + H2O

Properties of ethanoic acid:

1) It is a weak acid, as only one percent of the ethanoic acid is ionized.

2) Does all the reactions just like other mineral acids but more slowly.
3) Reaction with alcohols to form sweet smelling liquids called esters and water.

Crude oil:
Fractional distillation -

Crude oil is a mixture of many different hydrocarbon compounds, some of

them liquid and some of them gases. These compounds can be separated
because the different length of alkanes will have different boiling points.
The crude oil is heated up to about 350 oC and is fed into a fractionating
column, as in the diagram below,
 The vapours with the lowest boiling points pass all the way up the column
and come off as gases, e.g. methane, ethane and propane. The
temperature of the column gradually decreases the higher up the vapours
go, and so various fractions will condense to liquids at different heights.
The fractions with the highest boiling points do not vaporize and are
collected at the bottom of the fractionating column, e.g. bitumen

Here is a table with some boiling points for the commonest fractions:

Fraction name Boiling point (oC)

Refinery gases -5 to 2

Gasoline 40

Naphtha 110

Kerosene 180
 Diesel oil 260

Fuel oil 300

Bitumen 340

Cracking:
Alkenes are made by cracking of large alkanes. Larger alkane molecules which are
obtained by fractional distillation of crude oil are passed over heated catalyst of
Silicone (VI) Oxide, and aluminium oxide. This gives more useful fractions that can
be used for other reactions or used as fuels.

The products are a shorter alkane and an alkene

C10H22 C8H18 + C2H4 (Dectane = Octane + Ethene)

OR

Two alkene molecules and hydrogen

C10H22 C7H14 + C3H6 + H2 (Alkane = Alkene + Alkene + Hydrogen)

Uses of Cracking:

- To make alkenes
- To obtain hydrogen
- Gasoline from higher fractions since there are higher demands for
gasoline than that for kerosene.
 Macromolecules
Polymerisation:

Polymerisation is the joining of small molecules (monomers), into chains of a very

large molecule (polymer). The monomers can be as atoms, simple molecules of
ethen as in poly(ethene), or as in complex molecules such as in proteins and
polyamides, or esters.

Monomer:

Small molecules that join together to form one large polymer molecules.

Polymer:

A very large molecule made up small repeating units called monomer molecules.

Addition polymerisation:

The chemical reaction in which monomers join together to form a large polymer.
This reaction needs a catalyst, high temperature and pressure.
Alkenes can take part in addition polymerisation and the C=C double bond changes
into a single bond. Alkene molecules can form a long chain polymer.

Uses of some polymers:

1) Poly (ethene):

It is used to make balls, buckets, plastic bags and electric insulators.

2) Poly Vinyl Chloride:

Used as an electric insulator for cables and for making pipes and guttering.

3) Poly (propene):

Used to make plastic sheets and electrical insulators.

4) Tetrafluoroethene:

Used to make non-stick pans and acid repellent containers in chemical plants.

Plastics and pollution:

Polymers are non-biodegradable, which means that they do not decay. They are a
major source of pollution and fill up all available waste sites. Advantage of
recycling is no visual pollution from plastics. Burning them is not a solution to their
disposal since poisonous gases are formed.

The best long term solution would be to recycle polymer waste.

Condensation polymerisation:

A reaction in which 2 products, the polymer and a small molecule, such as water or
HCl, which is eliminated when the monomer units link together.

1) Synthetic macromolecules:

a) Polyamides, e.g. nylon:

Monomers are:

 Dicarboxylic acid

 Diamine

The reaction:
2nH2O is eliminated when this reaction occurs.

The nylon above contains the amide linkage. This is why the
polymer is called a polyamide.

It is used to make clothes and other materials.

b) Polyesters e.g. Terylene:

It is a man made fibre that contains the ester linkage. They are formed when a
dicarboxylic acid and a dialcohol combine together by condensation
polymerisation.

2nH2O is eliminated when this reaction occurs.

Ester linkage is formed as molecules are held together by the ester group and so it
is called polyester.

Terylene is used to make clothes.

2) Natural macromolecules:

These could be proteins, fats or carbohydrates.

- Proteins
These have the amide linkage like nylon, as they are also polyamides.
They are made up of amino acids.

There are about 20 different amino acids in a protein.

The reaction:
 This reaction also eliminates 2nH2O.

Proteins can also be hydrolysed back into amino acids by heating them with
dilute hydrochloric acid.
The products of the hydrolysis of proteins (amino acids) and carbohydrates
can be separated and identified by chromatography.
The chromatogram needs to be sprayed with a locating agent so that they
can become visible and be compared to other pure samples of the monomer.

- Carbohydrates
They contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The ratio of
hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1 as in water, hence it is a hydrate.

Glucose and starch are both carbohydrates.

Glucose when polymerised produce starch.
 They can be joined along a chain to form starch which is a polymer and is
obtained by condensation polymerisation.

This reaction also eliminates 2nH2O.

When complex carbohydrates are heated with dilute HCl, they are
hydrolysed back into simple sugars.

Starch + HCl(aq) = Sugar (Glucose)

- Fats
Both animal and plant fats and oils are esters. A fat is glycerol stearate.

Glycerol + Carboxylic acid = Fats + Water

Fats can also be hydrolysed by heating them with NaOH.

Fat + Sodium Hydroxide = Sodium salt of organic acid + glycerol

Glycerol stearate + NaOH = sodium Stearate + glycerol

This process is called saponification.