910165

research-article2020
HJBXXX10.1177/0739986320910165Hispanic Journal of Behavioral SciencesRodriguez et al.

Article
Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences

Latinx College Students:

1­–16
© The Author(s) 2020
Article reuse guidelines:
How Schemas and sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/0739986320910165
https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986320910165
Attachments Impact journals.sagepub.com/home/hjb

Depression and
Relationship Satisfaction

Adrian Rodriguez1, Paul Ratanasiripong2,

Kimberly Hardaway1, Leslie Barron1,
and Shiho Toyama2

Abstract
Latinx college students face challenges regarding depression. The
relationships between early maladaptive schemas (EMS) and attachment
style on depression and relationship satisfaction were investigated among
236 Latinx college student participants. The Young Schema Questionnaire–
Short Form (YSQ-S3) total score was utilized to identify overall schema.
Significant correlations were found. Overall schema, attachment anxiety,
attachment avoidance, and depression were all positively correlated, while
attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and depression were negatively
correlated with relationship satisfaction. In multiple regression analyses,
Model 1, overall schema and attachment anxiety significantly predicted
depression. In Model 2, overall schema, attachment anxiety, and attachment
avoidance significantly predicted relationship satisfaction, with EMS acting
as a positive predictor. Results suggest that Latinx college students with
EMS and anxious attachment style endorse more depression, while the
influence of EMS and attachment style on relationship satisfaction needs to

1
California State University, Fullerton, USA
2
California State University, Long Beach, USA

Corresponding Author:
Adrian Rodriguez, Department of Human Services, California State University, Fullerton,
800 N. State College Blvd., Fullerton, CA 92834, USA.
Email: adrodriguez@fullerton.edu
2 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)

be further investigated. Considerations for the use of schema therapy and

future research are discussed.

Keywords
Latinx college students, early maladaptive schemas, attachment style,
depression, relationship satisfaction

Around 36.6% of full-time college students in the United States identify as

Hispanic or Latino (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2016). For this article,
we will use the term Latinx as it acknowledges for the Hispanic and Latina/o
community a variety of gender identification and serves as a representation of
the marginalized experiences of many members (DeGuzmán, 2017). Research
suggests that depression is an ongoing issue among Latinx young adults aged
18 to 25 years; this population is 3.7 times more likely than those 25 years
and older to meet the criteria for major depressive disorder (Camacho et al.,
2015; Garcini et al., 2017). For Latinx college students, the intensity of
depression symptoms can be influenced by minority stress, which relates to
academic concerns and negative perceptions of campus climate related to
their ethnic identification (Arbona & Jimenez, 2014). Depression tends to be
misdiagnosed due to somatic symptomology and is often left untreated for all
genders within this population (McGuire et al., 2006).
Well above 50% of Latinx individuals with depressive symptomology
tend to underutilize mental health services (Anastasia & Bridges, 2015;
Cabassa, 2007). Cultural stigmas that create discomfort at the thought of dis-
closing such issues can keep members of this community from seeking help
(Anastasia & Bridges, 2015; Hovey et al., 2014). For those who seek treat-
ment, culturally competent approaches to cognitive-behavioral therapy
(CBT) have shown to effectively reduce symptoms of depression and other
pathologies for Latinx individuals in both academic and nonacademic set-
tings (Hovey et al., 2014; Vaclavik et al., 2017).
One type of CBT that has shown to be effective in treating depression for
Latina young adults is schema therapy (ST). Developed by Young (1990), ST
also draws from psychoanalytic and attachment theories, existential approaches,
and constructivist models of therapy; it aims to identify the psychological
themes associated with pathology and to treat the related chronic mental health
concerns that traditional CBT interventions could not improve (Bach et al.,
2017; Hawke & Provencher, 2012). In their study of nine Latina young adults
with clinical depression, Heilemann et al. (2011) found the use of ST in com-
bination with motivational interviewing to be a culturally salient way to effec-
tively lower treatment resistance, thus increasing retention. This approach
Rodriguez et al. 3

yielded continued improvement in depression symptoms after 1 year. However,

very few studies have explored ST as it relates to depression for Latinx young
adults in general, while no investigation of how this approach might be utilized
to conceptualize depression for Latinx college students could be found.

Early Maladaptive Schemas (EMS) and Attachment

Style
In ST, the themes associated with pathology are defined as EMS, which are
“extremely stable and enduring, comprising memories, emotions, cognitions,
and bodily sensations regarding oneself and one’s relationship with others,
that develop during childhood and are elaborated on throughout the individ-
ual’s lifetime, and that are dysfunctional to a significant degree” (Young
et al., 2003, p. 7). There are 18 EMS; examples include defectiveness/shame:
a belief that one is defective and that exposure of such flaws would keep oth-
ers from loving them; dependence/incompetence: a belief that one is unable
to manage life’s everyday tasks without significant help from others; and
abandonment/instability: a belief that others will not be available for support
or connection. EMS are categorized into five schema domains: disconnection
and rejection, impaired autonomy and performance, impaired limits, other
directedness, and, overvigilance and inhibition.
Parenting styles that lead to unmet emotional needs for secure attachment
bonds influence the development of EMS in adulthood (Simard et al., 2011).
Attachment bonds consist of a strong desire to maintain close proximity to
one’s primary caregiver and generate distress at the termination of the rela-
tionship (Ainsworth, 1989). In Latinx culture, familismo describes the devel-
opment and maintenance of these bonds with family and others, and includes
the valuing of obligation, support, and respect toward familial ties (Stein
et al., 2019; Vesely et al., 2014).
Attachment bonds shape how one forms relationships with others in adult-
hood, which is known as attachment style (Hazan & Shaver, 1987). Securely
attached individuals tend to feel cared for, have a stronger sense of security,
and are more confident in their ability to form relationships (Bowlby, 1969;
Fleming, 2008), whereas those with insecure (anxious or avoidant) attachment
styles tend to behave in more distressful, emotionally reactive, and aggressive
ways (Wang et al., 2012). While related to attachment style, EMS distinctly
influence individuals’ views of stressful events, how they experience the
world and interact with others, and with regular activation become stronger,
more ingrained, and automatic (Young, 1990; Young et al., 2003). EMS tend
to remain stable over time as they adapt and change with age and development
(Rijkeboer et al., 2005; Riso et al., 2006; Young, 1990; Young et al., 2003).
4 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)

Depression
Studies that examined EMS in clinical, nonclinical, and student populations
have identified positive connections between higher EMS in general and
depressive symptomology (Calvete et al., 2005; Darvishi et al., 2013;
Davoodi et al., 2018). Other studies have also found associations between
specific EMS (e.g., defectiveness/shame, dependence/incompetence, aban-
donment/instability, and insufficient self-control) and depression (Hawke
et al., 2011; Oliveira & Nobre, 2013). Several global studies of college stu-
dent samples from various countries and ethnic groups have confirmed asso-
ciations between general and/or specific EMS and depression with that
demographic (Sigre-Leirós et al., 2013; Simons et al., 2018; Thimm, 2017).
Research suggests that attachment bonds also related to depression for
college students (Wei et al., 2005). For example, Owens et al. (2018) in their
study of undergraduates who experienced stressful events, found both anxi-
ety and avoidance attachment styles to be associated with depression symp-
tom severity. In a separate study on the impact of culturally specific attachment
bonds on depression, Stein et al. (2019) found that familism pride was cor-
related with lower depression levels for Latinx college students.

Relationship Satisfaction
As EMS and attachment style play important roles in one’s experiences of
relationships in adulthood, it is important to also consider how they relate to
relationship satisfaction for this population. Various international studies
have investigated the connections between these variables for multiple groups
(Dumitrescu & Rusu, 2012; Kebritchi & Mohammadkhani, 2016). For exam-
ple, in Dumitrescu and Rusu’s (2012) study of Romanian couples, high levels
of EMS predicted low levels of relationship satisfaction for Romanian cou-
ples, and attachment anxiety was associated with lower perceptions of rela-
tionship quality. While no studies could be found that looked at all three
variables for U.S. college students, a study on attachment style and relation-
ship satisfaction for Latinx college students found that secure attachment
related to higher satisfaction in close friendships (Rodriguez et al., 2014).

Current Study
Research on how EMS and attachment style relate to depression and relation-
ship satisfaction for Latinx college students is needed. For investigating
EMS, the Young Schema Questionnaire–Short Form (YSQ-S3), developed
by Young (2005), provides scores for the 18 schema subscales as well as a
Rodriguez et al. 5

total schema score that indicates high EMS across all subscales. We found it
imperative to utilize the total score to determine how EMS in general relate
to depression and the other variables of interest, and have labeled this overall
schema. It is hypothesized that overall schema and attachment style (attach-
ment anxiety and attachment avoidance) would be significantly positively
associated with each other and jointly predict higher depression and lower
relationship satisfaction for this population. The findings will shed light on
the use of ST and attachment theory to conceptualize depression and relation-
ship dynamics for this population.

Method
Procedures and Participants
After the institutional review board approval for human ethics, this cross-
sectional study was conducted at a major public university in the Southwestern
United States. After data cleanup, there were a total of 236 Latinx college
student participants. Latinx-identified, bilingual student research assistant
team members were first trained in culturally mindful approaches to conduct-
ing research with Latinx populations (Marín & Marín, 1991; Skaff et al.,
2002). They subsequently administered surveys to participants from various
areas of the university, including student union and dining areas. Participants
were first asked whether they identify as Latinx and whether they would like
to participate in a research study. While all identified as Latinx, some also
indicated a specific ethnic heritage or designation (e.g., 48% of participants
also self-reported as Mexican or Mexican American; 24% selected the Other
box and wrote in varying identifications such as Mexican and Puerto Rican,
or Guatemalan; and 20% described themselves as Hispanic). A compensation
of US$5 in cash was provided to each participant after the completion of the
paper-based survey. Participants were mostly female (67%), between 18 and
24 years old (85%), second generation (76%), single (92%), and had an aver-
age grade point average (GPA) of 3.09 (SD = 0.47, range = 1.01–4.00). All
participants identified as heterosexual. See Table 1 for more information on
participants’ demographics.

Measures
The Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ) was developed to assess EMS in
individuals with mental health issues. A shortened version, the YSQ-S3 con-
sists of 90 items and 18 schema subscales grouped within five domains
(Young, 2005). The YSQ-S3 has shown psychometric soundness for use in
6 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)

Table 1.  Participants’ Demographics (N = 236).

Demographics N %
Gender
 Female 158 66.9
 Male 78 33.1
Age range
 18–24 200 84.7
 25–34 36 15.3
Level of education
  High school degree 45 19.1
  Some college 106 44.9
  Associate degree 84 35.6

Western countries (Bach et al., 2017), and is advantageous for clinical work
due to its shortened length and ability to predict psychological disorders
(Hawke & Provencher, 2012). YSQ-S3 scores have been associated with
clinical depression (Wang et al., 2010). Participants rate on a 6-point scale
from 1 (completely untrue of me) to 6 (describes me perfectly) how strongly
each item describes them over the past year (e.g., “I find myself clinging to
people I’m close to because I am afraid they’ll leave me,” “No man/woman I
desire could love me once he or she saw my defects,” and “I do not feel
capable of getting by on my own in everyday life”). The mean of all items is
used to obtain the total score. Higher total score indicates a high overall
schema profile. Studies with older adolescent and college student popula-
tions have shown good internal consistency with alphas for the schema sub-
scales between .72 and .90 as well as sound convergent validity with various
measures of mental health issues (Aftab et al., 2017). The present study
focused on the overall schema, and Cronbach’s alpha for the overall schema
(YSQ-S3 total score) for this study was .96.
The Experiences in Close Relationship–Revised (ECR-R; Fraley et al.,
2000) is a 36-item measure of attachment style: 18 items assess anxiety (e.g.,
“I’m afraid that I will lose my partner’s love” and “I often worry that my
partner will not want to stay with me”) and 18 items assess avoidance (e.g.,
“I prefer not to show a partner how I feel deep down” and “I get uncomfort-
able when a romantic partner wants to be very close”). Participants rate on a
7-point scale from 1 (disagree strongly) to 7 (agree strongly) how strongly
each item relates to their feelings in previous or current relationships with
close others (e.g., romantic partners, family members, and friends). The mean
of items for each dimension is used to determine total scores, where high
Rodriguez et al. 7

scores indicated insecure attachment (anxiety and/or avoidance). The ECR-R

is a widely used measure with sound psychometric properties (Mikulincer &
Goodman, 2006; Shaver & Mikulincer, 2002). Wei et al. (2007) have found
the ECR-R to be highly reliable and valid for use with a wide range of popu-
lations. Cronbach’s alphas of the Attachment Anxiety and Attachment
Avoidance subscales for this study were .93 and .93, respectively.
The Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS; Hendrick et al., 1988) is a
seven-item measure of relationship satisfaction in either a current or previous
romantic relationship. Participants who were never in a romantic relationship
were asked to reflect on a relationship with a close friend or family member.
Participants rate on a 5-point scale from 1 (e.g., not satisfied) to 5 (e.g., very
satisfied) the number that best answers each item for them. Sample items
include, “In general, how satisfied are you with your relationship?” “How
many problems are there in your relationship?” and “How good is your rela-
tionship compared to most?” The mean across all items is used to determine
the total score. Average scores range from 1 to 5; higher scores indicate
higher levels of relationship satisfaction. The RAS has shown good internal
consistency and convergent validity across numerous samples (Hendrick
et al., 1988; Vaughn & Matyastick Baier, 1999), and has been tested success-
fully with Latino-oriented individuals (Contreras et al., 1996). Cronbach’s
alpha of the RAS for this study was .87.
The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale–Revised
(CESD-R; Eaton et al., 2004) is a 20-item measure of depression symptoms
(e.g., “I felt sad,” “I could not get going,” and “I lost interest in my usual
activities”) in the past week or so. Participants rate on a 4-point scale from 1
(not at all) to 5 (nearly every day for 2 weeks) how often they have felt this
way. Total scores range from 0 to 60. Higher scores on the CESD-R indicate
higher levels of depression. The CESD-R was developed for use with adoles-
cents and young adults and has shown to be a highly reliable and valid mea-
sure of depression for various populations in community and psychiatric
settings including Hispanic American respondents (Cheng et al., 2015; Wei
et al., 2010). Cronbach’s alpha of the CESD-R for this study was .94.

Results
There were significant correlations among the study variables: Overall
schema, attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and depression were pos-
itively correlated with each other, while both attachment dimensions were
negatively correlated with relationship satisfaction. No correlation between
overall schema and relationship satisfaction was found. The means, standard
deviations, and correlations are displayed in Table 2. Several variables were
8 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)

Table 2.  Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations of Measured Variables.

M (SD) 2 3 4 5
1. Relationship satisfaction 3.84 (0.80) −.30** −.31** −.52** −.08
2. Depression 18.76 (15.91) — .51** .25** .59**
3. Attachment anxiety 3.03 (1.23) — .40** .66**
4. Attachment avoidance 2.97 (1.20) — .30**
5. YSQ-S3 2.51 (0.67) —

Note. YSQ = Young Schema Questionnaire.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

examined to assess the impact of overall schema (high YSQ-S3 total score)
and attachment style (attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance) on
depression and relationship satisfaction. The results, as displayed in Table 3,
indicated that overall schema and attachment anxiety were significant predic-
tors for depression (R2 = .38), while overall schema, attachment anxiety, and
attachment avoidance were significant predictors for relationship satisfac-
tion. In contrast to the lack of correlation at the bivariate level, overall
schema positively predicted relationship satisfaction in the regression model
(R2 = .34). Moderation analysis of the interaction between overall schema
and attachment style with depression as well as with relationship satisfaction
yielded no significant results in either model.

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to develop recommendations (1) for the use of
ST and attachment theory to conceptualize depression and relationship con-
cerns for Latinx college students and (2) to stimulate further research on ST
with this population. Many interesting associations were identified. As
hypothesized, the present study found that overall schema, attachment anxi-
ety, attachment avoidance, and depression were all significantly positively
correlated with each other. Multiple regression analysis also uncovered that
as predicted, overall schema and attachment anxiety predicted depression.
However, attachment avoidance was surprisingly not a significant predictor
in this model. Attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and relationship
satisfaction were also negatively correlated as expected, but unexpectedly,
overall schema and relationship satisfaction had no significant association. In
another surprise, a multiple regression analysis of overall schema and attach-
ment style with relationship satisfaction found overall schema to be a positive
predictor in that model. It is also important to note that there were no
Rodriguez et al. 9

Table 3.  Multiple Regression Analyses Predicting Depression and Relationship

Satisfaction.
Adjusted
Variables R2 R2 F df B SE β T

For depression
 Model .39 .38 44.29*** (3,208)  
  Schema (YSQ-S3) 11.10 1.69 .48 6.56***
  Attachment anxiety 1.99 0.98 .16 2.04*
  Attachment avoidance 0.97 0.78 .08 1.24
For relationship satisfaction
 Model .35 .34 46.50*** (3,208)  
  Schema (YSQ-S3) 0.24 0.09 .20 2.68**
  Attachment anxiety −0.12 0.05 −.19 −2.40*
  Attachment avoidance −0.36 0.04 −.54 −8.75***

Note. YSQ = Young Schema Questionnaire.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

significant differences in gender, age range, generation status, level of educa-

tion, or GPA for any of the above associations.
The results of the current study suggest important associations between
EMS and both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance for Latinx col-
lege students, which supports past findings on the relationship between these
variables (Cecero et al., 2004; Mason et al., 2005; Simard et al., 2011). The
positive correlations between both attachment dimensions with depression
also parallel results in previous studies (Perry et al., 2011). Although both
attachment dimensions were correlated with depression, the results of the
regression analysis suggest that overall schema with attachment anxiety but
not with attachment avoidance is predictive of depression for this population.
This suggests that it may be helpful to utilize ST to investigate how EMS
relate to depression for anxiously attached individuals. However, this
approach may not be as useful for those with avoidant attachment style.
While no significant correlation between overall schema and relationship
satisfaction was found, past research suggests a negative association between
these variables (Dumitrescu & Rusu, 2012; Kebritchi & Mohammadkhani,
2016). However, in our regression model, when overall schema was com-
bined with attachment style, it had the opposite impact on relationship satis-
faction. More consistent with past findings, both attachment styles predicted
lower relationship satisfaction as expected (Rodriguez et al., 2014).
In order to make sense of the results, it is important to revisit the differ-
ences between attachment style and EMS. Attachment style involves behav-
iors in adulthood that are a part of the internal working models (IWMs)
10 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)

individuals first develop for themselves and others through repeated attach-
ment-related encounters with primary caregivers during childhood (Bowlby,
1979). However, EMS relate more specifically to the cognitive manifesta-
tions (core beliefs) of the affect structures of IWMs and reflect both an indi-
vidual’s attachment as well as approval/disapproval experiences in childhood
(Welburn et al., 2002). EMS are not considered to be irrational and may influ-
ence both attachment patterns with close others and interactions in general.
Thus, the activation and presentation of EMS might differ based on attach-
ment style and thus influence depression and relationship satisfaction differ-
ently as a result. The findings provide evidence that while related, EMS and
attachment style are unique constructs whose relationship needs to be better
understood for Latinx college students.

Implications for College Counseling

The findings suggest that it may be helpful for college counselors to utilize
ST to determine how EMS impact depression symptomology for Latinx stu-
dents with anxious attachment style. Prior research on ST has demonstrated a
reduction in symptoms over time through schema modification (Nordahl
et al., 2005). As ST focuses on family and interpersonal relationships in its
treatment approach, it is also a great fit for working with Latinx individuals,
where loyalty to family can at times lead to difficulty navigating emotional
concerns in adult relationships (Heilemann et al., 2011; Rojas, 2018).
The combined use of ST and attachment theory has been recommended;
research suggests that it can be therapeutically beneficial to (1) educate cli-
ents on their schemas and attachment style and (2) challenge their core sche-
mas as a part of the therapeutic process, which are considered essential
elements of change (Platts et al., 2002; Young, 1990). A therapist’s identifica-
tion of clients’ negative attachment patterns in the therapeutic relationship
may build a stronger bond between the therapist and clients that can facilitate
a more successful challenge of the clients’ core schemas (Platts et al., 2002).
College counselors may consider using the YSQ-S3 together with the ECR-R
for Latinx college students who endorse depressive symptomology. For anx-
iously attached students with depression, counselors can (1) help them to
identify their cognitions and emotions, and their beliefs about the self, others,
and the world that may exacerbate such concerns; and (2) encourage them to
rewrite the schemas related to negative attachment patterns.

Limitations and Future Directions

This study has a few limitations. Our sample comprised students who volun-
teered to participate in a 15-minute survey for the incentive of US$5. Potential
Rodriguez et al. 11

differences may exist between these individuals and those who chose to not
participate that cannot easily be determined. Future research would benefit
from additional samples from the Latinx college student population and at
other universities. In addition, as this is a cross-sectional study, causal rela-
tionships cannot be concluded. Future studies should examine how the rela-
tionships between the study variables may change over time. Numerous
researchers have also expressed concerns over whether the constructs being
examined in psychological and medical research are culturally comparable
(Skaff et al., 2002). Perhaps the discrepancy between overall schema and
relationship satisfaction suggests that the YSQ-S3 is not an adequate measure
of the association between these variables for this cultural group. Further
research should consider the role that familismo, or the culturally salient
development and maintenance of attachment bonds (Stein et al., 2019; Vesely
et al., 2014), might play in the interaction between overall schema and attach-
ment style and their combined influence on relationship satisfaction. Lastly,
future research should investigate how each of the 18 schemas and five
schema domains separately relates to the other variables.
The current study’s findings suggest that overall schema and attachment
style play a significant role in depression and relationship satisfaction for
Latinx college students. However, as this is one of few existing studies to
explore these constructs within the Latinx community, and the first to look
exclusively at the college subset, further investigation is warranted. While
depression continues to be a significant issue for many Latinx college stu-
dents, the use of ST to identify EMS and a consideration of attachment anxi-
ety concerns may be helpful tools for counselors and researchers to utilize to
better understand individuals’ experiences of this phenomenon.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.

References
Aftab, S., Holtzman, N., Klibert, J., & Qadeer, K. (2017). Schemas mediate the link
between procrastination and depression: Results from the United States and
Pakistan. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 35(4),
329–345.
12 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)

Ainsworth, M. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44(4),

709–716.
Anastasia, E., & Bridges, A. (2015). Understanding service utilization disparities and
depression in Latinos: The role of fatalismo. Journal of Immigrant and Minority
Health, 17(6), 1758–1764.
Arbona, C., & Jimenez, C. (2014). Minority stress, ethnic identity, and depression
among Latino/a college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(1),
162–168.
Bach, B., Christoffersen, P., Kriston, L., & Simonsen, E. (2017). The Young Schema
Questionnaire 3 short form (YSQ-S3). European Journal of Psychological
Assessment, 33(2), 134–143.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss (Vol. 1). Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1979). The making and breaking of affectional bonds. Tavistock.
Cabassa, L. (2007). Latino immigrant men’s perceptions of depression and atti-
tudes toward help seeking. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 29(4),
492–509.
Calvete, E., Estévez, A., López de Arroyabe, E., & Ruiz, P. (2005). The schema ques-
tionnaire–Short form: Structure and relationship with automatic thoughts and
symptoms of affective disorders. European Journal of Psychological Assessment,
21(2), 90–99.
Camacho, A., González, P., Castañeda, S., Simmons, A., Buelna, C., Lemus, H., &
Talavera, G. (2015). Improvement in depressive symptoms among Hispanic/
Latinos receiving a culturally tailored impact and problem-solving intervention in
a community health center. Community Mental Health Journal, 51(4), 385–392.
Cecero, J., Nelson, J., & Gillie, J. (2004). Tools and tenets of schema therapy: Toward
the construct validity of the Early Maladaptive Schema Questionnaire–Research
Version (EMSQ-R). Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 11(5), 344–357.
Cheng, E., Cohen, A., & Goodman, E. (2015). The role of perceived discrimination
during childhood and adolescence in understanding racial and socioeconomic
influences on depression in young adulthood. The Journal of Pediatrics, 166(2),
370–377.
Contreras, R., Hendrick, S., & Hendrick, C. (1996). Perspectives on marital love
and satisfaction in Mexican American and Anglo-American couples. Journal of
Counseling & Development, 74(4), 408–415.
Darvishi, F., Rahmani, M., Akbari, B., & Rahbar, M. (2013). A comparison of rela-
tionship between early maladaptive schemas with depression severity in suicidal
group and non-clinical sample. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84,
1072–1077.
Davoodi, E., Wen, A., Dobson, K., Noorbala, A., Mohammadi, A., & Farahmand,
Z. (2018). Early maladaptive schemas in depression and somatization disorder.
Journal of Affective Disorders, 235, 82–89.
DeGuzmán, M. (2017). Latinx: ¡Estamos aquí!, or being “Latinx” at UNC-Chapel
Hill [Latinx: We are here, or being “Latinx” at UNC-Chapel Hill]. Cultural
Dynamics, 29(3), 214–230.
Rodriguez et al. 13

Dumitrescu, D., & Rusu, A. (2012). Relationship between early maladaptive schemas,
couple satisfaction and individual mate value: An evolutionary psychological
approach. Journal of Cognitive and Behavioral Psychotherapies, 12(1), 63–76.
Eaton, W., Smith, C., Ybarra, M., Muntaner, C., & Tien, A. (2004). Center for
Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale review and revision (CESD and
CESD-R). In M. E. Maruish (Ed.), Instruments for adults: Vol. 3. The use of
psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment (3rd ed.,
pp. 363–377). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Fleming, T. (2008). A secure base for adult learning: Attachment theory and adult
education. The Adult Learner: The Journal of Adult and Community Education
in Ireland, 25, 33–53.
Fraley, R., Waller, N., & Brennan, K. (2000). An item response theory analysis of
self-report measures of adult attachment. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 78(2), 350–365.
Garcini, L., Pena, J., Galvan, T., Fagundes, C., Malcarne, V., & Klonoff, E. (2017).
Mental disorders among undocumented Mexican immigrants in high-risk neigh-
borhood: Prevalence, comorbidity, and vulnerabilities. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 85(10), 927–936.
Hawke, L., & Provencher, M. (2012). Early maladaptive schemas among patients
diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136(3), 803–811.
Hawke, L., Provencher, M., & Arntz, A. (2011). Early maladaptive schemas in
the risk for bipolar spectrum disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 133(3),
428–436.
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment pro-
cess. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511–524.
Heilemann, M., Pieters, H., Kehoe, P., & Yang, Q. (2011). Schema therapy, moti-
vational interviewing, and collaborative-mapping as treatment for depression
among low income, second generation Latinas. Journal of Behavior Therapy and
Experimental Psychiatry, 42(4), 473–480.
Hendrick, S., Dicke, A., & Hendrick, C. (1988). The Relationship Assessment Scale.
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15(1), 137–142.
Hovey, J., Hurtado, D., & Seligman, G. (2014). Findings for a CBT support group for
Latina migrant farmworkers in Western Colorado. Current Psychology, 33(3),
271–281.
Kebritchi, A., & Mohammadkhani, S. (2016). The role of marital burnout and Early
maladaptive schemas in marital satisfaction between young couples. International
Journal of Medical Research and Health Sciences, 5(12), 239–246.
Marín, G., & Marín, B. V. (1991). Research with Hispanic populations (applied
social research methods). SAGE.
Mason, O., Platts, H., & Tyson, M. (2005). Early maladaptive schemas and adult
attachment in a UK clinical population. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory,
Research and Practice, 78(4), 549–564.
McGuire, T., Alegria, M., Cook, B., Wells, K., & Zaslavsky, A. (2006). Implementing
the institute of medicine definition of disparities: An application to mental health
care. Health Services Research, 41(5), 1979–2005.
14 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)

Mikulincer, M., & Goodman, G. S. (2006). Dynamics of romantic love: Attachment,

caregiving, and sex. Guilford Press.
Nordahl, H., Holthe, H., & Haugum, J. (2005). Early maladaptive schemas in patients
with or without personality disorders: Does schema modification predict symp-
tomatic relief? Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 12(2), 142–149.
Oliveira, C., & Nobre, P. (2013). Cognitive structures in women with sexual dysfunc-
tion: The role of early maladaptive schemas. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 10(7),
1755–1763.
Owens, G., Held, P., Hamrick, L., & Keller, E. (2018). The indirect effects of emotion
regulation on the association between attachment style, depression, and meaning
made among undergraduates who experienced stressful events. Motivation and
Emotion, 42(3), 429–437.
Perry, D., Ettinger, A., Mendelson, T., & Le, H. (2011). Prenatal depression pre-
dicts postpartum maternal attachment in low-income Latina mothers with infants.
Infant Behavior & Development, 34(2), 339–350.
Platts, H., Tyson, M., & Mason, O. (2002). Adult attachment style and core beliefs:
Are they linked? Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 9(5), 332–348.
Rijkeboer, M., van den Bergh, H., & van den Bout, J. (2005). Stability and discrimina-
tive power of the Young Schema-Questionnaire in a Dutch clinical versus non-
clinical population. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry,
36(2), 129–144.
Riso, L., Froman, S., Raouf, M., Gable, P., Maddux, R., Turini-Santorelli, N., Penna,
S., Blandino, J., Jacobs, C., & Cherry, M. (2006). The long-term stability of early
maladaptive schemas. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30(4), 515–529.
Rodriguez, A., Ratanasiripong, P., Hayashino, D., & Locks, A. (2014). The effects of
attachment and acculturation on Latino college students’ relationship satisfaction
with a close friend. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 13(4), 323–333.
Rojas, C. (2018). Schema therapy and Latino patients: A cultural approach [The
Schema Therapy Bulletin]. International Society of Schema Therapy. https://
schematherapysociety.org/Schema-Therapy-and-Latino-Patients-A-Cultural-
Approach
Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2002).). Attachment-related psychodynamics.
Attachment & Human Development, 4, 133–161.
Sigre-Leirós, V., Carvalho, J., & Nobre, P. (2013). Early maladaptive schemas and
aggressive sexual behavior: A preliminary study with male college students.
Journal of Sexual Medicine, 10(7), 1764–1772.
Simard, V., Moss, E., & Pascuzzo, K. (2011). Early maladaptive schemas and child and
adult attachment: A 15-year longitudinal study. Psychology and Psychotherapy:
Theory, Research and Practice, 84(4), 349–366.
Simons, R., Sistad, R., Simons, J., & Hansen, J. (2018). The role of distress tolerance
in the relationship between cognitive schemas and alcohol problems among col-
lege students. Addictive Behaviors, 78, 1–8.
Skaff, M., Chesla, C., De los Santos Mycue, V., & Fisher, L. (2002). Lessons in
cultural competence: Adapting research methodology for Latino participants.
Journal of Community Psychology, 30(3), 305–323.
Rodriguez et al. 15

Stein, G., Cavanaugh, A., Castro-Schilo, L., Mejia, Y., & Plunkett, S. (2019). Making
my family proud: The unique contribution of familism pride to the psychologi-
cal adjustment of Latinx emerging adults. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority
Psychology, 25, 188–98.
Thimm, J. (2017). Relationships between early maladaptive schemas, mindfulness,
self-compassion, and psychological distress. International Journal of Psychology
and Psychological Therapy, 17(1), 3–17.
U.S. Department of Commerce. (2016). Census Bureau, Current Population Survey,
October 1970 through 2015. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d16/tables/
dt16_302.60.asp
Vaclavik, D., Buitron, V., Rey, Y., Marin, C., Silverman, W., Pettit, J., & La Roche,
M. (2017). Parental acculturation level moderates outcome in peer-involved and
parent-involved CBT for anxiety disorders in Latino youth. Journal of Latina/o
Psychology, 5(4), 261–274.
Vaughn, M. J., & Matyastick Baier, M. E. (1999). Reliability and validity of the
Relationship Assessment Scale. American Journal of Family Therapy, 27,
137–147.
Vesely, C., Ewaida, M., & Anderson, E. (2014). Cultural competence of parenting
education programs used by Latino families: A review. Hispanic Journal of
Behavioral Sciences, 36(1), 27–47.
Wang, C., Halvorsen, M., Eisemann, M., & Waterloo, K. (2010). Stability of dys-
functional attitudes and early maladaptive schemas: A 9-year follow-up study
of clinically depressed subjects. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental
Psychiatry, 41(4), 389–396.
Wang, C., King, M., & Debernardi, N. (2012). Adult attachment, cognitive appraisal,
and university students’ reactions to romantic infidelity. Journal of College
Counseling, 15(2), 101–116.
Wei, M., Liao, K. Y., Chao, R. C., Mallinckrodt, B., Tsai, P., & Botello Zamarron, R.
(2010). Minority stress, perceived bicultural competence, and depressive symp-
toms among ethnic minority college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology,
57, 411–422.
Wei, M., Russell, D. W., Mallinckrodt, B., & Vogel, D. (2007). The Experiences
in Close Relationship Scale (ECR)-short form: Reliability, validity, and factor
structure. Journal of Personality Assessment, 88(2), 187–204.
Wei, M., Russell, D. W., & Zakalik, R. A. (2005). Adult attachment, social self-
efficacy, self-disclosure, loneliness, and subsequent depression for freshman
college students: A longitudinal study. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52,
602–614.
Welburn, K., Coristine, M., Dagg, P., Pontefract, A., & Jordan, S. (2002). The Schema
Questionnaire–Short Form: Factor analysis and relationship between schemas
and symptoms. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26(4), 519–530.
Young, J. (1990). Cognitive therapy for personality disorders: A schema-focused
approach. Professional Resource Exchange.
Young, J. E. (2005). Young Schema Questionnaire–Short Form 3 (YSQ-S3). Schema
Therapy Institute.
16 Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 00(0)

Young, J. E., Klosko, J., & Weishaar, M. (2003). Schema therapy: A practitioner’s
guide. Guilford Press.

Author Biographies
Adrian Rodriguez is an assistant professor of human services in the College of
Health and Human Development at California State University, Fullerton, USA. His
research focuses on mental health, relationships, and persistence needs for college
students of color.
Paul Ratanasiripong is a professor of counseling in the College of Education at
California State University, Long Beach, USA. His research focuses on health and
mental health issues of college students, university faculty, K-12 students, and school-
teachers in the United States and Asia.
Kimberly Hardaway is a human services major and McNair Scholar in the College
of Health and Human Development at California State University, Fullerton, USA.
Her research focuses on the well-being of individuals, families, and societies that are
affected by various traumas.
Leslie Barron received her BS in child and adolescent development from the College
of Health and Human Development at California State University, Fullerton, USA.
Her research focuses on factors that affect child and adolescent development among
the Latinx population.
Shiho Toyama is a graduate in psychology from the College of Liberal Arts at
California State University, Long Beach. USA. Her research focuses on multicultural
competency, including an examination of the cultural stigma associated with mental
health.